Chapter 3 A Tour of the Constitution ...... 45 Chapter 4 Judicial Review...... 73 Chapter 5 Early State-Federal Relations...... 99 Chapter 6 Slavery ...... 137 Chapter 7 The Reconstruction Amendments...... 171 Chapter 8 The Lochner Era ...... 217 Chapter 9 The New Deal Revolution...... 263 Chapter 10 Levels of Scrutiny...... 295 Chapter 11 The Civil Rights Era and the Warren Court ...... 337

PART II: STRUCTURAL LIMITS 377

Chapter 12 Supremacy...... 387 Chapter 13 Federalism...... 435 Chapter 14 Enumerated Powers...... 457 Chapter 15 Separation of Powers...... 551 Chapter 16 Master Class: Structural Limits...... 623

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PART III: INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS 661

Chapter 17 Equality Rights...... 669 Chapter 18 Fairness Rights...... 857 Chapter 19 Freedom Rights...... 923 Chapter 20 Exceptions to the State Action Doctrine ...... 1023 Chapter 21 Master Class: Individual Rights...... 1067

Appendix A: The Constitution of the United States...... 1141 Appendix B: Amendments Not Ratified...... 1163 Appendix C: Master Kickstarter...... 1167 Index...... 1173

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Second Edition Acknowledgments ...... v First Edition Acknowledgments ...... vii Photo Acknowledgments ...... ix Table of Biographies ...... xi Table of Cases ...... xxvii

Chapter 1 How to Use This Book 1

A. An Integrated Approach for Integrated Cases ...... 1 B. The Big Picture: Powers and Their Limits ...... 3 C. Features of the Book...... 5 1. Kickstarters ...... 5 2. Flash-Forwards and Flashbacks...... 6 3. Case Background...... 6 4. Study Questions...... 6 5. Case Editing...... 6 6. Chapter Recaps...... 7

Chapter 2 Introduction to Constitutional Law 9

A. What Is Constitutional Law?...... 9 1. The Law That Governs the Government...... 9 2. The Law for Making Laws ...... 10 3. The Plan for Deciding Who Decides ...... 12 B. Why Study Constitutional Law?...... 15 C. Methods of Constitutional Reasoning...... 18 1. Text ...... 18 2. Precedent...... 19 3. Structure...... 20 4. History ...... 21 5. Consequences ...... 22 6. Values...... 23 D. Constitutional Reasoning in Action: Ingraham v. Wright...... 24

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PART I: THE BIG PICTURE 37

A. The Parts of the Picture ...... 39 B. Interaction of the Parts...... 40 C. The Historical Setting ...... 42

Chapter 3 A Tour of the Constitution 45

A. Political Background...... 45 1. States and Sovereignty...... 45 2. Confederation...... 47 3. Reasons to Change the System...... 48 B. The Constitutional Convention of 1787...... 50 1. Areas of Consensus...... 51 a) Energetic National Government...... 51 b) State Sovereignty...... 51 c) Republicanism...... 52 d) Separation of Powers...... 53 2. Areas of Division and Compromise...... 53 a) Representation in Congress...... 53 b) Slavery...... 56 c) Choosing the President ...... 59 C. A Tour of the 1787 Constitution...... 59 Preamble ...... 59 Article I: The Legislature ...... 60 Article II: The Executive Branch...... 61 Article III: The Judicial Branch...... 62 Article IV: Interactions Among States...... 62 Article V: Amendments...... 63 Article VI: Miscellaneous Provisions...... 63 Article VII: Ratification Procedure ...... 63 D. Ratification Conventions and The Bill of Rights...... 64 E. Is the Written Constitution Complete? Calder v. Bull...... 67

Chapter 4 Judicial Review 73

A. The Counter-Majoritarian Power of Judicial Review ...... 74 B. Judicial Review of Federal Government Action: Marbury v. Madison...... 77 C. Judicial Review of State Court Decisions...... 91 xvi DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS

D. The Justiciability Requirement...... 94 1. Standing...... 95 2. Ripeness...... 95 3. Mootness ...... 96 4. The Political Question Doctrine...... 96

Chapter 5 Early State-Federal Relations 99

A. State Interference with a Federal Entity: McCulloch v. Maryland...... 100 B. Concurrent State and Federal Regulation of Commerce: Gibbons v. Ogden . . 116 C. The Federal Bill of Rights and the States: Barron v. Baltimore...... 129

Chapter 6 Slavery 137

A. Slavery as a Pervasive Legal Institution ...... 137 B. The Fugitive Slave Clause: Prigg v. Pennsylvania...... 139 C. Increasing Political Polarization over Slavery...... 148 D. Slavery in Federal Territory: The Dred Scott Decision...... 149 E. Lincoln and Douglas Debate the Dred Scott Decision ...... 164 F. Secession, Civil War, and Emancipation...... 167

Chapter 7 The Reconstruction Amendments 171

A. Reconstruction Amendments and Statutes...... 172 1. The Thirteenth Amendment (1865)...... 172 2. The Freedman’s Bureau (1865) ...... 173 3. Civil Rights Act of 1866...... 174 4. The Fourteenth Amendment (1866–68)...... 174 5. The Military Reconstruction Act (1867)...... 175 6. Impeachment (1868)...... 175 7. The Fifteenth Amendment (1870)...... 176 B. Decisions Upholding Individual Rights Claims...... 177 1. Racially Discriminatory Statutes: Strauder v. West Virginia ...... 177 2. Racially Discriminatory Practices: Yick Wo v. Hopkins...... 183 C. Decisions Rejecting Individual Rights Claims ...... 187 1. The Demise of the Fourteenth Amendment Privileges or Immunities Clause...... 188 a) The Narrow Definition: The Slaughterhouse Cases (1872)...... 189 b) Right to Practice Law: Bradwell v. Illinois (1872)...... 190

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c) Right to Vote: Minor v. Happersett (1874)...... 190 d) Enumerated Rights from Bill of Rights: United States v. Cruikshank (1876)...... 191 2. Limits on the Civil Rights Enforcement Powers: The Civil Rights Cases. . 193 3. Government-Enforced Segregation: Plessy v. Ferguson...... 205

Chapter 8 The Lochner Era 217

A. The Lochner-Era Commerce Clause...... 218 1. Protecting Monopolies: US v. E.C. Knight Co...... 220 2. Protecting Industrial Child Labor: Hammer v. Dagenhart ...... 223 B. The Lochner-Era Taxing Power ...... 229 1. Federal Income Tax: Pollock and the Sixteenth Amendment ...... 229 2. Taxation as a Tool of Social Regulation: Bailey v. Drexel Furniture . . . . 230 C. The Lochner-Era Due Process Clause ...... 235 1. Freedom of Contract: Lochner v. New York...... 235 2. Other Due Process Rights...... 249 a) Residential Segregation: Buchanan v. Warley...... 249 b) Foreign Language Education: Meyer v. Nebraska ...... 250 c) Mandatory Public Education: Pierce v. Society of Sisters...... 256 d) Eugenic Sterilization: Buck v. Bell...... 257

Chapter 9 The New Deal Revolution 263

A. The New Deal Meets the Four Horsemen ...... 263 1. Continuing the Narrow View of the Commerce Clause: Schechter Poultry...... 264 2. Continuing the Narrow Views of Commerce and Taxation: Carter Coal...... 265 3. Continuing the Broad View of Freedom of Contract ...... 267 B. Hints Before the Fall...... 268 1. Language in Dissents...... 268 2. Language in Majority Opinions ...... 268 3. Academic and Journalistic Criticism...... 269 4. Political Pushback...... 269 a) Continued Legislation and Enforcement...... 269 b) The Court-Packing Plan...... 270 C. The Revolution of 1937 ...... 272 1. Reversal on Freedom of Contract: West Coast Hotel v. Parrish...... 272 2. Reversal on the Commerce Clause...... 279 xviii DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS

a) Federal Regulation of Multi-State Businesses: NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp...... 279 b) Federal Regulation of Smaller Businesses: U.S. v. Darby...... 280 c) Federal Regulation of Much Smaller Businesses: Wickard v. Filburn...... 285 3. Relaxation on the Tax Power: Sonzinsky v. United States...... 291

Chapter 10 Levels of Scrutiny 295

A. “Rational Basis” Scrutiny for Most Laws...... 296 1. The Basic Rule: Carolene Products...... 296 2. Equality and Freedom Under Rational Basis: Railway Express Agency ...... 304 B. Heightened Scrutiny Under the Equal Protection Clause...... 307 1. Unequal Distribution of Fundamental Rights: Skinner v. Oklahoma ...... 307 2. Racially Discriminatory Laws: The Japanese Internment Cases...... 313 a) Curfew Decisions from 1943: Hirabayashi and Yasui ...... 314 b) Exclusion Decision from 1944: Korematsu v. United States...... 316 C. Heightened Scrutiny for Enumerated Rights: The Flag Salute Cases...... 325 1. The Court Stays out: Minersville School District v. Gobitis...... 325 2. The Court Dives in: West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette...... 327

Chapter 11 The Civil Rights Era and the Warren Court 337

A. The Multifaceted Legal Campaign for Equal Rights...... 338 1. Mob Violence and Criminal Justice...... 338 2. Residential Segregation ...... 340 B. Desegregation of Public Schools ...... 341 1. Desegregation in State Schools: Brown v. Board of Education ...... 343 2. Desegregation in Federal Schools: Bolling v. Sharpe...... 348 3. Implementing Desegregation...... 351 a) “All Deliberate Speed”: Brown v. Board of Education II...... 351 b) Overcoming “Massive Resistance”...... 352 1) Voluntary Desegregation in Hoxie...... 353 2) The Little Rock Nine: Cooper v. Aaron ...... 354 C. Interracial Marriage: Loving v. Virginia...... 358 D. The Civil Rights Act of 1964...... 365 1. Hotels and Commerce: Heart of Atlanta Motel ...... 365 2. Restaurants and Commerce: Katzenbach v. McClung...... 373

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PART II: STRUCTURAL LIMITS 377

A. The Parts of the Picture ...... 379 B. Interaction of the Parts...... 381 C. The Historical Setting...... 384

Chapter 12 Supremacy 387

A. Preemption...... 388 1. Kickstarter: Federal Preemption...... 388 2. Preemption and Immigration: Arizona v. United States...... 395 B. The Dormant Commerce Clause Doctrine...... 408 1. Kickstarter: The Dormant Commerce Clause Doctrine...... 410 2. Facial Discrimination Against Interstate Commerce: City of Philadelphia v. New Jersey ...... 413 3. Facially Neutral Statutes with Discriminatory Effects: Hunt v. Washington State Apple Advertising Commission ...... 419 4. Facial Discrimination, the Market Participant Exception, and Some Basic Questions: Camps Newfound/Owatonna v. City of Harrison...... 425

Chapter 13 Federalism 435

A. The Enigmatic Tenth Amendment ...... 436 B. Federal Control over State Governments: The Rule Against Commandeering...... 437 1. Kickstarter: Commandeering ...... 437 2. Commandeering State Legislatures: New York v. United States...... 438 3. Commandeering State Executive Officials: Printz v. United States...... 440 4. Regulating State Activities Without Commandeering: Reno v. Condon...... 448 C. Federalism as a Method of Legal Reasoning...... 452

Chapter 14 Enumerated Powers 457

A. The Taxing Clause...... 459 1. Kickstarter: The Taxing Clause ...... 459 2. Taxes with Deterrent Effects: U.S. v. Kahriger...... 464 B. The Spending Clause...... 470 1. Kickstarter: The Spending Clause...... 471 2. Conditions on Federal Grants to State Governments: South Dakota v. Dole...... 474 xx DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS

C. The Commerce Clause...... 479 1. Kickstarter: The Interstate Commerce Clause...... 479 2. Crime and Commerce: The New Federalism and the Commerce Clause...... 482 a) Gun Possession: United States v. Lopez ...... 482 b) Violence Against Women: United States v. Morrison ...... 482 c) Drug Prohibition: Gonzales v. Raich...... 495 D. The Necessary & Proper Clause...... 496 1. Kickstarter: The Necessary and Proper Clause...... 497 2. Public Safety Legislation: United States v. Comstock...... 502 E. The Civil Rights Enforcement Clauses...... 515 1. Kickstarter: Civil Rights Enforcement Clauses...... 515 2. Fourteenth Amendment Congruence and Proportionality: City of Boerne v. Flores...... 517 3. Fifteenth Amendment Voting Rights: Shelby County v. Holder...... 532

Chapter 15 Separation of Powers 551

A. Kickstarter: Separation of Powers...... 553 B. Tension Between the Judicial and Legislative Branches ...... 556 C. Tension Between the Legislative and Executive Branches...... 557 1. Executive Action Without Statutory Authorization: The Steel Seizure Case...... 558 2. Executive Action Contrary to Statute: Zivotofsky v. Kerry...... 575 D. Tension Between the Judicial and Executive Branches...... 593 1. The President as Witness: United States v. Nixon...... 594 2. The President as Defendant...... 604 a) Suits over Conduct in Office: Nixon v. Fitzgerald...... 605 b) Suits over Conduct out of Office: Clinton v. Jones ...... 612

Chapter 16 Master Class: Structural Limits 623

A. Background on the Affordable Care Act...... 623 1. The ACA and Private Health Insurance ...... 623 2. The ACA and Medicaid ...... 624 B. Litigation Against the Affordable Care Act...... 625 1. Law and Politics in the Fifth Circuit...... 625 2. The Supreme Court Decides: NFIB v. Sebelius...... 629

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PART III: INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS 661

A. The Parts of the Picture ...... 664 B. Interaction of the Parts...... 665 C. The Historical Setting...... 667

Chapter 17 Equality Rights 669

A. Kickstarter: Equal Protection...... 670 B. Identifying Levels of Scrutiny in Court Opinions...... 679 C. The Suspect Classifications Prong...... 681 1. Rational Basis Review...... 681 a) Rational Basis Review of Economic Legislation: City of New Orleans v. Dukes ...... 681 b) Rational Basis Review of Social Legislation: City of Dallas v. Stanglin ...... 685 c) Rational Basis Review of Government Benefits Programs: U.S. Department of Agriculture v. Moreno ...... 688 2. Strict Scrutiny...... 693 a) Laws Imposing Disparate Treatment...... 694 1) Race-Based Judicial Action: Palmore v. Sidoti...... 694 2) Race-Based Administrative Action: Johnson v. California. . . . 697 b) Laws Imposing Disparate Impact...... 704 1) The Requirement of Discriminatory Purpose: Washington v. Davis...... 705 2) Proving Discriminatory Purpose...... 715 a) Methods of Proof: Village of Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corp...... 715 b) Because of, Not in Spite of: Personnel Administrator of Massachusetts v. Feeney...... 717 c) Mixed Legislative Motives ...... 718 d) Cases Finding Discriminatory Purpose ...... 719 3) Discriminatory Purpose Without Disparate Treatment or Impact: Palmer v. Thompson ...... 720 3. Intermediate Scrutiny...... 721 a) The Path to Intermediate Scrutiny...... 721 1) Gender Roles as a Rational Basis: Hoyt v. Florida...... 722 2) An Unconstitutional Sex Classification: Reed v. Reed...... 724 3) The Equal Rights Amendment...... 727 4) The Argument for Strict Scrutiny: Frontiero v. Richardson . . . .727

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5) The Arrival of Intermediate Scrutiny: Craig v. Boren ...... 729 6) Intermediate Scrutiny for Birth Outside Marriage...... 736 b) Intermediate Scrutiny in Action...... 736 1) Sex Classifications in Education: United States v. Virginia. . . . 737 2) Sex Classifications in the Workplace: Geduldig v. Aiello. . . . . 748 3) Sex Classifications and Citizenship ...... 753 a) Proof of Parentage: Nguyen v. INS...... 754 b) Duration of Residency: Sessions v. Morales-Santana . . . . 763 4. Affirmative Action ...... 773 a) Affirmative Action in Government Contracting: City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co...... 774 b) Affirmative Action in Education...... 790 1) Affirmative Action in Higher Education: Fisher v. University of Texas ...... 790 2) Affirmative Action in K–12 Schools: PICS v. Seattle School District...... 802 D. The Fundamental Rights Prong...... 819 1. Unequal Distribution of Voting Rights: Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections...... 819 2. Unequal Distribution of Educational Opportunity: San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez...... 825 E. Other Classifications and Other Methods...... 836 1. Intellectual Disabilities: City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center ...... 836 2. Unlawful Presence in the United States: Plyler v. Doe...... 846

Chapter 18 Fairness Rights 857

A. Distinguishing Procedural Due Process from Substantive Due Process. . . . 858 B. Kickstarter: Procedural Due Process...... 860 C. Procedural Due Process for Courts: Caperton v. Massey Coal ...... 864 D. Procedural Due Process for Executive Action...... 880 1. Deprivation ...... 880 a) Mere Negligence: Daniels v. Williams ...... 880 b) Failure to Protect from Third Parties: DeShaney v. Winnebago County...... 885 2. Liberty or Property Interest...... 891 a) Liberty and Property Distinguished: Roth v. Board of Regents...... 891 b) Defining Property Interests: Goldberg v. Kelly...... 899

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3. Adequacy of Procedures...... 907 a) Procedures for Terminating Disability Benefits: Mathews v. Eldridge ...... 907 b) Procedures for Firing Government Employees: Cleveland Board of Education v. Loudermill...... 913

Chapter 19 Freedom Rights 923

A. Kickstarter: Substantive Due Process...... 924 B. Interaction of Substantive Due Process, Procedural Due Process, and the Fundamental Rights Prong of Equal Protection...... 928 1. Procedural and Substantive Due Process...... 928 2. Substantive Due Process and the Fundamental Rights Prong of Equal Protection...... 930 C. Substantive Due Process and Procreation...... 931 1. Contraception: Griswold v. Connecticut...... 931 2. Abortion ...... 945 a) Total Ban on Abortion: Roe v. Wade ...... 945 b) Abortion Reconsidered: Planned Parenthood of Southeast Pennsylvania v. Casey...... 947 c) The Undue Burden Standard: Whole Woman’s Health v. Hellerstedt...... 972 D. Substantive Due Process and Family Relationships ...... 988 1. Housing and the Extended Family: Moore v. City of East Cleveland...... 988 2. Parentage and Visitation: Michael H. v. Gerald D...... 996 E. Substantive Due Process and End-of-Life Decisions...... 1008 1. Refusal of Life-Sustaining Medical Treatment: Quinlan and Cruzan . . .1008 2. Aid in Dying: Glucksberg and Quill...... 1009

Chapter 20 Exceptions to the State Action Doctrine 1023

A. Kickstarter: State Action Exceptions...... 1024 B. State Action and Courts...... 1031 1. Judicial Enforcement of Racially Restrictive Covenants: Shelley v. Kraemer...... 1031 2. Peremptory Strikes of Jurors: Edmonson v. Leesville Concrete...... 1037 C. State Action and Government-Affiliated Entities...... 1047 1. The Olympics: San Francisco Arts & Athletics, Inc. v. U.S. Olympic Committee ...... 1048 2. High School Sports: Brentwood Academy v. TSSAA...... 1055

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Chapter 21 Master Class: Individual Rights 1067

A. Anti-Discrimination Statutes (1979): City of Austin v. Driskill Hotel...... 1068 B. Substantive Due Process (1986): Bowers v. Hardwick...... 1074 C. Equal Protection (1990): High Tech Gays v. DISCO ...... 1081 D. Equal Protection (1996): Romer v. Evans ...... 1087 E. Substantive Due Process (2003): Lawrence v. Texas...... 1089 F. Substantive Due Process After Lawrence...... 1102 1. Eleventh Circuit (2004): Lofton v. Secretary...... 1102 2. Ninth Circuit (2008): Witt v. Air Force...... 1103 G. Multiple Theories (2013): United States v. Windsor...... 1106 H. Equal Protection After Windsor...... 1112 1. Ninth Circuit (2014): SmithKline Beecham v. Abbott Labs ...... 1112 2. Eastern District of Louisiana (2014): Robichaux v. Caldwell...... 1113 I. Multiple Theories (2015): Obergefell v. Hodges ...... 1114 J. Multiple Theories: Pavan v. Smith (2017)...... 1137

Appendix A: The Constitution of the United States...... 1141 Appendix B: Amendments Not Ratified...... 1163 Appendix C: Master Kickstarter...... 1166 Index ...... 1173

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