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THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AS A SOLO INSTRUMENT AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE SOLO LITERATURE FOR THE MARIMBA

DOCUMENT

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Musical Arts in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By Sarah E. Smith, B.M., M.M.

* * * *

The Ohio State University 1995

DMA Document Committee; Approved by C. vVeait, Advisor R. Blatti W. Conable Advisor M. Mazo School of Music DMI Number: 9533920

DMI Microform 9533920 Copyright 1995, by OMI Company. AIL rights reserved.

This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, Code.

UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I express my sincere appreciation to Ruth Stuber Jeanne for her willingness to discuss her involvement with the premiere of the first marimba concerto, for sharing the manuscripts and original programs, and for allowing me to interview her. Thank you to the publishers who have allowed me to reprint photographs for use in this document. Appreciation for the members of my committee, Christopher Weait, Richard Blatti, William Conable, and Margarita Mazo, for their suggestions and comments. The assistance of Michael Bump and James Moore is gratefully acknowledged. Thank you to my parents, family, and friends for seeing me through to the end.

11 VITA

November 19,1965 ...... Born - Lima, Ohio

1987 ...... B.M.. Ohio Northern University, Ada, Ohio

1987-1989 ...... Instrumental Music Teacher, Clyde-Green Springs Schools, Clyde, Ohio

1991 ...... M.M., Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan

1991-Present ...... Lecturer, Percussion, Muskingum College, New Concord, Ohio

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Music Studies in: Percussion Performance, Instrumental Conducting,

111 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... ii

VITA...... iii

LIST OF PLATES...... vi

CHAPTER PAGE I. Introduction and Definition ...... 1 n. The Origins of the and Marimba ...... 4 Ancient Asian Keyboards ...... 4 The Primitive African Xylophone ...... 6 m. Toward the Modern Marimba ...... 13 Guatemala...... 13 Marimba Doble ...... 17 Marimba Bands of Guatemala ...... 17 Europe ...... 23 IV. Manufacturing the Modern Marimba ...... 28 The United States...... 28 George Hamilton and Joe Green ...... 32 Studio ...... 34 New Improvements ...... 34 Claire Omar Musser...... 35 V. The First Marimba Concerto ...... 43 The - Paul Creston ...... 43 The Commissioner - Frederique Petrides ...... 45 The Performer - Ruth Stuber ...... 48

IV Interview with Ruth Stuber Jeanne ...... 49 The Concertino ...... 56 VI. Significant Marimba Literature After 1940 ...... 59 Darius M ilhaud...... 59 Robert Kurka ...... 61

Vida Chenoweth ...... 64 The Japanese Influence ...... 65 in Japan ...... 66 Keiko A be ...... 68 VII. Conclusion ...... 73

APPENDICES A. Time-line of significant marimba/xylophone events .... 75 B. Program from the premiere of the Creston ...... 79 C. Photographs of Stuber, ca. 1940 ...... 82 D. Paul Creston's Manuscript of the Concertino ...... 85 E. Photograph and Letter from John Cage to Stuber ...... 101 F. First Published Version of the Creston by the Independent Music Publishers Company ...... 104

LIST OF REFERENCES...... 113 LIST OF PLATES

PLATE PAGE I. Goong lu discovered in Southern Vietnam ...... 5 n. Gender panerus of the Central Javanese gamelan ...... 6 m. A primitive leg xylophone ...... 8 IV. A log xylophone ...... 8 V. An example of a xylophone suspended from the neck ...... 9 VI. A trough xylophone from Thailand ...... 10 VII. A small Chopi of Quissico, Mozambique ...... 11 VIII. A halo played in Dori, Upper Volta ...... 12 IX. A Tecomate Indian (present day) playing the marimba 14

X. A Guatemalan cargador carrying his marimba ...... 15 XI. A large marimba in Guatemala City ...... 16 Xn. The Hurtados at the San Francisco Golden Gate Exposition, ca. 1939-1940 ...... 21 xn. Skeleton playing a small xylophone ...... 24 XIV. Gusikow's xylophone ...... 25 XV. An example of a Roeser styled xylophone ...... 27 XVI. The Roth styled xylophone ...... 27 XVII. The Five-Octave Deagan Nabimba ...... 30 XVni. George Hamilton Green and Joe Green at Their Instrument... 33 XIX. Claire Omar Musser and the Marimba-Celesta...... 35 vi XX. The Musser Marimba Orchestra of 1933 (shows Ruth Stuber)... 37 XXI. King George Model Marimba ...... 38 XXn. Musser and the Marimba Orchestra in Rehearsal, 1941 ...... 39 XXm. The Performance at the Music Festival ...... 40 XXIV. Photograph of the World War II Marimba ...... 40

Vll Chapter I

Introduction and Definition

Introduction The marimba is considered by most percussionists to be one of the primary percussion instruments for performance and study. The majority of literature written for this instrument is solo and unaccompanied. The marimba's origins cannot be directly traced to its involvement with standard Western performing ensembles unlike the timpani, snare drum, and other percussion instruments which have their roots in military bands. This paper will focus on the beginnings of the marimba and the factors that led to its development as a solo .

Definition A marimba, according to The Harvard Dictionary of Music, is a xylophone with resonators under each bar. This brief description goes on to state that the marimba originated in Africa, spread to Latin America and is now considered the national instrument of Guatemala. The article states that marimbas have been manufactured in the United States since the early

1 2 twentieth century for use in popular and concert music, including the symphony orchestra. ^ There are several problems with this definition. First, the article does not mention this instrument being used as a solo instrument, but ironically does mention the orchestral setting where repertoire is actually quite sparse. Also, the description of the marimba as a xylophone with resonators underneath is misleading. Most modern xylophones have resonators underneath the bars, but they are still considered xylophones. A clearer distinction between the marimba and xylophone is needed. Upon Hermann E. Winterhoff's invention of harmonic tuning in 1927, differences between a marimba and a xylophone were made clearer. Gordon Peters' research with members of the Deagan Company, the first company to manufacture marimbas and xylophones in the United States, resulted in finding four basic characteristics they considered when constructing the instruments: 1.The xylophone bars are tuned to bring out the third partial whereas the marimba bars are tuned to bring out the second partial. 2. The xylophone basically sounds an octave higher than a marimba, and is a transposing instrument, sounding one octave higher than the written pitch. The marimba reads as written. 3. There is more wood mass in xylophone bars, and xylophone bars are noticeably thicker than marimba bars . 4. Wood used in making marimba bars is a much softer wood than the xylophone bars.2

^Randall, Don, ed. The New Harvard Dictionaiy of Music. Boston: Belknap Press, 1986,470. ^Peters, Gordon. The Drummer: Man. Wilmette, Illinois: Kemper-Peters Publications, 1975, 154. 3 This finding suggests that prior to 1927 there would have been little or no distinction between a xylophone and a marimba. This leads J:o the following questions: When did the first actual marimba appear and what was its musical function? Was it primarily a solo instrument, or was it included in some type of ensemble? Why do the xylophone and marimba co-exist, with one not having replaced the other? A brief history of the origins of the marimba will be addressed in the next two chapters to acquaint the reader with the instrument. The purpose of these chapters is to provide an overview and summary of the thorough research that has already been accomplished by other scholars. To avoid confusion with terminology, the word keyboard will be used in the beginning so as to not imply a distinction between xylophone or marimba. The term keyboard will mean an instrument constructed of parallel bars which are struck in order to be played. The subsequent chapters will provide a discussion of the first marimba concerto and the literature that followed 1940. Included is an interview with Ruth Stuber Jeanne, who premiered the first marimba concerto. The appendices at the end of this document will provide a time-line of the marimba's development and a copy of the manuscript and first published version of the first marimba concerto. These two manuscripts have not been made public before this writing. Chapter II The Origins of the Xylophone and Marimba

Ancient Times The existence of keyboard-type percussion instruments can be shown through the art work remaining from those periods dating before Christ. According to Peters, the Moody Bible Institute dates a fixed called the ranat from 3500B.C. The records kept by the Greek Athenaeous, around 3700 B.C., show that Egyptian refugees known as Alexandrians taught the early Greeks the art of music and its scientific study. These Egyptians played the keyboard styled instruments known as ranat and voarangi, which have been recovered in the sculptures of the pyramids of Giza. Archaeologists at Nineveh and Babylon discovered evidence of keyboard playing from 2300 BC. These archaeologists uncovered instruments made of solid stone and jewels and having resonators.^

Ancient Asian Keyboards Researchers have also shown that as early as 2697 BC, the Chinese had developed a twelve bell keyboard called pien-chung. This keyboard was made from stones such as marble and jade. During the reign of Confucius, the Chinese keyboard, which was very similar to the ancient Greek ranat,

^Peters, 120. a expanded to include twenty tones. These Chinese keyboards were made of wood, metal, and bamboo.'* An eleven stone lithophone called a goong lu, discovered in Vietnam in 1949, and a set of thirty-two stones discovered in 1980 have been dated by scientists to about 1500 BC. These stone keyboards are made of volcanic rock, metamorphic schist, rhyolite, porphyry and rhyodacite. These are considered the oldest existing lithophones.^

I. Goong lu discovered in Southern Vietnam. (Reprinted from Groves Dictionary of Musical Instruments. , ed. vol. 1, p. 67)

One of the first noted performers of keyboard instruments was Reichenau Kotharus who lived in Macedonia around 1000 BC. According to Gordon Peters, it is thought that keyboard styled instruments actually evolved from the Middle East and traveled to the Far East through performers such as Kotharus. Written records show evidence of a Hindu keyboard called voorang around 600 BC. Near the time of Christ's birth, an Assyrian named Philodemus was famous for his playing of the keyboard known as a dilomus.

4peters, 125-126. ^Stanley Sadie, ed. Mew Groves Dictionary of Musical Instruments. 20 Vols., London: MacMillan, 1980,1, 67. 6 A gender is a multi-octave metallophone found in Java and Bali. Records indictate that around 900 AD, a bronze keyboard metallophone was present in Java. In 1157 resonators were added to the genders. This design remains in the instrument's present form. These genders have twelve to fourteen thin bevel-edged bronze keys suspended over individual tube resonators. There are many different sizes of genders and together these instruments comprise what is known as a gamelan orchestra. These are not solo instruments, but form part of an ensemble.

n. Gender panerus of the Central Javanese gamelan. (Reprinted from Groves Dictionary of Music Instruments. Stanley Sadie, ed.. Vol. 1, p. 35)

The Primitive African Xylophone Musicologist Curt Sachs divided the African primitive xylophones into five divisions: 1. the leg xylophone or pit xylophone 2. the log xylophone 3. the table xylophone in which the bars rested on a frame 4. the xylophone that was suspended from the neck 5. the trough xylophone®

According to Sachs' research, each of these instruments had between six and twenty bars. Sachs also states that he thinks the advanced xylophone of the African primitives was borrowed from the higher civilizations of the Malays.7 The Malay Peninsula is a region in the southern-most extremity of Asia between the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. According to Sachs, the xylophone was among the imports from the islands and peninsulas east to southeast of India, that traveled through the Pacific Islands and westward to Africa.* Sachs' theory is based on Hornbostal's method of geographically organizing musical instruments. Sachs believes that the oldest ideas and inventions came from one center location. Therefore, for example, the idea for xylophones could have come from one location and spread through the world. He admits that the geographic method may have some inaccuracies, but overall is the better method of classification. 9 It is important to remember, however, that Sachs' research was done in the 1920's and since that time, there has been other research and different theories about the origins of instruments. Some research indicates independent origins for instruments as basic as xylophones. The materials used in the construction of xylophones depended on the available natural resources, not on a material located in one part of the world. It is conceivable that the African xylophone was an independent development and not based on any Eastern influence.

®Sachs, Curt. The History of Musical Instruments. : W. W. Norton and Co., 1940, 238. ^Sachs, 54 . *Sachs, 233. ^Sachs, 60. One form of a primitive African xylophone consisted of two to three planks of wood that would be laid across the players legs and played with wooden sticks.

m. A primitive leg xylophone. (Reprinted from Blades, Percussion Instruments and Their diistory, p- 32)

In order to accommodate more bars for more pitches, this leg-xylophone evolved into a pit xylophone. A pit xylophone consisted of bars of wood laid across a hole in the ground that would act as the resonating chamber. To improve on the resonance of the instrument, the bars of wood would be supported by two parallel logs. Players would sit on either side of these log xylophones and strike on the very ends of the bars.

IV. A log xylophone. (Reprinted from Groves Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Stanley Sadie, ed. Vol. 3, p. 872.) 9 These primitive xylophones were gradually made smaller and the bars became fixed in a frame. The xylophones could then be carried from the neck, hanging at waist-level.

V. An example of xylophones suspended from the neck. (Reprinted from Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Stanley Sadie, ed. Vol. 8, p. 614)

&

A trough xylophone uses a rectangular box with its top open, upon which the bars are laid. This box acts as a common resonator for aU the bars. Sachs states that the xylophone reached the high point in its development in the trough xylophone of Southeast Asia. He notes similarities in the playing style in Asia and Africa, particularly that of the African Bantu people. Sachs notes the performance practice of using what appears to be two mallets in one- hand, or a forked beater. He observed this on a relief in a Javanese temple, and in African performances. Sachs also noticed similarities in the tuning of the xylophnes between these two peoples which he states could not be coincidental. His theory is that the Bantu people were influenced by the 10 people from Southeast Asia by communication across the Indian Ocean and through the Zambezi Valley. ^0

VI. A trough resonated xylophone from Thailand. (Reprinted from Groves Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Stanley Sadie, ed. Vol. 3, p. 876)

Eventually, these xylophones would be fitted with gourds made of calabash underneath each bar to act as resonating chambers. European sightings of these gourd xylophones had occurred as early as 1586. These types of early xylophones are in all probability the ancestors of the modern marimba. The word marimba has its origin in the African word mbila which is from the language of the Congo basin region. Some African languages use the form mbira. It is thought by most music historians that this instrument was introduced to the Chopi people during the first millennium AD from Indonesia. One form of the mbila from the Chopi people has seven equal tones and up to nineteen fixed keys, all having individual resonators. The lOSachs, 238. llfilades, 71-80. l^Sadie, Stanley. New Groves Dictionary of Musical Instruments. II, 629. 11 wood used is a hard wood that is fire tempered to improve its resonance. The frame consists of a single board with holes along its length to which are attached a row of gourds in graduated size, tied and sealed with wax. A wax nipple is raised up from a hole on each gourd and over this is stretched a fine membrane of a cow's intestine. As the air column inside the gourd is activated, the membrane produces a buzzing sound. The Chopi people still perform on mbilas today. These performances are often accompanied by dancers, and the performers also play other percussion instruments such as drums and rattles.

Vn. A small Chopi orchestra of mbilas of Quissico, Mozambique. (Reprinted from Groves Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Stanley Sadie, ed. Vol. 2, p. 628)

t J . K

Another African xylophone known as the balo (bala, balafo, balafou, balafon) consists of sixteen hard wooden strips between one-half inch and an inch wide arranged on a small frame. Underneath these strips hang gourds that serve as resonators. These resonators are in proportion with the size of the bars in order to best amplify the fundamental pitch. The first European 1 2 record of these instruments comes from the British gold-prospector Richard Jobson in 1620, who described them as the principal instrument of the Gambia. These early instruments had a covering on top of the resonators that produced a buzzing sound. This wafer-thin membrane was often made of bat's wings or the substance that covers a spiders' eggs. The contemporary balo may be played as a solo instrument or in pairs. If played in pairs, one player will provide the basic melody and the other wül incorporate melodic variations and ornamentations. It is played exclusively by male musicians and is used to accompany praise songs. It is considered a prestigious instrument. 13

VTEL A balo played in Dori, Upper Volta. (Reprinted from New Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Stanley Sadie, ed. vol. 2, p. 117)

i^Sadie, Stanley. New Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians. II, 117. Chapter HI

Toward the Modern Marimba

The modern marimba was influenced by two cultures in its early stages. One influence was from Guatemala and the other European. Both of these countries made improvements on the construction and design of the instruments and also produced the first well-known soloists on the instrument.

Guatemala According to Sachs, Mexican civilazations originated from the group of people descending from the mesas from the north and south to live in the more fertile valleys and plains. These people brought with them, among other things, their musical instruments. Sachs also states that except for a few universal instruments, all relatives of Amercian instruments can be found in a territory comprising China, between China and India, the Malay Archipelago, and the Pacific Islands. Sachs describes these instruments as Pacfic, and among them was the marimba.

l^Sachs, 198. l^Sachs, 202. j g 14 Although the marimba was originally an import to Guatemala, Guatemalans consider the marimba their national instrument and marimba music accompanies everyday life. The marimba has deep cultural roots in Guatemala and is very important in that country's heritage. It is from Guatemala that the first solo marimbists come. The first outside observations of marimbas near the country of Guatemala occurred during the sixteenth century invasions by the Conquistadors in Chiapas, Mexico, the home of the Tecomate Indians.

IX. A Tecomate Indian (present day) playing the marimba. (Reprinted from Groves Dictionary Of Music and Musicians. Stanley Sadie, ed. p. 615)

The Guatemalans use the wood from the hormingo tree, which they believe is female, to make their m a r im b a s . 16 This wood gives their marimbas a special tone quality and allows the bars to ring true to pitch. According to Frank K. MacCallum(1967 article), the marimbas that are made in Guatemala are the only ones that approximate the range capabilities like a piano. The craftsmanship is very high and the marimbas are made up

16peters, 144-149 15 to a six and a half octave range. MacCallum credits this extended range to the design of the resonators. Guatemalan resonators need not be inconveniently long because of their shape. These resonators are made out of thin, light wood, whose shape can be described as an uneven diamond, with the smaller end near the bar. The greater the flare at the bottom of the resonator, the deeper the sound of the ban,l7 Charleo is used to increase the volume at the low end of the marimbas. The charleo is a membrane made from the intestines of a cow or pig that is stretched across the open end of the resonator. This vibrates as the bar is struck. The vibrations are an indication that the resonator is in tune with the corresponding bar. MacCallum contends that without this vibrating membrane, the marimba could have no low notes.

X. A Guatemalen cargador carrying his marimba - note the ornate framework and the pointed resonators. (Reprinted from National Geographic Magazine, November, 1926, p. 606)

^^MacCallum, Frank K. "The Marimba's Bass Register." Percussive Notes. Vol.V, No. 4,1967, 3. l^MacCallum, 4. 1 6

XI. A large marimba in Guatemala City. (Reprinted from National Geographic Magazine. November, 1926, p. 606) 1 7 Marimba Doble One type of Guatemalan marimba is known as the doble. It is a symbol of national independence for the Guatemalan Republic. The doble is similar to the modern marimba found in the United States: it is chromatic, and may have up to a six and a half-octave range. Although the doble has a separate row for the flats and sharps, it does differ from the Western marimbas in that these notes are positioned directly behind their naturals rather than staggered. There is evidence of these instruments as early as 1600 from the Indians of Central America. The doble is similar to some African marimbas, in particular the instruments of the Bantu people. The dobles are usually not in tune with themselves or with other dobles. The resonators are made of cedar wood boxes and produce the buzzing sound known to the Indians as charleo. Pig intestines or a plant membrane, known as cheche, is used in the resonators for the buzzing sound. During the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the marimba sencilla was developed. This marimba had wooden boxes for resonators instead of gourds.20 Other improvements were made by the Guatemalans because of the popularity of their marimba bands. Some research has shown that as early as 1874, Jose Chauquin and Manuel Lopez had invented a chromatic marimba.21

Marimba Bands of Guatemala During the last part of the nineteenth century, the marimba bands gained popularity in Guatemala. These ensembles often were formed by l^Ormandy, Paul D. "The Marimba Doble of Central America." Percussive Notes Vol. 23, No. 5, July, 1985,16-17. 20Sadie, Stanley. New^ Groves Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Ill, p. 878. 21pimentel, Linda. "The Aristocracy of Manufactured Marimbas." Percussive Notes Vol 21 No. 1 October 1982,61. 1 8 members of a family. The families of the Ovalles, Barrios, Bethancourts, and the Hurtados were very popular performers. The most influential were the Hurtados. In 1894, Sebastian Hurtado of Almongo, Quetzaltenango traveled to Mexico to perform with the Sirco Trevino Marimba Band. In 1896, the Hurtados formed the first of their family marimba bands which included Sebastian and his sons. There were fierce competitions in their homeland and at times these marimba competitions would escalate into knife fights.Their early repertoire included native Indian music that would be used for festivals, and also light classical numbers. Arrangements of piano music were common, and the instruction was done by rote. The chromatic marimba was first heard publicly in 1899 at the birthday party of President Manuel Cabrera. In 1901, Sebastian Hurtado was awarded a silver medal and a diploma from the Guatemalan government for his work on perfecting the chromatic marimba. 23 Sebastian Hurtado is generally credited with constructing the first marimba arranged with the chromatics like that of a piano, despite the earlier work of Chauquin and Lopez. In 1901, the sons of another Hurtado, Toribio, were invited to the Pan- American Exposition in Buffalo, New York. On their trip they brought a marimba sencilla to debut in North America. Unfortunately, the assassination of President McKinley interfered with their plans and these Hurtados returned home without having played. In 1908, the Sebastian Hurtado Band began to tour the United States, starting in New Orleans. This musical tour was scheduled to last six months, but due to their increasing popularity, they extended their stay in the United States. They were

22Eyler, David P. "The Hurtado Brothers’ Royal Marimba Band of Guatemala." Percussive Notes Vol. 31 No. 3 February 1993,48. 23Eyler, David P. "The Hurtado Brothers'. . 48. 1 9 represented by the William Morris Agency, and toured most of the major cities of the United States. In 1910, the Morris Agency sent the Hurtados to Europe where they played in Amsterdam, Vienna, Budapest, Berlin, London, Paris, and Holland. After the death of Sebastian and one of his sons, the band reformed under the leadership of Celso, who renamed their group the Hurtados Brothers' Royal Marimba Band. This group was asked to be the official representative from Guatemala for the Panama-Pacific International Exposition. The band played daily at the pavilion and was heard by thousands of people. The Hurtados were an instant success and were awarded the gold medal of honor for their contribution to the Exposition.24 During this exposition, the Hurtados made their first recording with the Columbia Recording Company. This was about 1915 and included transcriptions of von Suppe's Pique Dame and Poet and Peasant overtures. Early in 1916, the Hurtados traveled to New Jersey to record with the Victor Talking Machine Company. During this session they produced about twenty records. Their best selling record was the Pique Dame overture which sold a half million copies during the first w e e k .2 5 The Hurtados appeared with the Ziegfield Follies in New York in 1916 and later went to Philadelphia for an engagement at the Ritz-Carlton Hotel. In 1919 the Hurtados began their eighth tour of the Unites States, this time underwritten by the RKO company. The brothers moved to New York in 1925, and as the talking pictures industry began, the work for the marimba band decreased, and eventually the brothers disbanded. Celso Hurtado

24EyIer, "The Hurtado Brothers'. . 49-50. 25Eyler, "The Hurtado Brothers' . . 51-52. 20 managed to keep some of the band intact though, and they performed at hotels in New York and Canada in the early 1930's. In 1938, the band moved to San Francisco where they reunited with brother Jesus. In 1939 the band was contracted to play for the Treasure Island (Golden Gate) Exposition in San Francisco. Oscar Hurtado stated that by 1943, the band was playing three times daily and was later honored at the La Marimba Club. All the brothers eventually became citizens of the United States, and made California their home.26

26Eyler, "The Hurtado Brothers' . . 51-52. 21 XII. The Hurtados at the San Francisco Golden Gate Exposition ca. 1939-1940. (Reprinted from Eyler, David P. "The Hurtado Brothers' Royal Marimba Band of Guatemala." Percussive Notes Vol. 31 No. 3 February 1993, p. 50) 22 Traditionally in Guatemala, the marimba ensemble has more importance than the solo marimbist. However, the talent of Celso Hurtado had made him a star performer. By 1944, he had established himself as a virtuoso marimbist. On May 12, 1944 Celso performed a solo recital with piano accompaniment in the Lux Theater. His instrument was a marimba he had built himself of the finest wood from Guatemala, and had installed rubber vibrators under the bars which were controlled by a motor. This was attached to a pedal and was used by the performer to control volume. On April 7, 1947 Celso was billed as the World’s Greatest Virtuoso of the Marimba, as he gave a recital in Carnegie Hall. His repertoire for the evening was his own arrangements of Campanella by Paganini, Brahms' Hungarian Dance No. 6, Saint-Saëns' Dance Macabre, and others. A critic from wrote:

Celso Hurtado, who was born in Guatemala but is a resident of California, tried something different last night, a solo program for the marimba. He played an instruments he has designed himself, and he achieved astonishing feats of virtuosity, crossing of hands, intertwining of the four sticks with which the marimba is played and the achievement of varying sound effects. To watch Mr. Hurtado's skillful deployment over the instrument was as fascinating as observing a trick a cr o b a t.^ 7

Two other performers made their mark as solo marimbists at this time, Jose Bethancourt and Efrain Tanchez. Jose Bethancourt was a member of the

2^"Celso Hurtado Heard: Presents a Solo Program on the Marimba at Carnegie Hall," New York Times. April 8,1947, 34. 23 Mexican Police Marimba Band. He later settled in Chicago and worked for

NBC as a studio musician.28 Bethancourt today is remembered for his rubber mallet he produced and sold. In 1978, Dr. John K. Galm went to Guatemala to observe marimbas in present day situations. He discovered that the marimba is involved in almost all aspects of every day life. Marimba bands play in night clubs, on the national radio three times a day, and are invited to nearly every private party. Birthdays, weddings, baptisms, nearly any celebration will include the marimba. Marimba studios occupy sites in city districts and are devoted to teaching and refining their art. Here, the marimba is taught by rote by the leader. Other members of the bands add harmony and secondary lines "by ear." Marimbas are manufactured here, and the streets are full of vendors selling accessories. 29

Europe European cultures heavily influenced the construction and performing practices of the modern xylophones and eventually marimbas. Iconographie and textual evidence of keyboard percussion can be found in European countries beginning in the fourteenth century. For example, early fourteenth- century European reliefs show keyboard instruments in some type of ensemble setting and the performer appears to be holding four mallets. Whether or not the player actually held four mallets, or if the mallet was forked cannot be determined from these r e lie fs .^ o

28peters, 152. 29calm, John K. "Marimba Holiday in Guatemala." Percussive Notes. Winter, 1978, Vol. 16, No. 2, 31-33. ^Opeters, 150. 24 In 1511, Arnold Schlick, (1460-1521) a blind German organist and composer, referred to ahultze glechter, which translated means "wooden percussion" in one of his writings. In 1528 Martin Agricola, also known as Martin Sore(1483-1556) was a German music theorist and writer who wrote a method book on how to play various musical instruments. In this text he described an instrument containing a series of twenty-five wooden bars, presumably a xylophone-like instrument. Nearly a century later, Michael Praetorius, also known as Michel Schulz (1571-1621), depicted a similar instrument with fifteen bars.^^ These bars appear to be six to twenty-one inches in length, and were arranged in a pyramid form. A drawing by Holbein from the sixteenth century depicts a skeleton performing on ? small

keyboard type instrument suspended from his n eck .^ 2

Xn. Skeleton playing a small xylophone (Reprint of Holbein's drawing from New Groves Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Stanley Sadie, ed. vol. 3, 870)

Sachs, 300. 32Blades, 204 25 In 1650, Kircher Tasten invented a wooden xylophone that was constructed in such a manner that the instrument was struck with hammers from underneath by pressing keys on a fingerboard. A similar instrument was built by Heinrich Nicholaus Gerber (1702-75). His instrument was harpsichord shaped and had wooden balls that struck the bars as the keys were pressed.33 Both inventions would indicate solo playing was more common than ensemble playing for these instruments. During the times of the wandering musician, the strohfiedel or "straw- fiddle" became a popular instrument. This instrument was named a straw- fiddle because the hard wooden bars were laid on rolls of straw. A famous straw-fiddler was a Russian Jew by the name of Gusikow. Gusikow was very popular in the 1830's. He toured extensively as a soloist using a four-row type instrument, which was pyramid shaped.

XIV. Gusikow's xylophone (Reprinted from Groves Dictionary of Musical Instruments, Vol. 3, p. 870. Drawing by Bemh Fischer)

i

At least three noteworthy saw Gusikow perform: Mendelssohn (1809-1847), Chopin (1810-1849), and Liszt (1811-1886). For one

33Blades, 204 26 concert, Mendelssohn even accompanied Gusikow.^^ Gusikow died in 1837 while playing a concert. The next well-known strohfiedeler was Sankson Jabukowsky who performed a concert in which Saint-Saëns (1835-1921) was present. 35 The consequences of this were seen in 1874 when the xylophone had its orchestral debut in Saint-Saëns' Danse Macabre, and again in his Carnival of the Animals (1886).36 The nineteenth century in Europe saw many experiments with the manufacturing of keyboards. At least two new keyboard instruments appeared. The triphone was invented by Weidner of Frankfurt in 1810, and the tryphone was invented by Charles de Try of Paris. De Try toured as a soloist and promoted his invention. According to James Blades, it is possible that this instrument was arranged in two rows like that of the already existing , instead of the pyramid form of Gusikow's straw-fiddle. During the late nineteenth century, the chromatic xylophone was manufactured in two distinct fashions. One style contained four vertical rows totaling thirty-four bars. This instrument was performed much like a dulcimer, and in Albert Roth’s Methode for Xylophone (Vevey, Suisse: Agence Internationale 'a Vevey, 1885-1886) was referred to as the Roeser system.

34Blades, 307 35peters, 135 36Blades, 308-309 27

XV. An example of a Roeser styled xylophone (Reprinted from . Dec. 1992 Vol. 31, No. 2, p. 66)

m

The other style of xylophone arranged the bars like that of a piano keyboard. This was referred to as the Roth system, after Albert Roth.^? The player positioned himself at the large end of the keyboard, with the higher notes furthest away from him, much like a bell lyre would be played.

XVI. The Roth styled xylophone (Reprinted from : Dec. 1992 Vol. 31, No. 2, p. 66)

Sol ÆJL Fa □ m iMi a u - l/f- \Si \Sihm£3 H ' jg/s [La \Sol F f t t f - ' -

..VWT □ 1

S i b ai L a ^ r u T

^^Strain, James. "Published Literature for Xylophone (ca. 1880-1930)." Percussive Notes, Dec. 1992, Vol. 31, No. 2, 66-67. Chapter IV

Manufacturing the Modern Marimba

The United States The United States saw production of xylophones beginning in the late nineteenth century. John Calhoun Deagan (1852-1932), an English clarinetist, was dissatisfied with the intonation of orchestral . He began to work on improving their sound, and in 1880 had nearly perfected the tuning of glockenspiels. He then formed the Musical Bells Company of St. Louis. By 1893 he had produced a resonator-less wooden-bar xylophone; this instrument, however, did not have flats and sharps. In 1897, Deagan moved his business to Chicago. One of his many contributions to music is that he was the first to recognize A =440 as standard pitch, and constructed the first xylophone of orchestral quality. In 1927, Deagan would construct the aluminum alloy .^S In the United States during the late nineteenth century, there were two basic types of manufactured xylophones: chromatic and diatonic. The wood used to make these xylophones could have been spruce, fir, rosewood.

^^Hitchcock, H. Wiley, and Stanley Sadie, ed. The New Grove Dictionary of American Music. Four Volumes, 1986,1,591. 2 g 29 cocobolo, maple, or Iocust.39 Diatonic instruments had a single row of bars, usually pitched in the key of F. Some military bands commonly used xylophones that were pitched in the key of Bb. These diatonic instruments came with extra notes that the performer could add or substitute when needed for a specific piece. The normal range for these instruments was about two octaves. These early instruments did not have resonators and could easily be rolled up and carried under one arm.“^0 The players in the United States used the European Roth System, but with one difference. Instead of playing from the large end of the keyboard, the players positioned themselves in front of the bars, like pianists, the low end of the keyboard to their left.^^ Solid frames were not sold with these instruments and it was customary to lay the bars on a table or on top of straw, the idea obviously coming from the European straw-fiddlers. Stands did not become popular until the turn of the century. In 1903 Deagan added resonators and the flats and sharps to his instrument. 42 He called this chromatic xylophone the nagaed which is his name, Deagan, spelled backwards. Between the years 1910 and 1918, Deagan manufactured a version of the Central American marimba which he called the nabimba. The resonators of this instrument also included the membranes that would produce the characteristic buzz of the Central American marimbas.43 In this case, the tube ended in a cone and at the apex was a

^^James A. Strain. "Published Literature for the Xylophones (ca. 1880-1930)." Percussive Notes, vol.31, no. 2 Dec. 1992,65. 40strain, 66. 41strain, 66. 42peters, 155. 43pimentel, Linda. "The Aristocracy of Manufactured Marimbas." Percussive Notes. Vol 21, No. 1, October, 1982, 61. 30 membrane. It resonator height could be adjusted to permit compensations for fluctuations in humidity. The nabimba was an admired instrument and supplied the bass end for the marimba bands that began to flourish at this time in the United States. It was made in many models, and for the larger range instruments - between five and seven octaves - the resonators had to curve up to compensate for their length. The five octave instrument was ninety-five inches long and stood thirty-six inches high. Its range was from C2 to C7.44

XVn. The Five Octave Deagan Nabimba (Reprinted from Pimentel, Linda. "The Aristocracy of Manufactured Marimbas." Percussive Notes, vol 21, no. 1, October, 1982, p. 61.)

44pimentel, 61. 3 1 The great pianist/composer Percy Grainger (1882-1961) wrote for the nabimba.'^S Unfortunately the nabimba was a commercial failure and Deagan only produced about fifty of these instruments.46 Around 1920, manufacturers discontinued making instruments lower than one octave below middle C due to increasing costs of manufacturing. This, in effect, put a stop to marimba bands and limited the marimba as a solo instrument. The period after World War I saw a demand for vaudeville acts, and thereby increasing the demand for xylophones rather than marimbas. To improve the tone quality of xylopohnes, resonators were added to the xylophones by the Deagan company in 1927. These resonators were made of light weight aluminum and were considered optional. Other manufacturers during this time included Roeser, Ulysses G. Leedy (1867-1931), who had formed a musical instrument company in 1900, and Carl Fischer (1849-1923). The ranges of marimbas started at one octave and by 1910 had increased to as large as five octaves.^^ This was probably a result of the demand of the repertoire of the star performers. The function of the early xylophone was as a lead voice in an ensemble or as a solo instrument. It was employed in both popular and serious music settings. It was used in the theaters and for vaudeville acts. The xylophone was also popular in jazz or dance ensembles like that of Paul Whitman. John Philip Sousa's band made use of the xylophone, as did Arthur Pryor, and symphonies such as the Boston Symphony, Chicago Symphony, and Rochester Philharmonic. Prominent performers included Arthur Rackett, George Lawrence Stone, Frank E. Dodge, Carl Gardner, William Dorn, Charles

^^MacCallum, 4. ^^Pimentel, 61. ^^Strain, 66. 32 Fischer, Red Norvo, and Sammy Herman. The most famous players were the Green brothers.48

George Hamilton Green and Toe Green George Hamilton Green and Joe Green were the most influential xylophonists in the early part of the century. Recently, due to the efforts of James Strain, Randall Eyles, and Bob Becker, there has been a revival in the interest in this early xylophone music. The following biographical information was taken directly from an instruction book the Green brothers published entitled Green Brothers Advanced Instructor for Xylophone published by the Green Brothers Publishing Company, New York, New York. The date of publication is not given on the title page but the book dates from the early 1900's. Joe Green was born in Omaha, Nebraska on February 9,1892 and George on May 23,1893. Their father was a leading bandmaster of Omaha, and their grandfather was also a musician. Joseph Green studied piano for many years with Professor Letovsky of Berlin and later studied timpani and drums with Joseph Zettleman of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra. George Hamilton Green studied piano, harmony, and composition with Professor Sigmond Landsberg and violin with Ernest Nordin. When the brothers were about nine years old they saw a xylophone for the first time. This instrument was very crude table top design and had only two octaves. They convinced their father to purchase this instrument, but both wanted to play it at the same time. They therefore went about building

^^Strain, 99. 3 3 their own xylophone out of maple purchased at a local hardware store.49 Through many years of practice and performing, the Green brothers developed xylophone playing to an all-time high. The years 1890-1925 were known as the Golden Age of the Xylophone.^O

XVni. George Hamilton and Joe Green at their Instrument. (Reprinted from Green Brotfiers Advanced Instructor for Xylophone New York: Green Brothers Publishing Company, n.d.)

49creen, George Hamilton and Joseph. "Introductory", Green Brothers Advanced Instructor for Xylophone. New York; Green Brothers, n.d., 4. ^^Green, 5. 34 Studio Xylophones The motion picture industry slowly began to take over the silent movie house and vaudeville. Although the stage was lost to many performers of vaudeville and rag-time, the studios welcomed the xylophone. According to Sammy Herman, who was the staff xylophonist with NBC studios for thirty- eight years, this studio employed fifty-five players, two of them were xylophonists. Herman also states that the popular dance bands in the late 1920's would often use two xylophone players.^i

New Improvements William F. Ludwig (1879-1973) formed his drum company in 1909 and subsequently purchased xylophones from Deagan for resale under the Ludwig name. Ludwig continued to produce xylophones through the 1920's. In 1924 Leedy manufactured and sold a marimba-xylophone type instrument that had a five octave range. Another Leedy invention was the "octarimba." The octarimba had double bars, pitched on octave apart, for each note and was played with a forked, double-headed beater. Both Leedy and Ludwig were purchased by the Conn Corporation in 1930. The years between 1930 and 1940 saw a rise in the popularity of m arim bas.^^ This rise in popularity is credited to these improvements on the design of marimbas and also the work of Claire Omar Musser.

^^Strain, 99. 52pimentel, 61. 35 Claire Omar Musser Claire Omar Musser was born October 14, 1901 in Mannheim, Pennsylvania. Musser began his musical instruction with his father, who was a violinist. With his father, Musser studied violin, piano, and the xylophone. He traveled to Baltimore and Washington to study marimba with Philip Rosenwig, a teacher from Warsaw who had previously taught the dulcimer and cimbalom in Paris and Poland. With Rosenwig, Musser also studied conducting, theory, and harmony. From 1927 through 1930, Musser toured as a soloist through the United States, Canada, and Europe performing on the marimba-celesta, an instrument he designed.^3 This instrument had eighty-seven notes and was organized in two manuals - one wood and the other a metal alloy. It was billed as the World's First Electronic Marimba.^^

XIX. Claire Omar Musser and the marimba-celesta. (Reprinted from Musser, C.O. "The Marimba-Xvlophone." The Etude April, 1932, p. 251)

^^Eyler, David P. "Interview with Jack Connors, William, F. Ludwig, Jr., and Herschel Stark Members of the International Marimba Symphony Orchestra of 1935." Eercussiv.e Notes. October, 1993, 66. ^4percussive Notes. Winter 1976, Vol. 14, No. 2, 25 (no author given). 36 In 1930, Musser joined the J.C. Deagan Company as the manager of the mallet division. In 1933, Musser organized the one-hundred piece marimba orchestra which performed August 19-26,1933 in Chicago at the Century of Progress Exposition. For this performance, Musser designed the Century of Progress model marimba, of which only one-hundred were made. Deagan then sold these marimbas to performers in the ensemble, allowing these players to take the marimbas throughout the United States after their performances, further promoting the instrument.55 According to Ruth Stuber Jeanne, a member of the ensemble, the marimbas had gold colored plaques on the front with the owner's name inscribed on it. Ruth Stuber Jeanne, now living in Granville, Ohio, came to play an important role in the development of the marimba as a solo instrument.

^^Peters, 163. 37 XX. The Musser Marimba Orchestra of 1933. The arrow is indicating Ruth Stuber Jeanne. (Reprinted from Percussive Notes. April, 1983).

i i : a

In 1935, Musser formed the International Marimba Symphony Orchestra. This was a popular ensemble and was even invited to Europe to play for royalty. The International Marimba Symphony Orchestra was scheduled to play at the coronation ceremony of King George VI of England on April 27-28, 1935. This performance inspired the manufacturing of the King George model marimba. This marimba had a bronze replica of the British Coat of Arms on the front of the instrument. This shield was made by artist Alexander Jacobs, the head engraver at the U.S. mint. Musser requested that after the one-hundred marimbas and one spare were made that the design never be duplicated. He therefore had the plans and materials destroyed.56

5%yler, "Interview with. . 66. 3 8 XXI. King George Model Marimba (Personal photograph of the author taken at Oberlin Conservatory of Music)

Unfortunately due to negotiation problems, the International Marimba Symphony Orchestra never performed the coronation ceremony. The group did however tour through Europe and was received warmly. Their repertoire included transcriptions of classical works, such as Ceasar Franck'sSymphony in D Minor, Overture to Mignon by Ambroise Thomas, a suite from Bizet's Carmen, and a selection from Tannhauser by Wagner. At their Carnegie Hall debut concert of May 16, 1935, a reviewer from the New York Times wrote this review the following day:

The perfection of the intonation of the ensemble, its rich sonority, and the uniqueness of the effects gave last night's concert exceptional distinction. There was the impression of one of the most ancient of musical instruments capable of awakening atavistic emotions, developed and subtilized to a point where it made an immediate appeal to the intelligence and emotion of the man tod ay.5 7

According to William F. Ludwig, Jr. and Jack Connor, who were part of this International Orchestra, there were a few memorable soloists such as Burton Lynn Jackson, Charles Newton and Maggie Hanousek. Carl Fischer,

^^Peters, 162. 39 the assistant conductor of the group, also had some solo passages. Maggie Hanousek had led some of the rehearsals in Chicago before the trip.58 In 1937, Musser formed a smaller ensemble to play for the Annual Music Manufacturers Convention in Chicago. This was a twenty-seven piece group. The famous conductor Leopold Stokowski was in attendance and after hearing the group requested a bass marimba for his All-Youth Orchestra. Musser gladly gave him an instrument.^ ^ On August 15,1941 the Deagan Imperial marimba made its debut at Soldier's Field Stadium in Chicago, under the baton of Musser. The first concert included 150 instruments, and the next day, August 16, the number had increased by ten. These concerts were held in conjunction with the Chicago Music Festival.

XXn. Musser and the marimba orchestra in rehearsal, 1941. (Reprinted from Percussive Notes. December, 1990, p. 48)

^^Eyler, "Interview with. . . ,” 72. ^^Peters, 162. 40 XXm. The performance at the Chicago Music Festival, 1941. (Reprinted from Percussive Notes. October, 1982, p. 62)

j K y » »

During World War II, Deagan manufactured the Victory model marimba. This instrument was manufactured without the materials that were needed for the armed forces.^® The resonators were made of cardboard tubes, the frames were made of very light plywood, and the bars were made small and narrow.

XXIV. Photograph of the World War II marimba (Personal photograph of the author taken at the home of Ruth Stuber Jeanne)

^% im entel, 61. 41 After the Second World War, the Musser Marimba Company was organized to meet the demands for mallet instruments. The first instrument designed by the company was the prep marimba, designed for student use. After wide acceptance of this instrument, the production of the Century marimba, the Brentwood Marimba, and eventually, the Canterbury marimbas began.61 According to Linda Pimentel the Canterbury model marimba was Musser's primary focus. This marimba was four and one-third octaves in range (fairly standard today) and had tiered resonators. Tiered resonators wre used to add symmetry and beautify the front of the instrument. Resonators usually hang in proportion with the size of the bar, smaller bars use shorter resonators. By using stops in longer resonator tubes, a symmetrical look can be obtained for the front resonators. The Canterbury was white and gold in color, had a built in electronic metronome, and a resonator temperature control device. This device allowed for raising or lowering the resonators to accomodate for fluctuations in temperature and humidity, improving the intonation of the marimba. Musser is given credit for establishing the marimba as a viable solo and ensemble instrument in the United States. His etudes and transcriptions are still studied today, and the instrument on which he did so much work still bears his name even though the Ludwig Company produces the instruments. The popular four mallet grip is called the Musser grip. From 1942 until 1952, Musser taught at , Evanston, Illinois, where he was the head of marimba studies. There he coached many of the finest marimbists

^^Ludwig Drummer. Fall, 1966, Vol. 6, No. 2,3. 42

in the w o r ld .6 2 Musser was inducted into the Percussive Arts Society Hall of Fame in 1975.

^^Eyler, David P. "Clair Omar Musser and His Contributions to the Marimba" Percussive Notes. Winter, 1990, 62-63. Chapter V The First Marimba Concerto

The first marimba concerto was written in 1940 by Paul Creston. The Concertino, Opus 21 was commissioned by Frederique Petrides, the conductor of the all-female orchestra, Orchestrette Classique, in . Ruth Stuber, timpanist in the orchestra, premiered the marimba concerto on April 29,1940 in New York's Carnegie Chamber Music Hall. How these three people, the composer, the commisioner, and the performer came together and the circumstances involved in composing the first marimba concerto are the focus of this chapter.

The Composer - Paul Creston Paul Creston was born Giuseppe Guttivergi October 10,1906 in New York City to a poor Italian immigrant family. In 1927 he changed his name to Paul Creston and married Louise Gotto.^^ Creston received no formal training in theory or composition but did study piano and organ. He decided on a career in composition in 1932. Henry Cowell introduced Paul Creston to the New School for Social Research in 1934, the same year Creston began playing the organ at St. Michael's Church in New York.

^W alter G. Simmons. "Paul Creston: Maintaining a Middle Course." Music loumal, Dec. 1976, 12-13. 4 g 44 In 1938 Creston received a Guggenheim fellowship and after being awarded the New York Music Critics’ Circle Award for his Symphony No. 1 in 1941, he became on of the most widely performed American composers. Creston's compositional trademark was rhythm; he commonly used shifting subdivisions of a regular meter. Another feature of Creston's writing style is the use of long and florid melodies. His harmony is lush and impressionistic, and his forms are based on classical models. Creston received many awards and commissions. He was the president of the National Association for American Composers and Conductors (1956- 60), the director of ASCAP (1960-68), and was a professor of music at Central Washington State College, Ellensburg, Washington from 1968 to 1975. He authored Principals of Rhythm (1964), Rational Notation (1979) and numerous articles. Creston died in San Diego, California on August 24,

1 9 8 5 .6 4

In an interview with Walter Simmons (1976) Paul Creston describes his theory of composition:

I utilize in my music all that is good in music from ancient times to the present, so long as it is clothed in Twentieth Century language. I am not and never have been a revolutionary. I believe that the accomplishments and experiences of 400 years should not be discarded; they should be built on and developed; that in musical developments there has never been revolution but evolution. I make no special effort to be American in my music. I try to be myself, which is American by birth, Italian by parentage, and cosmopolitan by choice. I do not compose for musicians and musicologists exclusively but for intelligent listeners and music lovers.

64walter G. Simmons, "Paul Creston." Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 20 vois., ed. Stanley Sadie. London: MacMillan, 1980, II, 535-536. 45 I do not compose to shock or to confound but to communicate expressions of joy or exhilaration or spirituality. .

The Concertino, Opus 21 was composed in 1940 as a commission from Frederique Petrides and is Creston's only work for solo marimba. This concerto is one of many virtuoso works Creston wrote for instruments that were suffering from a shortage of solo or concerto works. He composed works for saxophone, harp, trombone, and accordion, all of which have become classics in their respective media.*^*^ Henry Cowell (1948) wrote of Creston:

. .. the writing includes passages of virtuoso effect and there is no question but this special attention to the demands of each instrument has contributed to Creston's rapid success with both conductors and soloists. His Concertino for Marimba and his Concerto for Saxophone fully exploit the possibilities of these instruments, which of course are practically never offered the principal role in a concerto.®^

The Commissioner - Frederique Petrides Frederique Petrides was born in Antwerp, Belgium to a musically gifted famüy. She began studying the piano and by the age of seven had also begun to study the violin. Her mother provided her with the best teachers she could find. Petrides was a member of her family's string quartet which often gave recitals. This ensemble included Petrides, her mother and her two brothers. Petrides, who possessed absolute pitch, also sang a large choral group.

^Simmons, Music Tournai. 13. ^Simmons. Music Tournai. 13. ^^Cowell, Henry. "Paul Creston." Musical Quarterly. No. 34,1948,540. 46 While a student at the Royal Conservatory in Brussels, Petrides had the opportunity to hear many great performers. These included Fritz Kreisler, Englebert Humperdink, Camille Saint-Saëns, Pablo Casals, Andres Segovia, Alexander Brailowsky, Ernestine Schumann-Heink, Alfred Cortot, and Elly Ney. She also saw dancer Isadora Duncan. Petrides was a member of a string quartet and played many concerts. She studied the conducting of Felix Weingartner and was later invited to New York by Dimitri Mitropoulos to watch the New York Philharmonic rehearsals. She had come to America not only to study with Mitropoulos but because of the deplorable economic conditions in Europe. She lived with friends in Wilton, Connecticut before deciding to move to New York City. While in New York, Petrides enrolled in a conducting class at and was far superior to her American counterparts because of her experiences in Europe. Although talented, she was unable to penetrate the male world of conducting prevalent in the 1930's. Her only option was to start her own orchestra, and in 1933 she founded the Orchestrette Classique, an all­ women orchestra which would eventually grow from fourteen to thirty-five m embers.^8 Thig orchestra performed on Monday evenings, (the night the New York Philharmonic did not perform) so that the music critics would be available. The orchestra and Petrides was received favorably by the reviewers. Harold Taubman, writing for the New York Times in November of 1935, had many favorable things to say about the orchestra: "In the first place, the program was refreshing in its exploration of rarely heard and new

^^LePage, Jane Weiner. "Frederique Petrides." Women Composers. Conductors, and Musicians of the Twentieth Century. London: Scarecrow Press, Vol. 2,1983,191-192. 47 compositions" and "Under Miss Petrides's clean-cut direction, the little orchestra played with unity, technical smoothness and a grasp of the various compositions. "69

In 1938 the critics praised her for pioneering new works and for programming little-known works. In one season, for example, Petrides programmed the pianist Lonny Epstein performing unknown Mozart works, a flute soloist, the premiere of Paul White's Sinfoniefta, and the Sidney Lanier Memorial Concert. During their eighth season (1940) the Orchestrette Classique continued to play compositions by native or naturalized Americans. Included in this season were David Diamond's Concerto for Chamber Orchestra, Julia Smith's Episodic Suite, Samuel Barber's Adagio for String Orchestra, and two works by Paul Creston: Partita for Flute andViolin with String Orchestra and the Concertino for Marimba and OrchestraP^ On April 22, 1941 the Viorld Telegram highly praised Petrides: "When Miss Petrides runs short of standard material, she never delves among the sub-standard. She seeks instead the new and unfamiliar, and not once in eight seasons of concerts has she offered dullness as a substitute for guaranteed pleasure."71 The Orchestrette continued its success through 1943 and presented its tenth anniversary concert with four first performances. Induded were Paul Creston's Chant of 1942, opus 33; Haydn's Concerto in F major, revised by Albert G. Hess; Rhapsodic Sinfonia by Joaquin Turina, and Henry Cowell's American Melting Fot. The critics again acknowledged Petrides as being a leader in programming new works and promoting American composers.

69Taubman, Harold. The New York Times. 1935. ^OtePage, 199. 7lLePage, 199. 48 Petrides also edited and published Women in Music with the help of her journalist husband, Peter Petrides. Women in Music was a monthly publication with a circulation of over 2,500. It contained new and facts pertaining to women conductors and the women's in America and abroad. This was the first and only such publication of its kind in the world.

Women in Music was published from 1935-1940, and comprised sixty is s u e s .^ 2 During the late 1930's and early 1940's, Petrides headed the string department at the Masters School at Dobbs Ferry-on-the-Hudson. This was an exclusive school for wealthy young girls. She formed an orchestra with these students and some local musicians which later came to be known as the Hudson Valley Symphony Orchestra, with Petrides as founder and conductor. Petrides also started giving outdoor concerts in the New York area. Many obstacles had to be overcome to present concerts, but determined to give music to all people, she succeeded.73

The Performer Ruth Stuber, now Ruth Stuber Jeanne, is currently living in Granville, Ohio. The following is an interview conducted on March 15 and March 20, 1995. In 1940, Ruth Stuber was performing in and around New York City as a marimba soloist and was hailed in the papers as the foremost female timpanist. She established a marimba trio that played in clubs in the late thirties and early forties, and most importantly, premiered the first marimba concerto ever written.

^^LePage, 204 73LePage, 205. 49 Stuber Jeanne's musical accomplishments are outstanding. She studied with Musser and Green. She met Gene Krupa and Harry Bruer and also played in one of John Cage's first concerts. Mrs. Jeanne is now known for her many marimba ensemble arrangements. This remarkable woman still maintains a marimba group, teaches private lessons and is the timpanist with a local symphony.

Interview with Ruth Stuber Teanne

Smith: How did you get started in music? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: My father, Benjamin Franklin Stuber, was a musician, and he started me on piano, drums and composition. Later, he had me study violin, which was his instrument. He wrote a methods course for strings called "The Melody Way."

Smith: Where are you from originally? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: I was born near Chicago and then we moved to Newark, Ohio for two years, then to Warren, Ohio near Akron. This is where my father started string education in the public schools around 1918. He had approached the superintendent of the Akron Public Schools with the idea, and was given the go-ahead. However, there were no method books available, so he wrote his own. Then he was asked to come and start the strings program in the public schools, and from there to Evanston, Illinois. I eventually attended Northwestern University and graduated as a violin major in 1932. Because there were no jobs available, I lived at home for a year. This was good, as it turned out, because Musser started organizing the World's Fair Marimba Orchestra at the Deagan factory in 1933. Musser organized smaller groups around the country that would practice on their own, with the thought 50 that before the performance, we would have a few rehearsals, then perform in Chicago. I was in the group that rehearsed at the Deagan factory There were about five or six of us in that small group. Musser had also given me lessons. Smith: Where did these lessons take place? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: Musser came to my house for those lessons. He would stop by on his way to or from the factory. I remember that he had a great artistic style about his playing. I had about three lessons with Musser. One of the first things he did was to cut an inch off the ends of my mallets because he thought my hands were small. Smith: How did you and the other members of the World’s Fair Orchestra obtain your marimbas? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: We purchased the marimbas as a mail order. Each instrument had the owner's name on a gold colored plaque in the front. These were the 1933 model marimbas. The marimbas were either three and one-half octaves or four octaves. Mine was three and one-half octaves. The marimbas had very heavy brass resonators and the rails had a green mother- of-pearl type finish on them. Smith: How were the marimbas divided? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: There were one-hundred of us: eighty three and a half octave marimbas, and twenty four octave marimbas. I can't remember if we stayed in our groups for the concerts, but I do remember that we were not divided by parts. All of the first part players did not stand together, but we were intermingled. Musser had written all the arrangements and they were very good. We played a total of five numbers: Bolero by Rosales; Finlandia by Sibelius; the Largo from Dvorak's New World Symphony, Wagner's Pilgrim's Chorus from Tannhauser; and the Repaz Band March, which is no longer 5 1 available. We performed on the steps of the science building on Lakeshore Drive at the Chicago Convention Center. Smith: Were you involved in the other orchestras Musser organized? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: No, my family moved to Florence, Alabama, where my father started a private music school. I taught with him, then accepted a position in Montgomery. This was at a small women's college where I taught violin, theory, and orchestra for two years. Things didn't work out in Alabama because the pay was too low, and my parents urged me to go to New York to play and study with George Hamilton Green. My aunt, Martha Stuber, was already living there, and they thought the opportunities would be greater in New York than in Alabama. Smith: During your study with George Hamilton Green, what books did he use? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: It was a piano technical studies book by Cramer called Fifty Technical Studies for the Pianoforte. I still have this book. He had certain exercises from this book that he recommended for the marimba, [note: This book was published by BF Wood Music Company, Boston.] I also studied timpani with Herbert Braun. Braun was the timpanist for the Metropolitan Orchestra. I met Harry Bruer then as well. Smith: What did you do in New York for a living? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: I came to New York and lived with my aunt for a month. She only had a one and a half room apartment, so I moved to the YWCA. I worked at Macy's Department store on Saturdays and Thursday evenings. I taught at a small school on Long Island, and as a member of the Orchestrette Classique, shared the profits of the ticket sales. I also played out at club dates with my trio. The trio consisted of marimba, piano - Beatrice Goroe, and cello 52 - Margory Cree. We had all been living at the YWCA when we met. I eventually taught them both to play marimba and we performed marimba trios. This and the experience of playing in Musser's group spurred my interest in arranging for marimba ensembles. Our trio was registered at the main YWCA, and we would get calls for club dates. Smith: Tell me about the Orchestrette Classique. Ruth Stuber Jeanne: It was a women's chamber orchestra that had about thirty to thirty-five players in it. Margory Cree, the cellist, and I were contacted through the YWCA to be members. The conductor was Frederique Petrides, and if it wasn't for her, there would not have been the Creston Concertino. Petrides wanted to feature, at some time, all the members of the orchestra. I had been playing timpani in the group, but there were no available timpani concertos. Since I had the marimba with me in New York, I suggested that as an alternative. She liked the idea and set out to commission any composer to write for the instrument. Smith: Did she know Creston from before? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: No, he was in New York looking for pieces to write. He was teaching and playing organ around town at that time. I think he agreed to write it so he could get his own name around more. It took Petrides about a year to find him. Smith: How was Creston compensated? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: As I recall, he might have been paid directly from Petrides own pocket, but I am not sure, and do not know the amount, if any. Smith: When did Creston begin writing the Concertino? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: It would have been February of 1940. He finished it in March, and we performed it on April 29 that same year. 53 Smith: How did he compose the Concertino? Had he heard you play? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: After Creston was commissioned, he came to the YWCA and I played a few violin transcriptions on the marimba that I had been doing as recital pieces. I probably played the Overture to Mignon, as well as others. Creston was an organist and would work out many of the passages with his feet. As soon as he finished portions, he would bring them by the YWCA for me to try out. Smith: Did you offer any suggestions as to the notes or ask to have anything changed for technical purposes? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: No, I had no input on the notes, and I had no trouble with the technical demands of the piece. I credit this to my study with Green. I do think the third movement is marked too fast. I didn’t play it at mm =120, and Creston never said anything to me about the tempo. Smith: Did he have any revisions after hearing it with the orchestra, after the rehearsals, or the concert? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: No, I don't recall any. I remember not having too many problems with the piece. Smith: I noticed he has some mallet indications in the manuscript. Ruth Stuber Jeanne: Yes. I used rubber mallets for the first and third. I used soft wool for the second, and switched to rubber for the middle section of that movement. I also used wool for the soft section in the first movement - it makes a nice contrast. Smith: Was there a recording made of this premiere? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: Creston had hired a recording engineer, but through some mistake, the piece after the Concertino was recorded. We were all very disappointed. I was heart-broken. 54 Smith: Did you get a chance to perform the piece later? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: Yes, the second time I played the Concertino was at a music festival called YADDO. This was September 7, 1940 and Creston was conducting. I have a recording of one of our rehearsals, but not the performance. The Orchestrette Classique performed the Concertino again on December 10, 1940. I also played the Concertino on April 15,1950 with the Hudson Valley Symphony Orchestra, with Petrides conducting. Smith: Do you still have the manuscript? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: I sent the original to the Percussive Arts Society museum, but I have these copies. I also have this manuscript. It was the first commercially available music for the Concerto published by Independent Music Company. (See Appendices B and C) Smith: Did you use this version or Creston's manuscript for the premiere? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: I memorized his manuscript. I think I remember there being a few discrepancies in the two versions. Smith: Tell me what you remember from the day of the performance. Ruth Stuber Jeanne: It was an evening concert in Carnegie Chamber Music Hall - the smaller performing hall. The Concerto was the second half I believe. Smith: Did you have to play timpani for the first half? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: No, actually, the cellist from my trio who was also in the orchestra played timpani for me. Smith: Was there any written correspondence between you and Creston? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: No, he had hand delivered the portions to me, and we talked about things there. 55 Smith: I've read the reviews of the premiere and they all seemed favorable. What were your impressions? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: No one really knew what a marimba was. It was 1940, and the instrument was not that popular. I was happy with the performance. Smith: You were using the 1933 model marimba you had purchased for the World's Fair Orchestra, right? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: Yes, that's why the Concerto doesn't go below F. Creston knew the range of my instrument and wrote specifically for it. Smith: How did you move the marimba from place to place? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: It would take me four or five trips to get it all down the stairs. I remember those heavy brass resonators were difficult to move. I wrapped the bars in cloth, and the whole thing fit into the back seat of a taxi cab. Smith: Tell me about your life after the Concerto. Ruth Stuber Jeanne: I met my husband through a mutual friend and we got married in 1942. I didn't play much marimba after that. I did play in a group that John Cage put together. He was in New York at this time experimenting with different sounds. He said of himself that he didn't feel capable in traditional harmony so he wanted to compose for new sounds. This is a picture of Cage conducting and that's my marimba in the back. This was at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, (see Appendix E) Smith: Did he have you alter its sound any? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: No, he liked it the way it sounded naturally. I played the marimba part to Henry Cowell’s Ostinato Pianissimo. Smith: What brought you to central Ohio? 56 Ruth Stuber Jeanne: My husband worked with Bell Telephone Laboratories, and he was transferred to this area. Smith: I think everyone knows you now through your many marimba arrangements. How did you start arranging? Ruth Stuber Jeanne: After we moved to Ohio, I started a marimba ensemble in Granville. We needed music, and since I was interested in arranging, it seemed a perfect opportunity. Dr. James Moore, head of Permus Publications, offered to publish my arrangements and I was delighted.

The Concertino The form of the marimba concertino is in three movements as fast- slow-fast, a classical form. The first and last movements are reminiscent of the earlier ragtime pieces popularized by George Hamilton Green. These movements are performed with two mallets. The second movement is played with four mallets and consists primarily of major and minor seventh chords. 7 4 When composing the concerto, Creston sent Stuber his manuscripts as soon as he had written them. Stuber would play through the pages, return them with her suggestions, and together, Creston and Stuber arrived at the finishing point together. Creston's compositional techniques for writing the concerto included playing at the organ with his feet acting as the mallets.75 This technique is evident in the close voicings of the second movement and lack of wide leaps and limited tessitura in the other movements.

^4Kastner, Kathleen. ^^Informal lecture given by Ruth Stuber Jeanne April, 1994, Ohio State University. 57 The Creston Concertino has remains the most popular and most performed concerto for marimba. It is fundamental as a teaching tool and is one of the most significant works for the marimba. The concertino was received favorably at its premiere. The Herald Tribune, April 30,1940 said:

But the novelty of the evening was the first performance of a concertino for marimba and orchestra by Paul Creston. This composition, commissioned by Miss Petrides, had been awaited as an interesting experiment. Actually, Mr. Creston surpassed expectations and produced a sturdy composition of inherent musical interest. The darting technique which is natural to the marimba carried the instrument through the sprightly first and last movements; while a haunting vibrato, often produced by clusters of mallets, brought color and atmosphere to the second division. Ruth Stuber, the soloist, played brilliantly, and she was expertly accompanied by Miss Petrides's Orchestrette Classique.76

Another review, this from the New York Times, April 30, 1940 states:

A concertino for marimba and orchestra — at first blush, that might read like a manifestation of the silly season. But don't laugh: it wasn't. Such a work by the American composer Paul Creston had its first performance last night at the concert of the Orchestrette Classique, directed by Miss Frederique Petrides, at Carnegie Chamber Music Hall. The soloist was Miss Ruth Stuber, who is timpanist in the orchestra. The program stated flatly that this concertino "is the only work ever written for this instrument in serious form. " Until some

Hera Id Tribune April 30, 1940. 58 musicologist produces evidence to the contrary, the claim will not be considered justified. It may not be the last work, because Mr. Creston made it an effective vehicle for his ideas and because Miss Stuber played it with skill as well as art. Composition Is Discussed The Marimba has its limitations as a solo instrument, but Mr. Creston wrote well within them. He is, moreover, a composer with ideas and invention. Of the three movements - marked "Vigorous." "Calm," and "Lively" the first seemed the freshest and most original in thematic material. All three are worked with technical assurance, with the marimba player receiving ample opportunity to display virtuosity. Mr. Creston writes with rhythmic bite and variety and, occasionally, with a delightful lyrical strain. Miss Stuber, looking trim and chic in a fluffy yellow gown, was agreeable to behold as well as to hear. She made light of the concertino's difficulties. She managed a delicately graded tone, and she knew how to skip up and down the length of the marimba with grace and speed. The work was thoroughly prepared. Miss Petrides and her players joined with Miss Stuber in a smartly turned out interpretation. Mr. Creston was on hand to acknowledge the applause.^?

Paul Creston later arranged the concertino for concert band and solo marimba, and wrote a piano reduction part as well.

^^Howard Taubman. New York Times. April 30,1940. Chapter VI

Significant Marimba Literature after 1940

Darius Milhaud's Concerto for Marimba and Vibraphone, Opus 278 The second concerto written for the marimba includes vibraphone and was composed by Darius Milhaud (1892-1974) in 1947. This work entitled Concerto, Opus 278 for Marimba and Vibraphone was commissioned by Jack Connor, a staff musician at a radio station in St. Louis. Connor premiered the work with the St, Louis Symphony, Vladimir Golschmann conducting, on February 12, 1949. In 1952, Milhaud revamped the work for solo piano and orchestra. The original marimba/vibraphone part is intact as the right hand of the solo piano part.78 A number of circumstances led to the commission. Connor wanted a piece for use on the concert stage. He initially approached his friend E. Robert Schmitz, and Schmitz gave him their names of several composers who might interested in such a project. Among the names were Ernest Bloch, Alexander Tansman, , and Darius Milhaud. Connor narrowed his choice to Milhaud because he liked his other compositions, and knowing that Milhaud had already composed works for percussion, {La Creation Du Monde, Concerto for Percussion), thought he would be the most receptive.

^^Kastner, "Creston, Milhaud, and Kurka:, "84. ^ g 60

Connor wrote to Milhaud but was answered with a negative reply — Mülhaud did not think the marimba would be received well in a concerto situation. Connor then persuaded Milhaud to listen to him play the instruments before writing off the idea. Milhaud agreed and Cormor traveled to Mills College in Oakland, California, to meet the composer. Connor borrowed a marimba and vibraphone from a vaudeville friend and set up the instruments in Milhaud's office. Connor's persistence paid off and Milhaud agreed to write the concerto.^^ According to Connor, it took Milhaud about two weeks to write the piece. Connor describes it as a "French version of Latin jazz.''^® Under the terms of the commission, Connor was to have sole performing rights to the concerto for the first three years. In speaking of the first performance, Connor states that it was warmly received with an ovation from the audience. He took eight curtain calls and was hailed in the press. Milhaud was unable to attend this performance, but Connor supplied him with the press clippings. There are several performance problems associated with the Milhaud concerto. One of these is the indication to use fingers instead of mallets on the marimba. Due to projection problems, Connor chose to play with very soft mallets instead. Passages also exists in which the notes extend above the vibraphone's range. Connor played these down an octave.® ^ In Kastner's article, she mentions the strong pianistic influence evidenced by the double­ stave scoring throughout the work. In many instances, the double staves are unnecessary and could be more easily read on one staff. Despite Milhaud's

^^FinJc, Ron. "An Interview with Jack Connor, Marimba Virtuoso." Percussive Notes. Vol. 16 No. 2 Winter, 1978, 26. SOpink, 26. Slpink, 27. 61 reputation as the first major twentieth century composer to contribute to the repertoire of the marimba, his concerto is not widely played and has not achieved the exposure and popularity other concertos have received. Reviewers chronicled the event as "a generous measure of novelty," and as "charming through slight.

Robert Kurka's Concerto for Marimba and Orchestra In 1953 Robert Kurka (1921-1957) completed his Concerto for Marimba and Orchestra and dedicated the work to Vida Chenoweth who commissioned and later premiered it on November 11, 1959 in Carnegie Hall. This performance was with the Orchestra of America with Richard Korn conducting. Kurka was born in 1921 and studied composition with Otto Luening and Darius Milhaud. Due to the efforts of Vida Chenoweth, Kurka was persuaded to write for the marimba. Chenoweth learned of Kurka through an article that appeared in Life magazine in May, 1956, that listed the top composers of the time, Kurka among them. Kurka spent many hours observing Chenoweth practice and perform before writing his piece. As Kurka finished the movements, he would give them to Chenoweth to begin working. He strove to make the piece visually appealing and interesting. The work includes wide abrupt leaps that require extreme physical agility and control. Many players have combatted these technical problems by using four mallets instead of two. This goes against the intentions of the composer, but does make for a more accurate performance. One reviewer of the premiere remarked on Chenoweth's facility of the marimba. The following review is from Musical America, December 1,1959:

^^Kastner, "Creston, Milhaud, and Kurka:, " 84. 62

The Kurka Concerto for Marimba, the other new work, provided the leavening lightness needed to allay the general sombre mood of the evening. Written in 1956 for Vida Chenoweth, the concerto exploits the instrument's fascinating tonal and rhythmic possibilities to the full. Exotic colors, haunting melodic bits, jazzy rhythms and acid harmonies are interwoven into a score that fairly scintillates. It also makes virtuosic demands on the soloist and Miss Chenoweth, moving back and forth with the ease and grace of a ballet dancer while manipulating with uncanny skill one, two, three, and four mallets at a time, as the occasion demanded, gave the work a superb premiere. Miss Chenoweth has not only circumvented the instrument's limitations, she has raised the marimba to concert hall status, and in doing so has also placed herself in the front ranks of young American concert artists.*^

From the Herald Tribune, November 12, 1959 is the following review by Jay S. Harrison:

Concertos for marimba are no more often encountered than pterodactyls in Times Square, but one of them turned up last night at a Carnegie Hall concert presented by the Orchestra of America under the direction of Richard Korn. The work, composed by the late Robert Kurka, was given its world premiere with Vida Chenoweth as soloist, and the piece, quite frankly, provided the only breeze in an evening that was otherwise mighty stuffy. The marimba — for those so grossly miseducated as to have no knowledge on the subject — is an instrument of the xylophone family which is hit by mallets of wood, felt, or wool. Tubular resonators, attached to the underbelly of the "keyboard," amplify the sound of each

^^Musical America. Dec. 1,1959,37. 63 struck slab, the color variety thus available to the performer being far greater than one might imagine. Depending on the mallets used and the skill of the player, the marimba has a timbre span ranging from a gentle and luminous tap-pop to a sound not unlike that created by whacking two milk bottles together. In any case, the instruments is an exotic one and hearing the lengthy piece written for it is, as I have said, something of an occasion. To his credit, Mr. Kurka located innumerable means of displaying the marimba at its best, and his concerto is everywhere lively and zestful. It is mostly diatonic, filled with smart and leaping tunes, and it exploits the agility of its soloist to the utmost. Fortunately, Miss Chenoweth is a real-life virtuoso who, no matter what the demands made on her, missed not a note and managed, further, to wring every possible shade of sonority from the wooden keys laid out before her. There was exhausting bravura to her work and genuine musicality as well. It was a star performance and a bewitching one — no question of that.^4

Harold C. Schonberg wrote about the premiere in the New York Times:

As played by Miss Chenoweth, the instrument decidedly does possess musical possibilities. Kurka's concerto is tuneful and attractive — a bit haphazard in style perhaps, what with jazz elements, diatonic harmony, a first movement featured by wide-ranging skips that had nothing in common with the other movements — and Miss Chenoweth succeeded in making music out of it, not indulging in a stunt.

^Harrison, Jay S. "Concerto For Marimba has Premiere Here " Herald Tribune. Nov. 12,1959. 85Schonberg, Harold C. "Music: Unusual Concerto." New York Times, November 12,1959. 64

Vida Chenoweth Vida Chenoweth has been hailed as the first concert marimbist.*^ Chenoweth was responsible for raising the level of solo marimba playing to that of the guitar, piano, or violin. She was inducted into the Percussive Arts Society Hall of Fame in 1994. Dr. Chenoweth received her early musical training from her family, who were owners of a music store in Enid, Oklahoma. Her older brother suggested that she be the first to build a repertoire for the marimba. She attended William Woods College from 1947- 49, and Northwestern University from 1949-1951. She also studied abroad at Alliance Française in Paris in 1950 and later at the American Conservatory of Music in 1953. Chenoweth ultimately performed in nearly every continent and was the first to record marimba music for commercial sale in 1962. After an accident that nearly took the fingers of one hand, Chenoweth decided to pursue her Christian beliefs. She became a linguist and translated the Nero Testament into the Usarufa language. She later received her Ph.D. in ethnomusicology from the University of Aukland, New Zealand. Chenoweth also translated David Vela's Information on the Marimba, and later wrote her book. The Marimbas of Guatemala. Chenoweth retired from Wheaton College as an ethnomusicologist, and spends time in the South Pacific as a consultant for the Summer Institute of Linguistics.^^

^^Strain, James A. "Vida Chenoweth." Percussive Notes, December 1994, Vol. 32, No. 6, 8-9. ®^Strain, James A. "Vida Chenoweth," 8-9. 65

The Tapanese Influence The xylophone of Japan has a long history. In 1629, Shuang Hou Wei, escaping from the chaos of the Ming Dynasty of China, arrived in Nagasaki with a xylophone. This xylophone was known as a mugin, and had a range of two or three notes more than an octave. Although this type of xylophone never gained much popularity in Japan it was used in some Kabuki plays. In 1910, Kenshi Nagai, a chief military officer, was sent to an Enghsh- Japanese exhibition from which he brought back a stroh-fiedel. In 1913, the xylophone was played by Keiji Nishimura. In 1921, Sotaro Komori returned from Russia with a four-octave Deagan xylophone. This led to the inclusion of the xylophone into Japanese military bands. By 1922, solos were being performed, such as Yoshio Hoshide playing American Patrol. Two men, Eiichi Asabuki and Yoichi Hiraoka led the way early in the xylophone's success in Japan. In 1926, Eiichi Asabuki purchased an Artists Special xylophone, the Deagan Model No. 264 and was recorded for broadcast that same year. Yoihchi Hiraoka was born in Hyogo Perfecture, Japan and learned to play the xylophone at an early age. He came to America in 1930 and was employed by the NBC radio studio in New York. During his NBC years he performed more than 4,000 programs._In 1965 he premiered Alan Hovhaness' Fantasy on Japanese Woodprints which was dedicated to Hiraoka, with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra. Since that premiere, Hiraoka has performed this piece with the New York Philharmonic, The 66

NBC Orchestra, the Nippon Symphony, the Manila Symphony, and many others. 8 8 After World War H, Takeshi Miyagawa began constructing a marimba based on material he had read and by using the Deagan xylophone as a model. Saburo Mizuno also tried building larger instruments for concert purposes. By the 1950's the playing of Asabuki, Hiraoka, and Sadao Iwai had increased the popularity of the xylophone. Their music consisted mostly of transcriptions of classical flute, violin, and piano pieces. Asabuki established the Tokyo Xylophone Association, which later changed its name to the Japan Xylophone Association in 1957. School children were also exposed to these instruments due to the new education system that required music in the schools.89

Marimbas in Tapan The marimba was introduced to Japan in 1950 by a missionaries from America, Dr. and Mrs. Lawrence Lacour. Lacour had been on tour with Musser's 1935 International Marimba Symphony Orchestra. During World War n , Lacour was a Navy chaplain stationed in Japan and later returned to Japan as a missionary in the 1950's. The instruments he brought were the Musser marimbas and even included a bass marimba. Many people heard their performances.^®

^^Moore, James L. "Meet Xylophone Soloist Yoichi Hiraoka." Percussive Notes Fall, 1973, Vol. 12, No. 1,13. 89Abe, Keiko. "The History and Future of the Marimba in Japan." Percussive Notes. January 1984, Vol. 22, No. 2, 41. 9®Kastner, Kathleen. "The Marimba in Japan." Percussive Notes. February 1995, Vol. 33, No. 1, 71-73. 67

The recordings of Vida Chenoweth, Milt Jackson (1933-), Lionel Hampton (1909-), Red Norvo, and Harry Bruer were imported and contributed to the interest of the marimba and jazz in Japan. In 1961, the Tokyo Marimba Group began performing new pieces written specifically for the marimba. The members of this group were Takuo Tamura, Yoshihisa Mizuno, Shizuko Ishikawa, Noriko Hasegawa, Tokuzo Yanagihara, Masao Yoshikkawa, and Keiko Abe. Yoshihisa Mizuno performed the Creston Concertino, and premieredSnzk Conversation by Akira Miyoshi (1933- ). Unfortunately, the Tokyo Marimba Group dissolved after only two years. Akira Miyoshi is one of the most important Japanese composers associated with the marimba. He was born in 1933 and later studied piano and composition. He won the Japanese Music Competition in 1953 for his Sonata for Clarinet, Bassoon, and Piano. He continued his studies at the Paris Conservatory and composed Suite Converation. This piece was later performed by Keiko Abe, and upon hearing this performer, Miyoshi was furthered entranced by the sound of the marimba. As a result he composed more new works for the marimba: Torse III in 1968, the Concerto for Marimba and Strings in 1969, Torse V for three marimbas in 1973 and in 1977, Concert Etude for two marimbas. In particular, there were new technical demands placed on the marimbist by Miyoshi's Torse III, such as independent one-handed rolls, extremely disjunct melodies, and difficult register placement, The Xebec Marimba Trio (Shizuko Ishikawa, Noriko Hasegawa, and Keiko Abe) was popular for a time, but did not last long. Around this time

^^Kastner, "The Marimba in Japan." 73 68

Jack Connor visited Japan performing Milhaud's Marimba Concerto. This visit inspired many performers, especially Keiko Abe.

Keiko Abe Keiko Abe (1937-) was the first woman to be inducted into the Percussive Arts Society Hall of Fame. Abe began her music lessons at the age of six when she took piano lessons. When she was in elementary school, her music teacher taught his students on table-top xylophones.She first heard the sound of the marimba when the Lacours performed in Japan. Abe first began to study medicine, at her father's request, but could not stay away from music. Abe studied with Eiichi Asabuki, and later joined his Xylophone Association. Her first marimba was an instrument made by Takeshi Miyagawa, which she paid for by playing all hours at a movie studio doing recordings. Abe went to Tokyo Liberal Arts and majored in music. She spent her twenties playing timpani in Japanese orchestras, such as the NHK, Japan Philharmonic, Yamuri, Nippon, and the Tokyo Philharmonic. When she was about twenty-five years old, she decided to specialize on marimba. At that time, the music she knew existing for marimba was transcriptions, and so she organized a marimba trio that was more novelty than classical in nature. Abe first tried to copy jazz vibraphone artists like Milt Jackson and Lionel Hampton which led to her experiments with improvisation. The following are her thoughts on the marimba:

^^Lang, Morris. "A Talk with Marimba Virtuoso, Keiko Abe." Percussive Notes. April, 1983, Vol. 21, No. 4,18-19. ^^Lang, 21. 69

The marimba is very special for me. I listen carefully to understand its many possibilities — knowing that at one time this most beautiful wood came from a living tree with its own history and experience. It is as if the marimba breathes like a living tree, and when I make music I want to breathe with it.^4

In 1968, Keiko Abe began commissioning new works for solo marimba. Abe entered a festival to present these works and received funding after the Japanese Ministry of Cultural Affairs agreed to recognize the marimba as a classical instrument, not as just a popular instrument. The pieces for this performance included Dialogue for Marimba and Three Instruments (1968) by Takekuni Hirayoshi, Divertimento for Marimba and Alto Saxophone (1968), Two Movements for Marimba (1965) by Toshimitsu Tanaka, Minoru Miki's Time for Marimba (1968), Torse III (1968), by Akira Miyoshi, and Quintet for Marimba, Contrabass, and Three Flutes (1968) by Tereyuki Noda. This concert received first prize at the festival. These pieces are now considered standards in marimba literature and are used as pedagogical tools and concert pieces. Abe formed the Tokyo Quintet in 1973 which consisted of a marimba, flute, clarinet, percussion, and contrabass. This has stimulated many composers to write for marimba in a chamber setting. Abe's virtuoso playing has inspired many composers to write pieces for the marimba. This has contributed greatly to the repertoire. The following is a list of pieces that have either been commissioned by Keiko Abe, or dedicated to her:

Satoshi Sumitani 1959 Le Meme Joyeux a la Vie Akira Miyoshi 1962 Suite Conversation

^^Weiss, Lauren Vogel. "Keiko Abe." Percussive Notes. June 1994, Vol. 32, No. 3, 8-9. 70

Isao Tomito 1964 A u tu m n Mitsuo Yamada 1964 Invenzione per marimba e Flute

Toshimitsu Tanaka 1965 T z v g Movements for Marimba Mitsuo Yamada 1968 Concert for Marimba Takekuni Hirayoshi 1968 Dialog for Marimba and Three Instruments Teruyuki Noda 1968 Mattinata Akira Miyoshi 1968 Torse III Akira Yuyama 1968 Divertimento for Marimba and Alto Sax Minoru Miki 1968 Time for Marimba Nobuyoshi linuma 1969 Incluetion Akira Miyoshi 1969 Concerto for Marimba and Strings Hideo Kobayoshi 1969 Haiku for Marimba Minao Shibata 1969 Imagery Minuro Miki 1969 Concert for Marimba Maki Ishii 1969 Marimbastuck Toshiya Sukegawa 1969 A Conception for Marimba and Four I nstrum ents Masaharu Kikuchi 1970 fi-Uta Katsuhira Tsubono 1971 M eniscus Toshimitsu Tanaka 1971 Suite for Marimba Yoshio Hachimura 1971 Ahahia Version I Yasuo Sueyoshi 1971 Mirage for Marimba Solo Yoshiro Irino 1971 Globus No. 2 Narihiro Yamamoto 1972 Shohkei Kunio Toda 1972 Trip tychon - b Maki Ishii 1973 Synkretismen 7 1

Toshiya Sukegawa 1973 Five Pieces After Paul Klee Hideo Kobayoshi 1974 Nocturne Johji Iwasa 1974 Territory Katsuhira Tsubono 1974 Ripple of Wind Masaoki Okajima 1974 Image Teruyuki Noda 1974 Obsession Yoshihisa Taira 1974 Pentalpha Tokuhide Niimi 1975 For Marimba I Toshiya Sukegawa 1975 A Collection After Paul Klee Yoshihisa Taira 1975 Convergence I Yasuo Sueyoshi 1975 Procession Gerard Geay 1975 Puzzle Toshimitsu Tanaka 1976 Suite for Marimba, Strings, and Percussion Tokuhide Niimi 1978 For Marimba II Kuroudo Mouri 1978 A Crow Up Branch Akira Nishimura 1978 Heterophony II Choji Kaneda 1979 Tenkei II Katsuhira Tsubono 1979 Fight Maki Ishii 1980 Kumano Fundaraku Akira Ifukube 1980 Lauda Concertata per Orchestra e Marimba Tokuhide Niimi 1980 Enclage III Yasuo Sueyoshi 1980 Divertimento Kunio Toda 1981 Mono Cantata Maki Ishii 1984 Alternation Minoru Miki 1984 Marimba Spiritual Takashi Yoshimatsu 1984 Birdscape I 72

It is obvious to see how great Keiko Abe's influence has been on solo marimba literature. This list was compiled by Keiko Abe during a recent Percussive Arts Society International Convention, and is current through 1984. Currently, Keiko Abe is concertizing with the Michigan Chamber Players, and is increasing the amount of literature available for the marimba in a chamber setting. Abe continues to teach at Toho Gauken College of Music in Tokyo, give concerts all over the world, compose new works, have works commissioned for her, and record marimba works. Chapter VII

Conclusion

As a musical instrument, the marimba has had a varied past. Although research shows that the marimba existed for many centuries, the modern marimba is only about sixty years old. Music, espedally solo repertoire, did not exist until the Creston Concertino of 1940, but through the efforts of Chenoweth,Abe, and others the marimba now has its own literature. It is due to all the pioneers in the field of marimba that students of percussion now have an instrument capable of producing harmonies, melodies, and rhythmic variety. Marimba players today have at their disposal original works, ensembles, and chamber pieces. As the instruments improve and the amount of literature increases, the quality of performances rise. Today, marimba music is being recorded by many performers and is popular in academic settings. One of the most prohibitive aspects of the marimba is the cost involved in owning and maintaining a high quality instrument. There are few manufacturers that offer student model marimbas, and the cost of these instruments is still too high for students to purchase. Fortunately, there are now several different manufacturers of marimbas, and the Musser Company

73 74 now longer holds a monopoly in this field. As the competition increases, prices will decrease, enabling more students to own their own instruments. Instrument repair for marimbas is also improving as is the increased use of technology to improve resonator and bar quality. Cracked or broken bars can be repaired by specialists, and frames can be replaced. The use of a man-made material for marimba and xylophone bars, kelon , began in the 1970's. although less expensive to produce, the tone quality does not compare with the rosewood marimba bars. Acoustilon has been used by some companies, such as Yamaha, in the 1980's and 1990's. This material is an improvement over kelon bars, but the majority of marimbists still prefer the feel and sound of natural wood. Although manufacturers continue to improve on the marimba's construction and tuning capabilities, the marimba as an instrument has become more stabilized. As a result, the literature is now able to exploit the marimba for special techniques and sound effects. These include dead- strokes, a technique in which the bar is immediately dampened by the mallet that strikes the bar; one-handed rolls; using a bass bow to vibrate the bars; playing on the resonators; using a variety of mallets; muffling the bars with a towel so they do not resonate; and writing for the marimba in different chamber settings. Composers are beginning to realize the possibilities of the marimba and to include it in band and orchestra literature. The tone of the marimba lends itself to many different situations, and the possibilities now seem endless. APPENDIX A TIME-LINE OF SIGNIFICANT MARIMBA/XYLOPHONE EVENTS

75 76 3700 BCE Ranat and vorangi in use 2697 BCE Chinese Pien-Chung 2300 BCE Ninevah and Baylon instruments dated 1000 BCE First known performer - Kotharus 600 BCE Voorang in use 1 BCE-1 AD Fhilodemus performing 900 Metallophone present in Java 1157 Genders in use 1511 term "hultze glechter" known 1528 Agricola paints a picture of a wooden keyboard 1550 Holbein's drawing of xylophone 1600 Marimba doble in existence in Guatemala 1629 Form of a xylophone arrives in Japan 1650 Tasten invention of wooden xylophone 1750 Gerber builds harpsichord shaped xylophone 1810 Triphone invented by Weidner of Frankfurt 1830 Gusikow popular as a soloist 1850 Jabukowsky as soloist

1874 Chromatic marimba present in Guatemala/Dance Macbre written by Saint Seans 1880 Deagan improves the glockenspiel 1886 Carnival of the Animals written by Saint Seans 1892 Green brothers born 1893 Deagan constructs a xylophone 1894 Hurtados begin playing marimba 1896 Hurtados form a family marimba band 1899 Chromatic marimba improved 1901 Hurtados arrive in New York/Musser born ^ ^ 1903 Deagan adds b's and #'s to the xylophone "nagaed" 1908 Hurtados play in New Orleans/ Golden Age of the Xylophone 1909 William F. Ludwig begins his drum company 1910 Hurtados tour Europe/ Stroh-fiedel arrives in Japan 1913 Xylophone arrives in Japan 1915 Nabimba popular/ Hurtados record marimba music 1916 Hurtados play with the Ziegfield Follies 1920 Dance bands use two xylophone players 1921 Four octave Deagan xylophone arrives in Japan 1922 Japanese performer Hoshido popular 1925 Hurtados play in New York 1926 Asabuki recorded 1927 Winterhoff invents tuning process/Deagan adds resonators to xylophone/ vibraphone invented 1930 Hiraoka in the US/Musser join Deagan firm 1933 Stuber performs in Musser's 100 piece marimba orchestra 1935 International Marimba Orchestra's Carnegie Hall debut 1937 IMSO at Chicago convention center 1940 Stuber premiers the Creston Concertino 1941 Deagan's Imperial model marimba produced 1942 Musser begins teaching at Northwestern University 1944 Celso Hurtado performs as soloist/Deagan's Victory model 1947 Celso Hurtado performs in Carnegie Hall 1950 Modern expansion of Musser and Ludwig/Lacours go to Japan 1953 Kurka Concertino premiered by Chenoweth 1957 Japanese Xylophone Association forms 1961 Tokyo Marimba Group forms ^ ^ 1962 Miyoshi's Conversation is premiered 1965 Hiraoka premiers Hovanhess' Fantasy on Japanese Woodprints 1965 - Keiko Abe commissioning new works for solo marimba/ marimba begins to be studied in academia APPENDIX B PROGRAM FROM THE PREMIER OF THE CRESTON

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# Paul Crniloii. winner of a G uggenlieim Fellowslilp in muiic in 1938 end again in 1939, dom onstraled an intoreil in muiic a* llio ôga of oiiciiiiSTRia i i': s : ASS: teven and received liit piano lessoni at the age of eight. After tii SKVKNTII SKASOW yeart of initruclion, which lie tays wai of "a decidedly mediocre nature," hs continued his studies with Randeggor for several years and later with FREDERIpUE PETRIDES, C onductor Gaston Dethier. Pietro Yon was his teacher in organ playing. Me it self-taught in composilior and began to compose with tlie acquisition of his first piano. For a lima, however, he w avered betw een lilera* CARNEGIE CHAMBER MUSIC HALL lure and music. This inner conflict en d ed in 1932 with music as the victor. 184 W eil BMh Street, tie . York City Mr. Creston's performed worls include chorales, longt end chamber music compositions, as well at works for string, cham ber an d full orches­ Monday Evening. April 29. 1940, at 8:30 tra. Besides his Concertino' for M arim ba and O rchestra, his other most recent works are: a "Symphony", opus 20. which he finished in January. Soloists: RUTH STUBER, M arim ba; LOIS W A N tT. O b o e 1940. for his G uggenheim fellowship; a Ballet— "Tale ab o u t the Land"— which had its first perform ance at the beginning of this m onth in Phila­ delphia; also, a "D irge" with which ho won tho first priio at the choral A C’onr.nrlino for Alarlmbm •m l OrrlieMtrn contest of the Labor Stage. Paul C reston's C oncertino for M arim ba and O rchestra, wtiich was commissioned by I4ederique Petridas, the Conductor of the Orcheslrello * Ruth Stubor is the daughter of an Evanston, Illinois, violinisi and music C lassique— to whom it is d ed ic ated — was com pleted in Ktarch. 1940. teacher who taught her to drum when she was a baby. She it a graduate It is in three movements and is designed to domonstrate the capabilitifs of Morthwcslcrn University and has taught music, history of music, music of the Marimba as solo instrument with orchestral accontpanirnrrnl. It appreciation, etc., at the University of Alabama. Five years ago she is the only work ever written for this instrument in serious form. settled in Mow York as tympanist and m arim ba player. H er affiliation with the Orchcstrelto dates back to 1937.

The first movement, marked vigorous is based on two main themes— * Lois Wann it well-known to Orchestrette nudiences through her solo­ a strongly rhythmic one and a lyric one— both of which are announced istic appearances since 1933, the year when she joined the group as one in the orchestral introductic' Tne development of these themes occurs cl its players. mainly In the solo part, and within the % meter are incorporated various rhythmic patterns. : I V V. V O N C IS II T s I'lsr Msr Smmssss ISM O-IO-tl The second movement (marked cairn) consists of an introductory them e, which is first presented by solo flute, and is im mediately followed For its eighih season (1940 4 1), the O rchoslretle Classique by the main theme (in choral structurel, played by the Marimba with announces Five Concerts on tho following MONDAY Evenings: 4 mallets. The g*&erel mood of tranquility is maintained throughout et- October 14 December 9 Jannuary 20 March 3 April 21 cepi for a minor climax developed towards the middle of the movement.

Tickftls: O rch estra $ 1.25. Balcony 75c The last movement (marked lively) is a combination of Scheno and MAtrAGEMENt Finale in 6 / 8 time. Rnythmic variety is the chief objective of this movement, though lyric and dramatic elements are interspersed through­ Orchcslrclle Classique out. There are no isolated cadenias to reveal the virtuosity of the soloist no Esil Efl'J A«n . M e- York City * Telephone: BUiletfiitd 8 OBIS since the composition as a whole affords numerous opportunities to display this phase.

OO O TUB ont;nKSTni?TTK i. As.siqiin p n o « n A M M I'. Fr«d«riqu* P«tr!dti, Conduclor (Tkt Ui( of Itup for iMi i»«ion)

VIOLIN O vsrlurn "TJib Man of Promafliain", Op. 43 HinH# B«rn«ll, ConctrlmaiW r L. v(in Boolhovon limn# SkelniV D ofo th y Sm ith Concerto for Oboe end String# on Tbnmei of Perqoleii Frieda Reiiherg Anil# John Berblrolll Marjorie Porlugel SuvHtt PeHrwt l«rgo Rote Zellin Ro«# Koy#r A l t g r a

VIOLA Andintfne Anne Lillmen liKbfla 6«ldfflb«rg Altgro l*li W ee", Obet Lillian Roienfield Merger#* Roeov RoviminUn FoHi Pence# for Smell Orr.heitra . B6la Barf6l CELLO 4. Buolumeane Dorothy Siegel Jeen Sfhrofdtr I, w till» 1 . BrIwI 5. Poerge romlneatce DOUBLE BASS 6. Maruntel Marjori# Soymotir-Dtigen Î . f t | o « 7. Maruntel ConcBrllno for Murlmbu and Orcheafrw, Op. 21 Paul Creilon FLUTE (D.^ia.h# f. rf#J.»Iq«. r»f(lrft»| Pulh Freeman Anile M i Ih m VlyfM* C *lr OBOE 3*im Urety Loii Wann Richard Neit |F l r i t Rvlti S li(b«r, M«eim>b* CLARINET Beatrice Merleu Hel^n Hedon

BASSOON INTERMISSION Erika Kuhing* Leonora Behlle I, (Pa Mhaltrt B. B aU ben • ! I-

FRENCH HORN . .W olf. A . tvtoTart 0(#n Stone* fliilip Telmer* Serened^ Mejor...... Hugh Cowden Chriillan Woçhr (filmclfaltl t% # e. It D.r.IVy Smilli. VltR. II: Aff.f lln'.tP . Violi; TRUMPET TYMPANI HAND #ait#tl# Da«f«a. D auM t-liii) Deity AlcocV Rulh Stuber Julie Smith Ltargaret Jeen Cree Symphony in D Major "The Clock" Joinpb Haydn Adagio . . . .Praito • O n « ( Andanla K^anuftta Su#rke Portnoi, Librarian Final#

OO APPENDIX C PHOTOGRAPHS OF STUBER, CA. 1940

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550 Hudson '=t. ”ev? York City, Y. Y. Jan. 15, 1C45 rear Hrs. Jeanne: I aa enclosing the i.iarlaoa part for Henry Cov/ell's OFTII'ATO. Please let ae knovr when you wish to rehearse with the other players. Our rehearsals at presen- are on '"ednesday evenings at = o'clock and Sundays at noon. ”'e can arrange to have the.a at other tines too. '"e rehearse a t 525 0th and 3th Avenues. If at any tine you wish to get in touch with ae quickly, please call ae an Atkins 3-6255, and feel free to reverse the charges. I look forward to hearing froa you when %/ou are ready fo r a re h e arsa l. T hank you, and very sincerely. APPENDIX F FIRST PUBLISHED VERSION OF THE CRESTON - INDEPENDENT MUSIC PUBLISHERS COMPANY

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ZÏ I LIST OF REFERENCES

Abe, Keiko. "The History and Future of the Marimba in Japan." Percussive Notes. January 1984 vol. 22 no. 2.

Blades, James. Percussion Instruments and Their History. London: Faber and Faber, 1984.

"Celso Hurtado Heard: Presents a Solo Program on the Marimba at Carnegie Hall," New York Times, April 8,1947.

Cowell, Henry. "Paul Creston." Musical Quarterly. No. 34, 1948.

Eyler, David P. "Clair Omar Musser and His Contributions to the Marimba" Percussive Notes. Winter, 1990.

Eyler, David P. "Interview with Jack Connors, William, F. Ludwig, Jr., and Flerschel Stark Members of the International Marimba Symphony Orchestra of 1935." Percussive Notes. October, 1993.

Eyler, David P. "The Hurtado Brothers' Royal Marimba Band of Guatemala." Percussive Notes February 1993, Vol. 31 No. 3.

Fink, Ron. "An Interview with Jack Connors, Marimba Virtuoso." Percussive Notes. Winter, 1978, vol. 16 no. 2.

Galm, John K. "Marimba Holiday in Guatemala." Percussive Notes. Winter, 1978, vol. 16, no. 2.

Green, George Hamilton and Joseph. "Introductory", Green Brothers Advanced Instructor for Xylophone. New York: Green Brothers, n.d.

Harrison, Jay S. "Concerto For Marimba has Premiere Here." Herald Tribune. Nov. 12, 1959

Herald Tribune April 30,1940. (author R.L.)

Hitchcock, H. Wiley and Stanley Sadie,eds. The New Grove Dictionary of American Music. Four Volumes, London: MacMillan, 1986.

113 114

Hite, Rosemary Curtin. "Xylophonist Steals Show." Citizen Tournai. Columbus, OH, April 2,1973.

Kastner, Kathleen. "Creston, Milhaud, and Kurka: An Examination of the Marimba Concerti." Percussive Notes. August 1994, vol. 32, no. 4.

Kastner, Kathleen. "The Marimba in Japan.” Percussive Notes. February 1995, Vol. 33, No. 1.

Lang, Morris. "A Talk with Marimba Virtuoso, Keiko Abe." Percussive Notes, April, 1983, Vol. 21 No. 4.

LePage, Jane Weiner. "Frederique Petrides." Women Composers, Conductors, and Musicians of the Twentieth Century. London: Scarecrow Press, Vol.2,1983.

Ludwig Drummer. Fall, 1966, vol. 6, no. 2.

MacCallum, Frank K. "The Marimba's Bass Register." Percussive Notes. 1967, vol.V, no. 4.

Moore, James L. "Meet Xylophone Soloist Yoichi Hiraoka." Percussive Notes Fall, 1973, Vol. 12 no. 1.

Musical America. Dec. 1,1959, p. 37.

National Geographic Magazine. November, 1926

New York Times. April 30,1940. Howard Taubman.

Ormandy, Paul D. "The Marimba Doble of Central America." Percussive Notes July, 1985, vol. 23, No. 5.

Percussive Notes. Winter 1976, Vol. 14, no. 2 (no author given)

Peters, Gordon. The Drummer: Man. Wilmette, Illinois: Kemper- Peters Publications, 1975

Pimentel, Linda. "The Aristocracy of Manufactured Marimbas." Percussive Notes. October, 1982, vol 21, no. 1.

Randall, Don, ed. The New Harvard Dictionary of Music. Boston: Belknap Press, 1986. 115

Sachs, Curt. The History of Musical Instruments. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1940.

Sadie, Stanley, ed. Groves Dictionary of Musical Instruments. 3 Vols., London: MacMillan, 1980.

Sadie, Stanley, ed. Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 20 Vols., London: MacMillan, 1980.

Schonberg, Harold C. "Music: Unusual Concerto." New York Times November 12, 1959.

Simmons, Walter G. "Paul Creston: Maintaining a Middle Course." Music Tournai. Dec. 1976.

Simmons, Walter G. "Paul Creston." Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 20 Vols., ed. Stanley Sadie. London: MacMillan, 1980.

Strain, James A. "Published Literature for the Xylophones (ca. 1880- 1930)." Percussive Notes. Dec. 1992 vol.31, no. 2.

Strain, James A. "Vida Chenoweth." Percussive Notes. December 1994, Vol. 32, No. 6.

Weiss, Lauren Vogel. "Keiko Abe." Percussive Notes, June 1994, Vol. 32, No. 3.