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An Investigation of Ethnocentrism, Its Elements, Factors Affecting Its Intensity, and Implications for Cross-Cultural Activities

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An Investigation of Ethnocentrism, Its Elements, Factors Affecting Its Intensity, and Implications for Cross-Cultural Activities AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF Loreen Olufson for the degree of Master of Arts in Interdisciplinary Studies in the co-departments of Anthropology, Economics, and Statistics presented on May 27, 1988. Title: An Investigation of Ethnocentrism, Its Elements, Factors Affecting Its Intensity, and Implications for Cross-Cultural Activities. Redacted for Privacy Abstract approved: John A. Young Ethnocentrism is a term for an attitude which causes individuals to place their culture at the center of the universe as they see it. Other cultures are evaluated in terms of the culture of the individual and are often valued less. Ethnocentrism and the behaviors associated with it have frequently been credited with contributing to many unfortunate and, sometimes, unanticipated outcomes from cross-cultural activities. This study attempted to answer questions about the nature of ethnocentrism, the association of levels of ethnocentrism with particular personal characteristics, the impact of training on this attitude, and the opinions of internationally experienced individuals on the significance of attitude to cross-cultural workand their recommendations for cultural education and training. A scale was developed to measure ethnocentrism. It was used to assess the change in attitude experienced by one hundred eighteen students enrolled in an introductory anthropology course. It was also used to measure the ethnocentrism of eighty cross-culturally experienced faculty members. The investigation utilized a questionnaire to obtain additional information from the faculty respondents. Factor analysis of the scale responses indicated the existence of two distinct factors for the students in the study, one reflecting individuals' attitudes toward their own culture and another reflecting attitudes toward other cultures. Analysis of faculty responses revealed just one major factor. T tests of the significance of mean differences were performed for several groups. Pre- and post-course student means were compared and were found to be significantly different, both for overall means and for means reflecting attitude toward other cultures, but not for means reflecting attitude toward one's own culture. A comparison of faculty and student means disclosed a significantly higher level of ethnocentrism relative to other cultures on the part of faculty members. World area of origin, age, and field of study were implicated as influential on the level of some aspects of ethnocentrism by regression analysis of mean ethnocentrism scores on five personal charateristics. T tests provided information about the direction of influence for these variables. Faculty responses to open-ended questions indicated that a majority felt that a culturally relativistic attitude was important to successful cross-cultural engagement. Most recommended fairly traditional education and training approaches. Few of the departments in the university provide or require cultural training which would address the issue of ethnocentrism. An Investigation of Ethnocentrism, Its Elements, Factors Affecting Its Intensity, and Implications for Cross-Cultural Activities by Loreen C. Olufson A THESIS submitted to Oregon State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Interdisciplinary Studies Completed May 27, 1988 Commencement June 1989 APPROVED: Redacted for Privacy Professor of7Anthropog On charge of major Redacted for Privacy Professor of Economics in char'g' of co-field Redacted for Privacy Professor of Statistics in charge of co-field Redacted for Privacy/ Chairman of ytpartmof/Anthropology Redacted for Privacy Dean of Grad to School(1 Date thesis is presented May 27, 1988 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I earnestly and joyfully wish to thank the following individuals for their help and support: Dr. John A. Young, my major professor, for putting generous amounts of time and thought into reading the manuscript and discussing the issues with me; Dr. Courtland Smith, for his advice and help in the initial stages of the survey development and implementation; Dr. Dave Birkes, for assistance in the selection of appropriate statistical procedures and in the interpretation of results; Dave Niess and the Oregon State University Computer Center, for frequent and patient assistance with statistical analyses and for the funding which made them possible; friends, especially Lindsay Rahmun, who provided personal testimony that completion of a thesis is possible and who was confident that 1, too, could do it; Linda Kahlbaum, for generously allowing me to use her computer; my parents, Ida and Al Peterson, for their belief in me and their support; and my sons, Sean and Connan, who have been tolerant and interested through my four years of graduate school. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I: AN INTRODUCTION 1 A Caveat 1 Questions Addressed in the Study 2 Definition of Terms 4 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE AND RESEARCH REVIEW 10 Introduction 10 Why Are People Ethnocentric' 11 Ethnocentrism is a natural result of membership in a social group 11 The kinds of experiences which most effectively reduce ethnocentric tendencies are often psychologically threatening 18 The cultural group often acts to discourage openness to the value of other cultures. 23 Ethnocentrism may be supported by certain psychological mechanisms which affect the quality of our experience 24 Why Should We Be Concerned About Ethnocentrism' 28 History of Concern About Ethnocentrism 39 History of Attempts to Measure Ethnocentrism . 44 Cross-Cultural Education and Training 49 Notes From Chapter Two 58 CHAPTER III: RESEARCH DESIGN 59 Introduction 59 Development of the Survey Instrument 61 Preliminary Form of the Scale 62 Procedure for Selecting Items Included in Final Scale 64 Validity 65 Development of the Questionnaire 67 Sampling Methods 68 Students Enrolled in Cultural Anthropology Course 68 Members of the Faculty of Oregon State University 70 Implementation of the Instrument 72 Pre-Course Students 72 Post-Course Students 73 Faculty 73 Notes From Chapter Three 75 CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH RESULTS 76 Introduction 76 Ethnocentrism & the Ethnocentrism Scale . 77 Possible Factors of Ethnocentrism 77 The Change Reflected by Individual Items . 83 Response Patterns 86 Change in Student Attitude After Taking Class. 90 Personal Characteristics Associated With Levels of Ethnocentrism 93 Demographic Data 93 Regression Analysis of Ethnocentrism Scores on Independent Variables (Personal Characteristics) 98 T-Tests of the Effect of Personal Characteristics on Student Ethnocentrism 101 T-Tests of the Effect of Personal Characteristics on Faculty Ethnocentrism 103 Students & Faculty Compared 107 Faculty Responses to the Questionnaire . 109 Reaction to the Ethnocentrism Scale . 109 Faculty Opinions About the Importance of Cultural Relativism 112 Training Methods Recommended by Faculty . 114 Notes From Chapter Four 119 CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION 120 Introduction 120 Review of the Research Results 120 General Observations 125 Practical Implications 127 Suggestions for Further Research 129 BIBLIOGRAPHY 131 APPENDICES 140 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Ethnocentrism Scale 66 2. Composite Factors Produced by Synthesis of Second & Third Factor Analysis 79 3. Change in Response to Individual Items . 84 4. Response Patterns 87 5. Respondent Demographics 96 Preface Investigative efforts often seem to have many of the qualities of a journey. Both transpire within a temporal framework, so that there is a beginning, a middle, and a conclusion. A plan is usually associated with the beginning. In some cases, the plan is laid out in detail, leaving little to chance and little room for alteration as the conditions of the setting reveal themselves. In other instances, a less structured approach is either desired or required, with, perhaps, only a general orientation decided in advance and the agenda allowed to develop along the way as suggested by the medium being explored. Such was the strategy which resulted in this paper. The genesis of this project was, in actuality, a journey, a journey in which I left my culture for a period of time and encountered first hand the stresses, the difficulties, and the rewards of living in another culture. On a personal level, it was an expanding and growth-inducing experience of unequaled intensity. On an intellectual level, it provided me with real knowledge of the complexities involved in seemingly straightforward projects which cross cultural boundaries. Soon after returning to the United States and to academic life,I had the opportunity to function as a graduate teaching assistant in an introductory anthropology course. As the course progressed, some of the students began to verbalize a change in attitude that I had not anticipated; some of the insights they discussed and some of the conclusions they drew resembled understandings I had gained from my experience abroad. I became interested in investigating the effects of classroom experience on attitude and outlook, and in exploring possible parallels between these learnings and those from actual cross-cultural experience. AN INVESTIGATION OF ETHNOCENTRISM, ITS ELEMENTS, FACTORS AFFECTING ITS INTENSITY, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR CROSS-CULTURAL ACTIVITIES Chapter One: Introduction A Caveat As Erich Fromm movingly asserted, in his 1941 classic Escape From Freedom, we focus on obtaining freedom from powers outside ourselves but often fail to recognize inner restraints which may negate the freedom won from oppressors. Why is it that these inner limitations go unrecognized by most of us? Edward
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