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UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository) Tourism in China: representing the nation to English speaking tourists: A historical study of the development of tourism and the interpretive media encountered at five Beijing tourist sites Koerts, M. Publication date 2015 Document Version Final published version Link to publication Citation for published version (APA): Koerts, M. (2015). Tourism in China: representing the nation to English speaking tourists: A historical study of the development of tourism and the interpretive media encountered at five Beijing tourist sites. General rights It is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), other than for strictly personal, individual use, unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons). 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UvA-DARE is a service provided by the library of the University of Amsterdam (https://dare.uva.nl) Download date:10 Oct 2021 TOURISM IN CHINA: REPRESENTING THE NATION TO ENGLISH SPEAKING TOURISTS A historical study of the development of tourism and the interpretive media encountered at five Beijing tourist sites Dineke Koerts TOURISM IN CHINA: REPRESENTING THE NATION TO ENGLISH SPEAKING TOURISTS A historical study of the development of tourism and the interpretive media encountered at five Beijing tourist sites ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof. dr. D.C. van den Boom ten overstaan van een door het college voor promoties ingestelde commissie, in het openbaar te verdedigen in de Agnietenkapel op dinsdag 3 februari 2015, te 14.00 uur door Meindina Koerts geboren te Enschede Promotiecommissie Promotor: Prof. dr. S.R. Landsberger Overige leden: Prof. dr. ir. B.J. de Kloet Prof. dr. R.C. Kloosterman Prof. dr. C.P. Lindner Prof. dr. P.D. Nyíri Dr. V.C.J.M. Platenkamp Faculteit der Geesteswetenschappen In loving memory of my father – the debates and discussions with him, a humanist at heart, sharpened my mind TABLE OF CONTENTS List of abbreviations 1 List of tables 3 List of figures 4 Acknowledgements 5 Introduction 13 Chapter 1 Perspectives on tourism today 16 1.1 Tourism theory and tourism today 1.2 Perspectives on tourism in China Chapter 2 Setting the stage: travel before 1978 55 2.1 Journeys of pilgrimage? 2.2 Confucian and Daoist concepts of travel 2.3 Mountains and emperors 2.4 Literati, poems and paintings 2.5 Religious travel 2.6 “I love traveling because I am a modern person” 2.7 Travel in the People’s Republic 1949 – 1978 2.7.1 Receiving international visitors 2.7.2 Domestic travel Chapter 3 Development of a tourism industry 108 3.1 CPC leaders and tourism 3.2 Tourism infrastructure 3.3 Inbound, outbound and domestic tourism Chapter 4 Tourism and the State 157 4.1 The Party 4.2 The government 4.3 The economy 4.4 The politics of tourism 4.5 The structure of tourism Chapter 5 Representing the nation to English speaking tourists 200 5.1 Soft power, smart power and nation-brand 5.2 Destination China 5.3 Representing the nation to English speaking tourists Chapter 6 Alternative ways of looking at the (Forbidden) City 258 6.1 Concluding remarks 6.2 Alternative ways of looking at the Forbidden City 6.3 Walking the city Appendix Research design and methods 293 Summary 301 Samenvatting 311 References 362 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AD Anno Domini ADS Approved Destination Status BC Before Christ BRIC Brazil, Russia, China, India ca. circa CAAC Civil Aviation Authority of China CBTT China Bureau of Travel and Tourism CCP Chinese Communist Party CCTV China Central Television CEO Chief Executive Officer CPC Communist Party of China CITS China International Travel Service CNTA China National Tourism Administration CNTO China National Tourist Office CPPCC Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference CRC China Railway Corporation CTS China Travel Service CYTS China Youth Travel Service EGC Exhibition of the Great Confucius ETC European Travel Commission EU European Union fl. floruit (flourished) GDP Gross Domestic Product GIS Geographic Information System GPS Global Positioning System HDI Human Development Index HSR High-Speed Rail IHG Interstate Hotels and Resorts Group IMF International Monetary Fund iOS iPhone Operating System IVS Individual Visit Scheme LCC Low Cost Carriers LI Lettriste International MTR Mass Transit Railway NASDAQ National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotations NBI Nation Brands Index n.d. no date NPC National People's Congress NDRC National Development and Reform Commission PLA People’s Liberation Army PPP$ Purchasing Power Parity Dollar PRC People’s Republic of China RMB Renminbi (people’s money) SASAC State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission SEZ Special Economic Zone SI Situationist International SOE State Owned Enterprise SOH State Owned Hotel SP Summer Palace ToH Temple of Heaven TUI AG Touristik Union International Aktien Gesellschaft TVE Township and Village Enterprise UN United Nations UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNWTO United Nations World Tourism Organization US United States USA United States of America Tourism in China: Representing the nation to English speaking tourists, page 1 VFR Visits to Friends and Relatives WTO World Trade Organisation WTTC World Travel and Tourism Council YEFV Yunnan Ethnic Folk Village YMCA Young Men's Christian Association Tourism in China: Representing the nation to English speaking tourists, page 2 LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 Non-resident tourist arrivals at national border by nationality in Thailand in 2009 Table 1.2 Non-resident tourist arrivals at national border by nationality in Indonesia in 2009 Table 3.1.a Inbound overnight and same-day visitor arrivals 1985–1996 (millions) Table 3.1.b Inbound overnight and same-day visitor arrivals 1997–2012 (millions) Table 3.2 Overnight visitors 2008–2012 (millions) Table 3.3 International tourist arrivals at frontiers by country of destination excluding same-day visitors (millions) Table 3.4 Foreign visitor arrivals by region of origin 2010–2012 (millions) Table 3.5 GNP and annual per capita disposable rural and urban income Table 3.6 Domestic visitor arrivals 1980–2012 (millions) Table 3.7 Outbound travel from China 2001-2009 (millions) Table 3.8 Outbound tourism, departures from China by destination (by first stop) (x 1000) Table 4.1 Background and occupations of Party members, 2011 Tourism in China: Representing the nation to English speaking tourists, page 3 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 0.1 Tourist in China Figure 0.2 Travellers, visitors, tourists and excursionists Figure 2.1 The wu yue (marked with a ●) and four Buddhist mountains (*) Figure 2.2 De Beauvoir and Sartre welcomed in Beijing, 6 September 1955 Figure 2.3 Revolutionary friendship - Friends from Asia, Africa and Latin America visit the Museum of the Chinese revolutionary army Figure 2.4 Red Guards on the march Figure 3.1 Planned HSR network Figure 3.2 Some examples of “series” used in compiling statistics for international tourist arrivals in UNWTO statistics Figure 4.1 Major organs of the CPC Figure 4.2 Major state organs Figure 4.3 Deng Xiaoping and Xi Jinping in South China Figure 4.4 Xi’an: new and very empty airport terminal, May 2012 Figure 4.5 Red tourism themes and locations Figure 4.6 Qufu: Tour group and “amplified” tour guide, May 2011 Figure 4.7 Qufu: 5A Confucius Temple and Mansion, May 2011 Figure 5.1 “Criticize the reactionary thought of Lin Biao and Confucius, firmly walk with the workers and peasants on the road of unity” Figure 5.2 Anholt-GfK Nation Brand Index: overall brand ranking (top 10 of 50 nations) in 2013 and 2010 Figure 5.3 American and Chinese soft power attraction Figure 5.4 Automatic guides to the Summer Palace, the Temple of Heaven, the Lama Temple, the Forbidden City and the Confucius Temple Figure 5.5 The Guide to the Temple of Heaven and the Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests Figure 5.6 Victor Hugo and his text in the Yuanmingyuan Ruins Park Figure 5.7 The empty platform where the Autumn Hall (Hanqiuguan) once stood and some Western ruins Figure 5.8 Sign at the Tower of Buddhist Incense, Summer Palace Figure 5.9 Sign over the entrance to Yonghe Gate Hall in four languages Figure 5.10 Introduction to the Lama Temple Figure 5.11 The final scene of the performance at Kong Miao, Beijing Figure 5.12 Matteo Ricci, the Christian Confucius Figure 5.13 Confucius number five in top 100 of most influential people Figure 6.1 The Goddess of Democracy facing Mao’s image on the Gate of Heavenly Peace Figure 6.2 Beijing around 1900 Figure 6.3 Tiananmen Square in 1900 Figure 6.4 Beijing: Legation Street Figure 6.5 Tuanjiehu, Beijing Figure 6.6 Changying suburb, Beijing Figure 6.7 Huoying suburb, Beijing Tourism in China: Representing the nation to English speaking tourists, page 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Although I experienced the completion of my dissertation as a rather lonely journey this trajectory would not have been possible without the support of a considerable number of people. First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor at the University of Amsterdam, Professor Stefan Landsberger, for his trust in me.