Nicholas Toth Positions • Co-Director, Stone Age Institute, Bloomington, Indiana

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Nicholas Toth Positions • Co-Director, Stone Age Institute, Bloomington, Indiana. • Professor of Anthropology, Indiana University, Bloomington. • Adjunct Professor of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington. • Co-Director, Center for Research into the Anthropological Foundations of Technology (CRAFT), Indiana University, Bloomington. • Co-Director, Human Evolutionary Studies Program, Indiana University, Bloomington. Education • 1982 Ph.D., University of California at Berkeley. Anthropology, human evolutionary studies, Palaeolithic archaeology, African prehistory. • 1978 M.A., University of California at Berkeley. Anthropology. • 1975 Postgraduate Diploma in Prehistory, with Distinction. Oxford University, England. Palaeolithic archaeology, European prehistory. • 1974 B.A. with Distinction. Western College, Ohio. Anthropology, Liberal Arts. Special • 1983 Scanning Electron Microscopy, Royal Microscopical Society, Cambridge Training University, England. • 1981 Forensic Science, University of California at Berkeley. • 1980 Microwear analysis of stone tools, University of Illinois, Chicago. • 1978 Flintknapping Fieldschool, Washington State University. Areas of Human evolutionary studies, African prehistory, palaeolithic studies, the evolution of Special human intelligence, lithic technology, experimental archaeology, microscopic approaches Interest to archaeology, faunal analysis and taphonomy, ethnoarchaeology, primate studies, history of evolutionary thought. Recent and • Experimental archaeological research into the stone tool-making and tool-using ongoing behaviors of modern African apes. research • Experimental archaeological research into the manufacture and use of early Palaeolithic tools. Awards and • 2004 Elected Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science Distinctions • 2003- Who’s Who in America. • 2000 L.S.B. Leakey Memorial Lecture, Leakey Foundation, San Francisco • 2000 Selected as one of 50 Scientists profiled by the New York Times in the book, Scientists at Work: Profiles of Today’s Groundbreaking Scientists • 1997 Distinguished Faculty Research Award, Indiana University (shared with Kathy Schick) • 1988 Fulbright Fellow • 1986 Harry Frank Guggenheim Fellowship Research National Science Foundation, Department of Health and Human Services, National Grants Academy of Sciences, National Geographic Society, L.S.B. Leakey Foundation, Wenner- received from Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, Fulbright Fellowship, Harry Frank Guggenheim Foundation, Social Science Research Council, Kroeber Society. .

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THE CUTTING EDGE: New Approaches to the Archaeology of Human Origins Kathy Schick, and Nicholas Toth, Editors
stone age institute publication series Series Editors Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth Stone Age Institute Gosport, Indiana and Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana Number 1. THE OLDOWAN: Case Studies into the Earliest Stone Age Nicholas Toth and Kathy Schick, editors Number 2. BREATHING LIFE INTO FOSSILS: Taphonomic Studies in Honor of C.K. (Bob) Brain Travis Rayne Pickering, Kathy Schick, and Nicholas Toth, editors Number 3. THE CUTTING EDGE: New Approaches to the Archaeology of Human Origins Kathy Schick, and Nicholas Toth, editors Number 4. THE HUMAN BRAIN EVOLVING: Paleoneurological Studies in Honor of Ralph L. Holloway Douglas Broadfield, Michael Yuan, Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth, editors STONE AGE INSTITUTE PUBLICATION SERIES NUMBER 3 Series Editors Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth the cutting edge: New Approaches to the Archaeology of Human Origins Editors Kathy Schick Stone Age Institute & Indiana University Nicholas Toth Stone Age Institute & Indiana University Stone Age Institute Press · www.stoneageinstitute.org 1392 W. Dittemore Road · Gosport, IN 47433 COVER CAPTIONS AND CREDITS Top: Homo habilis Utilizing Stone Tools. Painting by artist-naturalist Jay H. Matternes. Copyright 1995, Jay H. Matternes. Inspired by a prehistoric scenario by K. Schick and N. Toth in Making Silent Stones Speak: Human Origins and the Dawn of Technology (1993), Simon and Schuster, New York. Pp.147-149. Lower right: Whole ﬂ ake of trachyte lava from the 2.6 million-year-old site of Gona EG-10, Ethiopia. Reported by S. Semaw (2006), “The Oldest Stone Artifacts from Gona (2.6-2.5 Ma), Afar, Ethiopia: Implications for Understanding the Earliest Stages of Knapping” in The Oldowan: Case Studies into the Earliest Stone Age, eds.
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Curriculum Vitae
Andrew Michael Zipkin, PhD, RPA - Curriculum Vitae Arizona State University 480-965-6215 School of Human Evolution and Social Change [email protected] P.O. Box 872402, Tempe, AZ, 85287-2402 researchgate.net/profile/Andrew_Zipkin EDUCATION 2015 Doctor of Philosophy, Hominid Paleobiology The George Washington University, Department of Anthropology, Washington, DC Dissertation: Material Symbolism and Ochre Exploitation in Middle Stone Age East-Central Africa Supervisor: Prof. Alison S. Brooks; Committee: Prof. John M. Hanchar and Prof. Peter W. Lucas 2013 Master of Philosophy, Hominid Paleobiology The George Washington University, Department of Anthropology, Washington, DC 2009 Bachelor of Science, Biology and Society, Magna Cum Laude with Research Honors Cornell University, Department of Science and Technology Studies, Ithaca, NY APPOINTMENTS 2021- Associate Scientist, ICP Department Present Eurofins EAG Laboratories, Liverpool, NY 2021- Visiting Researcher, School of Human Evolution and Social Change Present Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 2020- Assistant Research Scientist, School of Human Evolution and Social Change 2021 Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 2018- Postdoctoral Research Associate, School of Human Evolution and Social Change 2020 Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ Supervisor: Prof. Pauline Wiessner 2015- Postdoctoral Research Associate, Department of Anthropology 2018 National Science Foundation SBE Interdisciplinary Postdoctoral Research Fellow (2015-2017) University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL Supervisors: Prof. Stanley H. Ambrose (Anthropology) and Prof. Craig Lundstrom (Geology) PEER-REVIEWED PUBLICATIONS Published Journal Articles 2020 Andrew M. Zipkin, Gideon Bartov, Craig Lundstrom, Alex Taylor, Alyssa Dwyer, and Stanley Ambrose. Red earth, green glass, and compositional data: A new procedure for solid-state elemental characterization, source discrimination, and provenience analysis of ochres.
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A View of Some Actualistic and Taphonomic Trends in Paleoindian Studies
stone age institute publication series Series Editors Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth Stone Age Institute Gosport, Indiana and Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana Number 1. THE OLDOWAN: Case Studies into the Earliest Stone Age Nicholas Toth and Kathy Schick, editors Number 2. BREATHING LIFE INTO FOSSILS: Taphonomic Studies in Honor of C.K. (Bob) Brain Travis Rayne Pickering, Kathy Schick, and Nicholas Toth, editors Number 3. THE CUTTING EDGE: New Approaches to the Archaeology of Human Origins Kathy Schick, and Nicholas Toth, editors Number 4. THE HUMAN BRAIN EVOLVING: Paleoneurological Studies in Honor of Ralph L. Holloway Douglas Broadfield, Michael Yuan, Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth, editors STONE AGE INSTITUTE PUBLICATION SERIES NUMBER 2 Series Editors Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth breathing life into fossils: Taphonomic Studies in Honor of C.K. (Bob) Brain Editors Travis Rayne Pickering University of Wisconsin, Madison Kathy Schick Indiana University Nicholas Toth Indiana University Stone Age Institute Press · www.stoneageinstitute.org 1392 W. Dittemore Road · Gosport, IN 47433 COVER CAPTIONS AND CREDITS. Front cover, clockwise from top left. Top left: Artist’s reconstruction of the depositional context of Swartkrans Cave, South Africa, with a leopard consuming a hominid carcass in a tree outside the cave: bones would subsequently wash into the cave and be incorporated in the breccia deposits. © 1985 Jay H. Matternes. Top right: The Swartkrans cave deposits in South Africa, where excavations have yielded many hominids and other animal fossils. ©1985 David L. Brill. Bottom right: Reconstruction of a hominid being carried by a leopard. © 1985 Jay H. Matternes. Bottom left: Photograph of a leopard mandible and the skull cap of a hominid from Swartkrans, with the leopard’s canines juxtaposed with puncture marks likely produced by a leopard carrying its hominid prey.
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Underestimating Intraspecific Variation: the Problem with Excluding Sts 19 from Australopithecus Africanus.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 105, No
Ahern, James C. “Underestimating Intraspecific Variation: The Problem With Excluding Sts 19 From Australopithecus Africanus.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 105, no. 4 (April 1998): 461–80. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199804)105:4<461::AID- AJPA5>3.0.CO;2-R. Aiello, Leslie, and Christopher Dean. An Introduction to Human Evolutionary Anatomy. London: Academic Press, 1990. Ashton, Eric H, and Solly Zuckerman. “Some Cranial Indices of Plesianthropus and Other Primates.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 9, no. 3 (1951): 283–96. Avery, Diana M. “The Plio-Pleistocene Vegetation and Climate of Sterkfontein and Swartkrans, South Africa, Based on Micromammals.” Journal of Human Evolution 41, no. 2 (2001): 113–32. Avery, Diana M, Dominic J Stratford, and Frank Sénégas. “Micromammals and the Formation of the Name Chamber at Sterkfontein, South Africa.” Geobios 43, no. 4 (2010): 379–87. Bamford, Marion K. “Environmental Changes and Hominid Evolution: What the Vegetation Tells Us.” In From Tools to Symbols. From Early Hominids to Modern Humans, edited by Francesco d’Errico and Lucinda Blackwell, 103–20. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 2005. ———. “Pliocene Fossil Woods from an Early Hominid Cave Deposit, Sterkfontein, South Africa.” South African Journal of Science 95 (1999): 231–37. Beaudet, Amélie, José Braga, Frikkie De Beer, Burkhard Schillinger, Christine Steininger, Vladimira Vodopivec, and Clément Zanolli. “Neutron Microtomography‐based Virtual Extraction and Analysis of a Cercopithecoid Partial Cranium (STS 1039) Embedded in a Breccia Fragment from Sterkfontein Member 4 (South Africa).” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 159 (2015): 737–45. Benade, Maria Magdalena. “Thoracic and Lumbar Vertebrae of African Hominids Ancient and Recent: Morphological and Fuctional Aspects with Special Reference to Upright Posture.” Masters Thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, 2016.
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1999 Program 10/11/12 10:56 AM
1999 Program 10/11/12 10:56 AM Program for Columbus April 27-28, 1999 Columbus Hyatt Regency Tuesday, April 27, 9:00 - 12:20 9:00-9:15 Introduction 9:15 Richard May and Richard Sherwood Shape measurements of the early hominid cranial base 9:35 Travis Rayne Pickering, Tim D. White and Nicholas Toth Stone tool cutmarks on Stw 53, an early hominid from Sterkfontien, South Africa 9:55 J.A. Lee-Thorp and Matt Sponheimer Preliminary results of a study of carbon and oxygen isotope ratios in modern faunal enamel carbonate, and application to identification of ecological niche of extinct fauna from Swartkrans 10:15 Rene Bobe and Anna K. Behrensmeyer Environmental changes in early hominid evolution derived from analysis of fossil mammals from the lower Omo Valley, Ethiopia 10:35-11:00 Coffee Break 11:00 Margaret J. Schoeninger and Holly Reeser Paleoenvironment of Allia Bay, East Turkana, Kenya 3.9 Myr: the stable isotope data 11:20 Nikolaas J. van der Merwe, Amy Cushing and Robert Blumenschine Stable isotope ratios of fauna and the environment of palaeolake Olduvai 11:40 Tom Plummer, Laura Bishop, John Kingston, Nancy Sikes, Peter Ditchfield, Fritz Hertel and Joe Ferraro Reconstructing Oldowan hominid paleoecology 12:00 Robert J. Blumenschine, Charles R. Peters, Fidelis T. Masao, Gail M. Ashley, James I. Ebert Preliminary tests of paleoanthropological predictions for hominid land use in the east-central portion of the lowermost Bed II Olduvai Basin, Tanzania Lunch Tuesday, April 27, 2:00 - 6:00 2:00 Michael J. Rogers, Christopher M. Monahan, John W.K.
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Tribute to Brain Titlepage.Indd
Contents ix BREATHING LIFE INTO FOSSILS: TAPHONOMIC STUDIES IN HONOR OF C.K. (BOB) BRAIN EDITED BY TRAVIS RAYNE PICKERING, NICHOLAS TOTH AND KATHY SCHICK STONE AGE INSTITUTE PRESS, 2007 CONTENTS Comment by Series Editors ............................................................................................................. ii Contributors .....................................................................................................................................v Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vii Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... ix Preface ........................................................................................................................................... xi Foreword ........................................................................................................................................ xi Introduction ....................................................................................................................................xv Chapter 1: Fifty Years of Fun with Fossils: Some Cave Taphonomy-Related Ideas and Concepts that Emerged Between 1953 and 2003 C.K. Brain ..................................................................................................................1 Chapter 2: Rather Odd Detective Stories: A View of Some Actualistic and Taphonomic Trends
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Nicholas Toth
stone age institute publication series Series Editors Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth Stone Age Institute Gosport, Indiana and Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana Number 1. THE OLDOWAN: Case Studies into the Earliest Stone Age Nicholas Toth and Kathy Schick, editors Number 2. BREATHING LIFE INTO FOSSILS: Taphonomic Studies in Honor of C.K. (Bob) Brain Travis Rayne Pickering, Kathy Schick, and Nicholas Toth, editors Number 3. THE CUTTING EDGE: New Approaches to the Archaeology of Human Origins Kathy Schick, and Nicholas Toth, editors Number 4. THE HUMAN BRAIN EVOLVING: Paleoneurological Studies in Honor of Ralph L. Holloway Douglas Broadfield, Michael Yuan, Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth, editors STONE AGE INSTITUTE PUBLICATION SERIES NUMBER 2 Series Editors Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth breathing life into fossils: Taphonomic Studies in Honor of C.K. (Bob) Brain Editors Travis Rayne Pickering University of Wisconsin, Madison Kathy Schick Indiana University Nicholas Toth Indiana University Stone Age Institute Press · www.stoneageinstitute.org 1392 W. Dittemore Road · Gosport, IN 47433 COVER CAPTIONS AND CREDITS. Front cover, clockwise from top left. Top left: Artist’s reconstruction of the depositional context of Swartkrans Cave, South Africa, with a leopard consuming a hominid carcass in a tree outside the cave: bones would subsequently wash into the cave and be incorporated in the breccia deposits. © 1985 Jay H. Matternes. Top right: The Swartkrans cave deposits in South Africa, where excavations have yielded many hominids and other animal fossils. ©1985 David L. Brill. Bottom right: Reconstruction of a hominid being carried by a leopard. © 1985 Jay H. Matternes. Bottom left: Photograph of a leopard mandible and the skull cap of a hominid from Swartkrans, with the leopard’s canines juxtaposed with puncture marks likely produced by a leopard carrying its hominid prey.
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THE OLDOWAN: Case Studies Into the Earliest Stone Age Nicholas Toth and Kathy Schick, Editors
stone age institute publication series Series Editors Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth Stone Age Institute Gosport, Indiana and Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana Number 1. THE OLDOWAN: Case Studies into the Earliest Stone Age Nicholas Toth and Kathy Schick, editors Number 2. BREATHING LIFE INTO FOSSILS: Taphonomic Studies in Honor of C.K. (Bob) Brain Travis Rayne Pickering, Kathy Schick, and Nicholas Toth, editors Number 3. THE CUTTING EDGE: New Approaches to the Archaeology of Human Origins Kathy Schick, and Nicholas Toth, editors Number 4. THE HUMAN BRAIN EVOLVING: Paleoneurological Studies in Honor of Ralph L. Holloway Douglas Broadfield, Michael Yuan, Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth, editors STONE AGE INSTITUTE PUBLICATION SERIES NUMBER 1 THE OLDOWAN: Case Studies Into the Earliest Stone Age Edited by Nicholas Toth and Kathy Schick Stone Age Institute Press · www.stoneageinstitute.org 1392 W. Dittemore Road · Gosport, IN 47433 COVER PHOTOS Front, clockwise from upper left: 1) Excavation at Ain Hanech, Algeria (courtesy of Mohamed Sahnouni). 2) Kanzi, a bonobo (‘pygmy chimpanzee’) fl akes a chopper-core by hard-hammer percussion (courtesy Great Ape Trust). 3) Experimental Oldowan fl aking (Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth). 4) Scanning electron micrograph of prehistoric cut-marks from a stone tool on a mammal limb shaft fragment (Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth). 5) Kinesiological data from Oldowan fl aking (courtesy of Jesus Dapena). 6) Positron emission tomography of brain activity during Oldowan fl aking (courtesy of Dietrich Stout). 7) Experimental processing of elephant carcass with Oldowan fl akes (the animal died of natural causes). (Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth). 8) Reconstructed cranium of Australopithecus garhi.
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Introduction to Archeology
anthropologist-archaeologist Louis Leakey. Louis and Mary Leakey are famous for digging at Old- 1:05–1:54 6.1 uvai Gorge in Tanzania, some of the earliest sites in the world. And much to my surprise, he actually wrote STUDYING THE STONE back, and that inspired me to go into archaeology as a AGE INTRODUCTION TO career. And I studied archaeology in Ohio and then as a graduate student at Oxford University and the Uni- ARCHEOLOGY versity of California. And archaeology tends to be divided into historical archaeology where your... you have written records of the people that were left behind that can really help you flesh out what their world was like. And then pre- historic archaeology, before the written record, and that’s the time period I focus on, especially the Stone Age. The Stone Age occupies over 99 percent of the history of human technology, so it’s a very important 0:11–1:05 I’m Nicholas Toth. I’m a Professor of Archaeology at aspect. Indiana University and Co-director of the Stone Age STUDY OF ANCIENT Institute. And we evolved from a very small-brained animal dur- 1:54–3:01 PEOPLE ing that two-and-a-half million years to a very large- Archaeology is the study of ancient people and the brained animal as well, so it’s a real challenge. And MULTIDISCIPLINARY world that they lived in. And archaeologists do a lot we interface with a lot of other disciplines. Geology, APPROACH of work. They’re digging, they’re looking for new the geologists who study the geological context and sites, they’re exploring, surveying over time.
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Human Evolutionary Studies Contact: [email protected]
University Graduate School University Graduate School 2005-2006 Kirkwood Hall 111 Academic Bulletin Indiana University Bloomington, IN 47405 (812) 855-8853 Human Evolutionary Studies Contact: [email protected] College of Arts and Sciences Bloomington Departmental E-mail [email protected] Departmental URL www.research.iu.edu/centers/craft.html Core Faculty Professors Kathy Schick* (Anthropology), Nicholas Toth* (Anthropology) Associated Graduate Faculty (An asterisk [*] denotes membership in the University Graduate School faculty with the endorsement to direct doctoral dissertations.) Professors Abhijit Basu* (Geological Sciences), Geoffrey Conrad* (Anthropology), Della Collins Cook* (Anthropology), Jesus Dapena* (Kinesiology), Paul Jamison* (Anthropology), Robert Meier* (Emeritus, Anthropology), Enrique Merino* (Geological Sciences), Emilio Moran* (Anthropology), Christopher Peebles* (Anthropology), Lisa Pratt* (Geological Sciences), Elizabeth Raff* (Biology), Rudolf Raff (Biology), Jeanne Sept* (Anthropology), Karen D. Vitelli* (Anthropology), Richard Wilk* (Anthropology) Associate Professors Patrick Munson* (Anthropology), Anne Pyburn* (Anthropology), Julie Stout (Psychology) Admission Requirements Students must be admitted to a Ph.D. program in the Department of Anthropology, the Department of Biology, the Department of Geological Sciences, the Department of Psychology, or other related department or program. They must also apply to the Program in Human Evolutionary Studies. Program Information Students should select an advisory committee made up of the two core faculty and at least one of the associate faculty and at least one of the associated faculty members. For students whose home department is anthropology, at least one member of the advisory committee is expected to be from a department outside anthropology. Ph.D. Minor in Human Evolutionary Studies Course Requirements The minor in human evolutionary studies requires four courses.
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The Importance of Actualistic Studies in Early Stone Age Research: Some Personal Reflections
stone age institute publication series Series Editors Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth Stone Age Institute Gosport, Indiana and Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana Number 1. THE OLDOWAN: Case Studies into the Earliest Stone Age Nicholas Toth and Kathy Schick, editors Number 2. BREATHING LIFE INTO FOSSILS: Taphonomic Studies in Honor of C.K. (Bob) Brain Travis Rayne Pickering, Kathy Schick, and Nicholas Toth, editors Number 3. THE CUTTING EDGE: New Approaches to the Archaeology of Human Origins Kathy Schick, and Nicholas Toth, editors Number 4. THE HUMAN BRAIN EVOLVING: Paleoneurological Studies in Honor of Ralph L. Holloway Douglas Broadfield, Michael Yuan, Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth, editors STONE AGE INSTITUTE PUBLICATION SERIES NUMBER 3 Series Editors Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth the cutting edge: New Approaches to the Archaeology of Human Origins Editors Kathy Schick Stone Age Institute & Indiana University Nicholas Toth Stone Age Institute & Indiana University Stone Age Institute Press · www.stoneageinstitute.org 1392 W. Dittemore Road · Gosport, IN 47433 COVER CAPTIONS AND CREDITS Top: Homo habilis Utilizing Stone Tools. Painting by artist-naturalist Jay H. Matternes. Copyright 1995, Jay H. Matternes. Inspired by a prehistoric scenario by K. Schick and N. Toth in Making Silent Stones Speak: Human Origins and the Dawn of Technology (1993), Simon and Schuster, New York. Pp.147-149. Lower right: Whole ﬂ ake of trachyte lava from the 2.6 million-year-old site of Gona EG-10, Ethiopia. Reported by S. Semaw (2006), “The Oldest Stone Artifacts from Gona (2.6-2.5 Ma), Afar, Ethiopia: Implications for Understanding the Earliest Stages of Knapping” in The Oldowan: Case Studies into the Earliest Stone Age, eds.
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Assessing Hominid Toothmarks in Zooarchaeology (Tim D. White
stone age institute publication series Series Editors Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth Stone Age Institute Gosport, Indiana and Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana Number 1. THE OLDOWAN: Case Studies into the Earliest Stone Age Nicholas Toth and Kathy Schick, editors Number 2. BREATHING LIFE INTO FOSSILS: Taphonomic Studies in Honor of C.K. (Bob) Brain Travis Rayne Pickering, Kathy Schick, and Nicholas Toth, editors Number 3. THE CUTTING EDGE: New Approaches to the Archaeology of Human Origins Kathy Schick, and Nicholas Toth, editors Number 4. THE HUMAN BRAIN EVOLVING: Paleoneurological Studies in Honor of Ralph L. Holloway Douglas Broadfield, Michael Yuan, Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth, editors STONE AGE INSTITUTE PUBLICATION SERIES NUMBER 2 Series Editors Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth breathing life into fossils: Taphonomic Studies in Honor of C.K. (Bob) Brain Editors Travis Rayne Pickering University of Wisconsin, Madison Kathy Schick Indiana University Nicholas Toth Indiana University Stone Age Institute Press · www.stoneageinstitute.org 1392 W. Dittemore Road · Gosport, IN 47433 COVER CAPTIONS AND CREDITS. Front cover, clockwise from top left. Top left: Artist’s reconstruction of the depositional context of Swartkrans Cave, South Africa, with a leopard consuming a hominid carcass in a tree outside the cave: bones would subsequently wash into the cave and be incorporated in the breccia deposits. © 1985 Jay H. Matternes. Top right: The Swartkrans cave deposits in South Africa, where excavations have yielded many hominids and other animal fossils. ©1985 David L. Brill. Bottom right: Reconstruction of a hominid being carried by a leopard. © 1985 Jay H. Matternes. Bottom left: Photograph of a leopard mandible and the skull cap of a hominid from Swartkrans, with the leopard’s canines juxtaposed with puncture marks likely produced by a leopard carrying its hominid prey.
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