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Home , Arago cave, Evolution of the brain, Ground stone, Homo ergaster, Nicholas Toth, Oldowan

stone age institute publication series Series Editors Kathy Schick and

Stone Age Institute Gosport, Indiana and Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana

Number 1. THE : Case Studies into the Earliest Stone Age Nicholas Toth and Kathy Schick, editors

Number 2. BREATHING INTO : Taphonomic Studies in Honor of C.K. (Bob) Travis Rayne Pickering, Kathy Schick, and Nicholas Toth, editors

Number 3. THE CUTTING EDGE: New Approaches to the of Origins Kathy Schick, and Nicholas Toth, editors

Number 4. THE EVOLVING: Paleoneurological Studies in Honor of Ralph L. Holloway Douglas Broadfield, Michael Yuan, Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth, editors STONE AGE INSTITUTE PUBLICATION SERIES NUMBER 4 Series Editors Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth THE HUMAN BRAIN EVOLVING: Paleoneurological Studies in Honor of Ralph L. Holloway

Editors Douglas Broadfield Florida Atlantic University

Michael Yuan Columbia University

Kathy Schick Stone Age Institute & Indiana University

Nicholas Toth Stone Age Institute & Indiana University

Stone Age Institute Press · www.stoneageinstitute.org 1392 W. Dittemore Road · Gosport, IN 47433 FRONT COVER CAPTIONS

Center: Portrait of Ralph L. Holloway. Upper left: A modern human brain. Upper right: Ralph measuring landmarks on an ca. 1976. Lower right: habilis cranium KNM-ER-1813 from , (photo by Holloway). Lower left: Ralph with an endocast of the Flores “hobbit” cranium.

Published by the Stone Age Institute. ISBN-10: 0-9792276-3-1 ISBN-13: 978-0-9792276-3-9 Copyright © 2010, Stone Age Institute Press.

All right reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without permission in writing from the publisher. CHAPTER 19

Hominin Brain Reorganization, Technological Change, and Cognitive Complexity

Nicholas Toth and Kathy Schick

Abstract long distances of stones used in making , de-fleshing carcasses, or even cannibalism. This chapter will discuss the relationships be- Holloway (1967, 1969, 1981) suggested that stone tween hominin brain (encephalization, reor- making and language might have had similar ganization) and the prehistoric archaeological record, cognitive underpinnings, particularly if the stone most notably prehistoric technological material culture tools showed clear evidence of standardization of and behavioral patterns, to assess the cognitive capabili- form from elements (e.g. cobbles) that had very ties evident within different grades of hominins through different initial shapes.” time. Seven time intervals, spanning from 3.25 million ago to the present, are sampled to examine major Ralph Holloway, Douglas Broadfield, and Michael changes in hominin evolution, , and behavior Yuan, 2004. The Human Record, Volume over that period of time. Holloway et al.’s (2004) pro- Three: Brain - The Paleoneurological posed three major stages of hominin brain evolution will Evidence. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. Pp. 288- be discussed in this context. We will argue that each of 289. these three stages appear to be correlated with important “If were lard, Jethro couldn’t grease a changes in material culture and behavior as . Hy- skillet.” potheses that attempt to explain the causes of hominin encephalization and brain reorganization are discussed. Jed Clampett discussing his hapless nephew in the 1960’s sitcom The Beverly Hillbillies. Key Words The hominin fossil record, built up over the past 150 years, has shown us many of the major trends in human Brain evolution, evolution of human cognition, Pal- evolution pertaining to anatomy and functional morphol- aeolithic archaeology, stone tools ogy. Studies of extant non-mammalian and mammalian (of particular interest, ) have shown us Introduction relationships between brain anatomy and behavioral, perceptual, and problem-solving capabilities. Ralph Hol- “The earliest phases of hominid existence are loway has been at the forefront of human brain evolu- particularly open to speculative embroidery. But tion studies for over four decades. We have personally when all is said and done, it remains the stone known him for three of those decades, and have valued tool industries or traditions that can inform us most his scholarship, collegiality, and friendship. This chapter about hominid cognitive abilities. This does not is inspired by the corpus of work that Ralph and his col- mean that we disregard archaeological contexts leagues have done in paleoneurology, and the impact this such as the faunal remains, home bases, the work has had in human origins research. evidence (or lack of it) for fire, importation over The human palaeontological record and the prehis- 294 3 The Human Brain Evolving: Papers in Honor of Ralph L. Holloway Toth and Schick 4 295 toric archaeological record are the two major lines of for geological periods as opposed of the highly contro- evidence that shed light on the evolution of human cog- versial restructuring of the Plio- boundary: nitive abilities. Brain endocasts from fossil hominin cra- here we will show dates for the (ca. 5.3 to 1.8 nia can yield important information regarding , million years ago); Early Pleistocene (ca. 1.8 million to possible brain to body relationships, and brain structure 780,000 years ago); Middle Pleistocene (ca. 780,000- and organization. The archaeological record can yield 125,000 ago); Late Pleistocene (ca. 125,000 years important information regarding technological patterns, ago to 11,000 years ago); (11,000 years ago foresight and planning, skill, cognitive capabilities, and to the present.) The dating of hominin fossils, notably dexterity. In this chapter we will review the human pal- those found on the surface in contexts without applicable aeontological and archaeological record, sampling time techniques, is sometimes ambiguous, intervals of 500,000 years to explore the relationships so we have been as cautious as possible in assigning between hominin brain reorganization, technological dates to these important fossils. The earliest dates for change, and cognitive complexity. We will examine the are somewhat controversial, but here we major stages of brain evolution forwarded by Holloway will use a date of approximately 1.75 million years. et al. (2004) and see whether these appear to be roughly There is much debate regarding the taxonomic status contemporaneous with behavioral punctuations in the of early hominin fossil as well as evolutionary ancestor- prehistoric archaeological record. descendant relationships between taxa. In this chapter As palaeoanthropologists and experimental archae- we will take a conservative position, for example some- ologists focusing on Palaeolithic archaeology, we each times grouping the taxa and Homo have over 35 years of experience in stone- and habilis into “early Homo.” We group the proposed taxa other forms of material culture over a wide range of hu- , Homo georgicus, and Homo anteces- man through time. This experience hope- sor into Homo erectus. We also group most non-erectus fully gives us enhanced insights into the level of skill and hominin fossils between 750,000 and 250,000 years ago planning that is required to produce a given form into (what some researchers pre- or set of artifacts, as well as into what types of prehistoric fer to call “archaic Homo sapiens.” We will assign the artifacts may have been intentionally produced or simply Neandertals to their own , Homo neandertalensis, represent by-products of manufacture or use. We also although some anthropologists would include them in have extensive experience in experimentally using stone our own species. We will also group most non-Nean- tools for a host of activities, including butchery dertal fossils of the last 250,000 years (excluding rel- for meat consumption, bone-breaking for marrow and ict Homo erectus fossils of East Asia and the enigmatic brain tissue processing, nut-cracking, wood-working, Flores fossils) into Homo sapiens (anatomically modern hide-scraping, etc. These experiments have provided us or near-modern ). This includes all of the Afri- a wealth of experience to inform insights into the subtle can fossils from North and Sub-Saharan Africa relationships between tool form and tool function. in this time period. In this chapter we will also use the In past publications we have discussed aspects of mean cranial capacities of hominin taxa and estimated the relationships between prehistoric material culture anthropocentric encephalization quotient or EQ (modern and hominin brain evolution and cognition, includ- human =1.00; modern = 0.34) reported by ing Schick and Toth, 1993, 2009; Toth, 1985a, 1985b, Holloway et al. (2004). 1990;Toth and Schick, 1993, 2006; Toth, Schick, and While it is appreciated that at any stage of human Semaw, 2006; Stout et al., 2000, 2006, 2009, 2010. evolution, we can only be sure we are seeing minimal, We refer the reader to a number of other publications but not necessarily maximal expressions of cognitive involving hominin brain evolution and the archaeologi- abilities in the form of the material culture and behav- cal record, for example Allman, 2000; Ambrose, 2001; ioral patterns of prehistoric hominins (for example the Bar Yosef, 2002; Coolidge and Wynn, 2009; Deacon, relatively simple, traditional material culture of the pro- 1997; Falk, 1987; Gibson, 1986; Gowlett, 1996; Gibson tohistoric Tasmanians is the product of one Homo sapi- and Ingold, 1993; Holloway, 1967, 1969, 1981; Isaac, ens society with modern cognitive and language abili- 1986; Lindly and Clark, 1990; McBrearty and Brooks, ties, but clearly not manifesting such complex abilities 2000; McGrew, 1992; Mellars and Gibson, 1996; Mel- in their tools and technology relative to contemporary lars et al., 2007; Mithen, 1996; Noble and Davidson, agricultural and industrialized societies), this is nonethe- 1996; Parker and Gibson, 1979; Parker and McKinney, less the most important and reliable source of informa- 1999; Pelegrin, 2005; Renfrew and Scarre, 1998; Ren- tion that we can recover in the archaeological record. We frew et al. 2009; Roux and Bril, 2005; Schoenemann, can also search for the most complex and exceptional 2006; Stout 2002, 2005a, 2005b, 2006; Washburn 1959, forms of material culture at a particular stage of human 1960; Wynn 1989; and Wynn and McGrew 1989. For evolution to see evidence for the most advanced level of overviews of the Palaeolithic archaeological record, see cognitive abilities and skill manifested at that time. Ambrose, 2001; Delson et al., 2000; Klein, 2009; Oak- ley, 1976; Schick and Toth, 1993; Toth and Schick, 2007. This chapter will use the conventional designations Toth and Schick 4 295

Stages of Hominin Brain Evolution ality skills c. By inference, growing elaboration of cultural (Holloway et al., 2004) skills based on language Holloway et al. (2004, pp. 289-291) has proposed e. By inference, arbitrary symbol systems three major stages of hominin brain reorganization (here f. By inference, feedback between behavioral com- we will also add a “Stage 0” to denote a hypothetical plexity (including stone technology) and brain ape-like last common African ape/human ancestor): enlargement STAGE 0: Last common ancestor of African chim- The authors point out that there is little structural panzees/ and hominins (ca. 7-8 million years or brain size difference evident (based on endocasts) ago). Ape-like features of brain organization (hypotheti- between Homo heidelbergesis, neandertalensis, and cal) might include: sapiens. a. An ape-like, anterior position of the lunate indicating more primary visual cortex than seen Theories of Encephalization and in hominins b. Less posterior association cortex than seen in Hominin Cognitive Evolution hominins There is a general appreciation that, in primate c. An overall African ape-like (-, chimpan- evolution, larger brains and larger brain/body size ratios zee-, -like) size (ca. 350-450 cc) and ape- are correlated with higher cognitive skills. Popular the- like organization of the brain ories of why hominins became encephalized and more cognitively complex has been vigorously debated. One STAGE 1: Earlier grade (e.g. Aus- complication in this debate is that many hypotheses have tralopithecus afarensis and africanus, by ca. 3.5 million been difficult or impossible to test in the prehistoric re- years ago). Neurological and cognitive changes at this cord, at least at our present state of knowledge and meth- stage include: odological sophistication. To date, there does not seem to a. Reduction of primary visual cortex (as seen in a be one overarching theory that has been championed by more posterior position of the ) palaeoanthropologists and palaeoneurologists. Various b. Relative increase in posterior association cortex theories offered to help explain the profound encephali- (a human-like pattern) zation observed in the course of hominin evolution have c. A reorganization of the brain before any major included the extracted food hypothesis (Gibson, 1986, expansion in overall brain size 2002), the predation hypothesis (Shipman and Walker, d. The beginnings of a development in cerebral 1989), the social brain hypothesis (Dunbar 1992, 1993, asymmetries (beyond that seen in modern apes?) 2003), the expensive tissue hypothesis (Aiello and e. By inference, the possibility of more foresight Wheeler, 1995), the maternal energy hypothesis (Martin, and memory as compared to modern apes 1996, this volume), and the symbolic hypothesis (Dea- con, 1997). STAGE 2: early Homo grade (e.g. Homo rudolfen- sis, , early Homo ergaster/erectus, by Rationale for this Study and ca. 1.9 million years ago). Neurological and cognitive changes at this stage include: The Time Intervals Sampled Here a. An overall increase in brain volume and en- We have decided to sample human evolutionary cephalization quotient time in half-million year intervals (with the exception b. Clear-cut and modern human-like brain of the last time period sampled being the last 250,000 asymmetries years) in order to see robust changes in hominin brain c. A prominent Broca’s cap region evolution and material culture as manifested in the pre- d. By inference, more strongly developed language historic record. The intervals that we have selected, in capabilities and language behavior our opinion, best show the of new hominin e. By inference, increased postnatal development taxa and, potentially, new patterns of hominin neuro- and learning logical reorganization. These neurological changes will f. By inference, social leaning in tool-making, be correlated with changes in the material culture and , collecting, scavenging, and reproduc- known behavior of these hominins. We have started our tive strategies first time interval (Time Interval One) to include a phase STAGE 3: Homo heidelbergensis/neandertalen- which pre-dates any definite archaeological record. Time sis/sapiens grade (by ca. 500,000 years ago to present). Interval Two includes the emergence of the first defini- Neurological and cognitive changes at this stage include: tive flaked stone tools. For each time interval, we will a. An overall increase in brain size and encephali- normally only cover the new technological and behav- zation quotient ioral traits that emerge for the first time in the prehistoric b. Refinement in hemispherical asymmetries and record; it can be assumed that traits that emerged in pre- specializations for visuospatial, verbal, and soci- vious time intervals continue on in more recent times. 296 3 The Human Brain Evolving: Papers in Honor of Ralph L. Holloway Toth and Schick 4 297 Our time intervals and the most encephalized homi- Estimated encephalization quotient (Homocentric): nins are: 0.43. For comparison, the mean EQ for is Time Interval One: (3.25-2.75 Ma) Australopithe- 0.24, and the mean for chimpanzees is 0.34. cus afarensis (Holloway et al. Stage 1) Technological stage: unknown. Time Interval Two: (2.75-2.25 Ma) Australopithe- cus garhi/africanus (Holloway et al. Stage 1) Discussion of the Archaeological Record …………………………………………………….. There is no definitive evidence of hominin modi- fied stones, bones, or other materials during this time Time Interval Three: (2.25-1.75 Ma) early Homo period. Based on own knowledge of mate- (habilis/rudolfensis) (Holloway et. al. Stage 2) rial culture and cultural traits (McGrew, 1992; Whiten et Time Interval Four: (1.75-1.25 Ma) early Homo al. 1999), we can speculate on a range of possible types erectus (Holloway et al. Stage 2) of tool-use and other types of cultural phenomenon, but Time Interval Five: (1.25-0.75 Ma) later Homo without hard prehistoric evidence it still remains a matter erectus (Holloway et al. Stage 2) of conjecture. In a study carried out by the authors (Toth and Schick, 2009d; Whiten et al. 2009), the relation- …………………………………………………….. ship between the number of shared cultural traits in wild chimpanzees versus distance between study areas was Time Interval Six: (0.75-0.25 Ma) Homo heidelber- carried out. At the subspecies level (but not the species gensis (Holloway et al. Stage 3) level) a strong and statistically significant correlation Time Interval Seven: (0.25 Ma-present) Homo was found, with study areas in closer proximity having neandertalensis/H. sapiens (Holloway et al. Stage 3) more shared cultural traits than study areas further apart. At approximately 700 kilometers there was a drop-off An Examination of the Prehistoric of less than half the number of maximum shared traits (from a maximum of eight to less than four traits), which Archaeological Record was used as a model for possible patterns of shared cul- Please note: For further general information and de- tures among early hominin Early Stone Age archaeologi- tailed references for the sites, fossils, taxa, and archaeo- cal sites. Archaeological localities closer than 700 kilo- logical localities discussed here, the reader is referred to meters (about 450 miles) to each other at a given time encyclopedic references in the field such as Klein (2009) would theoretically share more cultural traits than sites and Delson et al. (2000). References included here will more distant from each other. center on specific information and arguments made re- It should be noted that a recent claim has been made garding the subjects discussed below. for use and bone modification at approximately 3.4 million years (McPherron et al., 2010). This is based Time Interval One: 3.25 Million to 2.75 on two surface bones at Dikika, with Million Years Ago (Middle Pliocene). alleged chop-marks and cut-marks. Since these bones were found on the surface, their provenience cannot be Overview: This is the time period of the small- ascertained with confidence, and a number of research- brained bipedal hominin afarensis. ers have voiced skepticism regarding the cut-mark evi- There is no definitive archaeology associated with this dence, e.g. Dominguez-Rodrigo et al., 2010 and Ship- hominin form, although there are footprints of three in- man, 2010. There have been four decades of research in dividuals in a volcanic ash deposit at Laetoli, fossiliferous deposits between 2.6 and 3.5 million years at 3.5 million years. (The Stage 1 brain reorganization ago, and not one stone artifact or cut-marked bone has may have happened at an earlier, -grade ever been discovered. Until such time as clear-cut modi- hominin, possibly including fossils assigned to Sahelan- fied stone artifacts or non-controversial tool-modified thropus and dating to between 4.5 and 6 million bones are found in a well-dated, stratified context, such years ago, but this has yet to be demonstrated). claims must remain unsubstantiated. Most encephalized hominin: Australopithecus afarensis. Time Interval Two: 2.75 to 2.25 Million Holloway et al. brain evolution stage: Stage 1. Years Ago (Later Pliocene) Key hominin cranial fossil sites: Hadar, Ethiopia. Overview: This time interval documents the emer- gence of the first identifiable stone tools (Oldowan In- Other fossil sites: Laetoli, Tanzania; Maka (Middle dustrial Complex) and new hominin taxa: in , Awash), Ethiopia. the emergence of and the mega- Average cranial capacity: 445 cc (Holloway et al., dont Australopithecus () aethiopicus; in 2004). For comparison, the mean for modern goril- , the emergence of Australopithecus africa- las is 500 cc, and the mean for chimpanzees is 405 nus. There does not appear to be a significant increase in cc. brain size or EQ from the previous Australopithecus afa- Toth and Schick 4 297

rensis time period. Surface occurrences of cut-marked • Flakes and fragments struck from cores, nor- bones are known also from this time period, notably mally unmodified (not retouched). from the Gona and the of Ethiopia. • Later stages of cobble reduction (Toth et al., Most encephalized hominins: Australopithecus 1985b, 2006) are typical at many sites, suggest- garhi, Australopithecus africanus, Australopithecus ing transport of partially-flaked cores and further (Paranthropus) aethiopicus. reduction at the excavated sites. Holloway et al. brain evolution stage: Stage 1. • Even in this early period there seems to be some Key hominin cranial fossil localities: Bouri, Middle indication of selection for higher-quality raw Awash, Ethiopia (A. garhi); , Maka- materials and some transport of stone from their pansgat, and Taung, South Africa (A. africanus); sources (mainly river gravels flowing out of volca- West Turkana, Kenya [A. (P.) aethiopicus]. nic highlands and -rich outcrops). Average cranial capacity: • Probable cut-marks, chop-marks, and hammer- stone striations on animal bones, indicating process- Australopithecus garhi: 450 cc (one specimen). ing with stone tools for meat and marrow/brains. Sur- Australopithecus africanus: 461 cc. face bones from Gona and bones from the Hata Beds in the Middle Awash of Ethiopia show such features, Australopithecus (Paranthropus) aethiopicus: but confirmation of these features from in situ, exca- 431 cc (one specimen). vated, stratified sites (as we will see in the next time Estimated encephalization quotient (Homocentric): interval) will be important in the future. 0.46 (A. africanus). Experiments with bonobos (Toth et al., 1993, 2006; Technological stage: early Oldowan. Schick et al., 1999) have shown that these modern apes (with average cranial capacities just slightly smaller than Key archaeological sites: Gona, Hadar, and Omo, Australopithecus garhi) can master the basic principles Ethiopia; Lokalalei (West Turkana), Kenya. of percussive stone fracture of unmodified Gona volca- Discussion of the Archaeological Record nic cobbles, although the resultant products appear to It is during this time interval that the first clear evi- show less knapping skill than that of the early Oldowan dence of hominin material culture is found. The archaeo- hominins 2.6 million years ago at Gona, Ethiopia. In par- logical sites from this time are all on the African conti- ticular, the bonobo cores are less reduced and show more nent. At Gona in the Afar Rift region of Ethiopia, several battering on core edges from unsuccessful sites (EG-10, EG-12, OGS-6, OGS-7, DAN 1, DAS 7) blows. The evidence suggests that the bonobos are strik- are dated to between 2.6 and 2.5 million years ago. Sev- ing the cores with their at a significantly eral sites are dated to approximately 2.3 million years lower velocity than the Gona hominins, so that the major ago: sites AL-666 and AL-894 at Hadar, Ethiopia; sites differences in skill in stone knapping may be more bio- Omo 71, Omo 84, Omo 57, Omo 123, FtJj1, FtJi2, and mechanical than cognitive. FtJi5 in the Omo Valley, Ethiopia; and sites Lokalalei 1 It would appear that, at our present state of knowl- and 2c at West Turkana, Kenya. Stone artifacts have also edge, the earliest known stone tool-makers were rela- been found in situ at the Pliocene site of Ain Boucherit in tively small-brained, bipedal that ex- , and biostratigraphy may suggest a similar date hibit no evidence of marked encephalization or evidence (M. Sahnouni, pers. comm.) The archaeological record of a significant tooth reduction. Nonetheless, the earliest is characterized by: flaked stone artifacts suggest a gradual technological and • A simple Oldowan technology, normally with adaptive shift towards the human condition. Whether river cobbles or chunks knapped to produce sharp even earlier Palaeolithic archaeological sites, possibly flakes and fragments. Unifacial and bifacial chop- from Time Interval One (3.25-2.75 million years ago), per cores are most common, with polyhedrons, will be found still remains uncertain. heavy-duty scrapers, and discoids also present. Ex- perimentation has shown that these core forms can Time Interval Three: 2.25 to 1.75 Million be produced as a by-product of flake production, Years Ago (Late Pliocene/Early Pleistocene) although some of the larger, sharper cores could Overview: This is the beginning of Holloway et al.’s have been used for wood-working or other activi- brain evolution Stage 2. There is clear evidence of en- ties. Summaries of the Oldowan include Schick cephalization and probable rise in EQ of these forms, and Toth, 2006 and Semaw, 2006. probably important reorganization in the hominin brain • Battered percussors are found in the form of river leading to more profound hemispheric asymmetries cobbles that exhibit battering and small-scale flak- (petalias), and possibly preferential right-handedness in ing on discrete cortical surfaces, indicating their these tool-making populations (Toth, 1985a). use as a hammerstones. Most encephalized hominins: Homo habilis/ rudolfensis. 298 3 The Human Brain Evolving: Papers in Honor of Ralph L. Holloway Toth and Schick 4 299 Holloway et al. brain evolution stage: Stage 2. flake edges may require more complex cognitive abilities. For the first time, hominins appear to be Other hominins: Australopithecus (Paranthropus) intentionally shaping stone, albeit in a simple way. boisei/robustus. • Highly battered spheroids and subspheroids in Key hominin cranial fossil localities: Koobi Fora quartz and lava become more common in this time (East Turkana), Kenya; (Bed I), interval. Experiments have shown that these forms Tanzania. are probably hammerstones, some of which were Average cranial capacity: used for several hours of knapping, either because the spheroid/subspheroid was carried around or Homo rudolfensis: 788 cc. because sites were revisited on a regular basis and Homo habilis: 610 cc. the hammers re-used (Schick and Toth, 1994; Toth and Schick, 2009c). Using a quartz hammerstone “Early Homo”: 698 cc. for four hours can produce thousands of flaked Estimated encephalization quotient: stone artifacts (fragments, flakes, cores), so that this time could have been spread over weeks or Homo rudolfensis: 0.66. months. Homo habilis: 0.62. • Cut-marks on animal bones are present at a num- “Early Homo”: ca 0.64. ber of sites, especially at the FLK Zinj site in Bed I of Olduvai Gorge show that early hominins were Key archaeological sites: Fejej, Ethiopia; East Tur- exploiting a wide range of large . kana (KBS Member sites) and Kanjera, Kenya; Bed Whether these were obtained through 1 Olduvai Gorge (Bed I), Tanzania; Ain Hanech and more passive scavenging (e.g remains of carni- El-Kherba, Algeria; Sterkfontein, and Kromdraai, vores, or carcasses obtained from streams during South Africa. migrations), confrontational scavenging, or active Technological stage: Oldowan and Developed hunting is hotly debated by zooarchaeologists. Oldowan. • Although most raw materials were obtained within Discussion of the Archaeological Record a few kilometers of archaeological sites, some sites A larger number of sites date to this time interval suggest transport of some rock for longer dis- compared to the previous time interval. This suggests tances, on the order of ten to twenty kilometers. that flaked stone technologies were becoming more This is far beyond the range of transport of food or widespread and there was more habitual use of flaked tools by chimpanzees today. and battered stone technology in these hominin popu- lations. All of the sites in this time period would be Time Interval Four: 1.75 to 1.25 Million grouped into the Oldowan Industrial Complex. Years Ago (Early Pleistocene) • Oldowan archaeological sites become more com- mon in this time interval, all found on the African Overview: This time interval documents the emer- continent. gence of Homo erectus and the disappearance of other forms of early Homo. Early Homo erectus (sometimes • For the first time, retouched forms, usually made called Homo ergaster) had a significantly larger brain on flakes or flake fragments (such as “scrapers” than earlier and other contemporary hominin forms and and “awls”) become common at some sites after had body proportions more like modern humans. The two million years ago. Such retouch might be done first evidence of hominins outside of Africa is found early to resharpen an edge. Experiments have shown in this time interval. The earliest handaxe and that such retouched denticulated (“toothed”) flake industries are also found in this time interval. edges make very good, long-lasting butchery Most encephalized hominins: earlier Homo erectus (Toth and Schick, 2009c, in press). Re- (ergaster/georgicus). touch may also be done to shape or strengthen an edge for a specific activity, such as scraping wood Holloway et al. brain evolution stage: Stage 2. or hide, or to remove irregularities or spurs along Other hominins: Homo habilis (?relict populations); edges to make the tools more ergonomic in the Australopithecus (Paranthropus) boisei/robustus. hand. Based on the fact that it does not appear that hominins prior to 2.0 million years were retouch- Key hominin cranial fossil localities: Gona, Ethio- ing edges to any great extent, and that our experi- pia; Koobi Fora (East Turkana), Nariokotome (West mental program with bonobos has not shown them Turkana), Kenya; Olduvai Gorge (Bed II), Tanza- to retouch flake edges (even when given a flake nia; Nyambusosi, ; , South Af- whose edge has been ground down to make cutting rica; ‘, ; , Republic of Geor- impossible), it is likely that such lithic retouch of gia; Sangiran, Java. Toth and Schick 4 299

Average cranial capacity: ca. 800 cc. Holloway et al. brain evolution stage: Stage 2. Estimated encephalization quotient: 0.58. Other hominins: possibly Austalopithecus (Paran- thropus) boisei/robustus. Key archaeological sites: Konso Gardula, , Ethiopia; East Turkana (Okote Member Key hominin cranial fossil localities: Buia, Eritrea; sites) and Chesowanja, Kenya. Olduvai Gorge (Bed Daka (Middle Awash), Ethiopia; Sambungmacan II) and Peninj, Tanzania; Nyambusosi, Uganda; and Trinil, Java; Lantian, ; Atapuerca Gran Swartkrans, South Africa; Dmanisi, Republic of Dolina (TD6), ; Ceprano, . ; ‘Ubeidiya, Israel. Average cranial capacity: ca. 950 cc. Technological stage: early Acheulean (and simpler Estimated encephalization quotient: 0.68. industries). Technological stage: middle Acheulean (and sim- Discussion of the Archaeological Record pler industries). This time interval includes typical Oldowan sites and so-called “Developed Oldowan” sites (with more re- Key archaeological sites: Buia, Eritrea; Daka (Mid- touched forms and battered spheroids and subspheroids), dle Awash), Ethiopia; Olorgesailie and Kariandusi, and the emergence of the first Acheulean sites. Kenya; Olduvai Gorge (Beds 3 and 4 and Masek • Early Acheulean forms include crude handaxes, Beds); Ternifine (Tighenif), Algeria; Gesher Benot cleavers, and picks made on large flakes struck Ya’aqov, Israel; Orce and Atapuerca Gran Dolina, from boulder-cores (usually lava, quartz, or Spain; Nihewan Basin, China. ) or made on large cobbles. Much of the Discussion of the Archaeological Record rest of the stone technology associated with early • During this time interval we see better-made Acheulean sites is very similar to Oldowan and handaxes and cleavers, more symmetrical and Developed Oldowan assemblages. more extensively flaked. Examples of typical • This time period witnesses the first evidence of Acheulean forms come from sites in the Buia area hominins out of Africa and dispersal into Eurasia of Eritrea; sites in the Daka member of the Mid- at sites such as Dmanisi in the Republic of Geor- dle Awash, Ethiopia; Olorgesailie, Kenya; Terni- gia, ‘Ubeidiya in Israel, and Sangiran in Java. fine, Algeria; and Gesher Benot Ya’aqov in Israel. Hard-hammer percussion seems to be the techno- • Although there is evidence for the presence of fire logical norm in biface (handaxe and cleaver) pro- at some sites (e.g. Swartkrans in South Af- duction, often made on large flakes struck from rica and the FxJj20 site complex at Koobi Fora, boulder-cores. By this technological stage there Kenya), it cannot be demonstrated that hominins are recurrences of very similar forms that suggest were the agents of manufacture or use of fire, and to us the emergence of style and a concept of a these burnt bones and/or thermally fractured stone “mental template” or the idea of a distinct artifact artifacts could be the result of natural fires sweep- form in the mind of the toolmaker (Deetz, 1967). ing across the landscape. Whether early hominins Such templates become even more standardized in at this stage could have maintained naturally oc- the subsequent later Acheulean, Middle Palaeo- curring fires for a certain time period cannot be lithic, and Upper Palaeolithic, to be discussed in demonstrated at our present state of knowledge. later time intervals. Time Interval Five: 1.25 to 0.75 Million • There is evidence of the use of fire at Gesher Benot Years Ago (Later Early Pleistocene) Ya’aqov in Israel (Goren-Inbar et al., 2004), but most sites of this time period do not show the use of fire Overview: It is during this time interval that the in the form of features or concentrations of robust australopithecines appear to go extinct, leaving burnt bones or stones. Fire-making is a very complex Homo erectus as the sole hominin (in all its regional technology (most modern humans, even if they know variations in Africa and Eurasia). Average cranial capac- the basic principles, cannot easily produce fire), so ity appears to go up in this time interval (ca. 950 cc com- this may be evidence of the maintenance of natural pared to 800 cc in the previous time interval). In much brushfires rather than production. Consistent use (and of Africa and the Near East there is a continuation of presumably knowledge of manufacture) of fire does the Acheulean handaxe/cleaver industries, but Oldowan- not appear until the subsequent time interval. like Mode 1 industries (sometimes called “Tayacian”) are common in East Asia and Europe. This technological • Gesher Benot Ya’aqov in Israel also bears evidence dichotomy is sometimes called the “Movius Line” after of early fish and crustacean (crab) exploitation Harvard professor Hallum Movius who was one of the on the edge of an ancient lake in the Rift first to note this (Movius, 1948; Schick, 1994). Valley (Alperson-Afil et al., 2009). Such exploi- Most encephalized hominin: later Homo erectus. tation will only become common in the last time scale (last 250,000 years). 300 3 The Human Brain Evolving: Papers in Honor of Ralph L. Holloway Toth and Schick 4 301 • There is evidence for nut-cracking in the form techniques for tool production, new categories of tools of broken nuts (five species) and pitted anvils at in evidence at some sites, indirect evidence of improved Gesher Benot Ya’aqov in Israel, but since wild hunting technology, and possible evidence of symbolic chimpanzees do similar activities, this is probably behavior, including the use of ocher . not a significant cognitive milestone (Goren-Inbar • Refined handaxes and cleavers (some made by et al., 2002). a soft-hammer technique with careful platform preparation, as discussed below) become common Time Interval Six: 750,000 to 250,000 Years in this time interval. Microwear analysis of later Ago (Earlier Middle Pleistocene) Acheulean handaxes from some well-preserved sites, e.g. Hoxne (Keeley, 1980) and Boxgrove Overview: This time interval documents the emer- (Mitchell, 1995; Pitts and Roberts, 1997; Roberts gence of the larger-brained Homo heidelbergensis and Parfitt, 1999), indicate wear-patterns consis- (sometimes called “archaic Homo sapiens”). It also tent with animal butchery. documents the development of finely made Acheulean handaxes and cleavers and a gradual shift to flake tool • Soft hammers of antler, bone, or ivory or softer industries, some with prepared core technologies, of stone were evidently used at many localities to the /Middle Palaeolithic. The earliest produce finely flaked stone artifacts beginning wooden are known from this time as well as the around 500,000 years ago. Use of such soft ham- first possible evidence of ritualistic behavior. mers is evident in the pattern of flaking observ- Holloway et al. brain evolution stage: The begin- able in stone tools, and in some instances such ning of Stage 3. Hominins in Africa, Europe, and soft hammers themselves have been found, e.g. western Asia show encephalization (about 300 cc antler and bone percussors from Boxgrove, Eng- larger than later Homo erectus). land (Pitts and Roberts, 1997; Roberts and Parfitt, 1999). Use of such soft hammers allowed for thin- Most encephalized hominins: Homo heidelbergensis. ner flakes and more controlled shaping of stone Holloway et al. brain evolution stage: Stage 3. tools than did the use of harder stone hammers. Other hominins: Homo erectus (e.g. Asia, Java). • Platform preparation on the edges of cores and bifaces becomes common in this time interval, Key hominin cranial fossil localities: Bodo (Mid- especially at later Acheulean sites. Such striking dle Awash) and Gona, Ethiopia; Ndutu, Tanzania; platform preparation consists of steepening edges Kabwe (Broken Hill), ; Saldanha, South before flake removal, which normally produces Africa; Zuttiyeh and Tabun (lower levels), Israel; flakes (e.g. Levallois flakes and points, handaxe Swanscombe, England; Atapuerca Sima de Los thinning flakes) with “facetted” striking platforms Huesos, Spain; Arago, ; Altamura, Italy; (platforms showing multiple flake scars). Such Steinheim, ; Petralona, ; Narmada, careful preparation begins around 500,000 years ; Dalia and Yunxian, China. ago. Average cranial capacity: 1260 cc. •e W think that stylistic norms become more preva- Estimated encephalization quotient: 0.81. lent and more clearly defined in later Acheulean times. Recurrent shapes suggest that hominin tool- Technological stage: later Acheulean, early Mid- makers had more formal “mental templates” than dle Stone Age/Middle Palaeolithic (and simpler earlier hominins had, although not as standardized technologies). as later hominins. They also appear to have had Key archaeological sites: Bodo, Ethiopia; Olorge- more consistent control and skill in stone flaking. sailie, and Kapthurin, Kenya; Isimila, Tanzania; Ka- For example, at the later Acheulean site of Har- lambo Falls, Zambia; Elandsfontein and Montagu gufia A4 in the Middle Awash, perhaps 300,000 Cave, South Africa; Tihodaine, Algeria; Boxgrove, years old, small lava handaxes made on flakes are Hoxne, Clacton, and Swanscombe (England); Tor- remarkably similar in size, shape, and symmetry ralba, Ambrona, and Atapuerca Sima de Los Hue- (de Heinzelin et al., 2000). sos (Spain); Arago Cave, Lazaret Cave, and Terra • Prepared cores appear sporadically in the latter Amata (France), Isernia, Italy; Bilzingsleben and part of this time interval, but become more com- Schöningen (Germany); Vertesszollos, ; mon in the succeeding intervals. , China. • Wooden spears are seen at such well-preserved Discussion of the Archaeological Record sites as Schöningen in Germany (ca. 400,000 years A number of technological advances are ob- old) (Thieme, 1997, 1998, 2005) and the broken served in the archaeological record during this time in- tip from Clacton in England (ca. 300,000) terval. These include much more refined forms of arti- (Oakley et al., 1977). Carefully sharpened and facts, more formal tool forms, new and more elaborate shaped wooden spears suggest that they were part Toth and Schick 4 301

of hunting paraphernalia, either as hand-held stab- time interval. During this time, the Neandertals (Homo bing weapons or as thrown projectiles. neandertalensis) emerged and flourished in cold-adapted conditions in Europe and parts of western Asia, going • Possible big-game hunting has also been sug- extinct ca. 30,000 years ago. Anatomically modern hu- gested at some sites such as the Acheulean site of mans, Homo sapiens, emerged in Africa over 150,000 Boxgrove in England (ca. 500,000 years ago). The years ago and gradually spread to all inhabitable parts remains from several and horse skel- of the globe, including the Near East by about 100,000 etons bear butchery marks from stone tools (Pitts years ago, much of Eurasia by 40,000 years ago, Sahul and Roberts, 1997; Roberts and Parfitt, 1999). (the landmass when , New Guinea, and Tasma- • Micro-wear analysis on retouched flake scrapers nia were connected at low sea levels) by 40,000 years from sites of this period (e.g. Clacton, Hoxne) ago and the Americas by 12,000 years ago. (Keeley, 1980) indicate that a number of these Most encephalized hominins: Homo neandertalen- tools were used for hide-scraping, suggesting that sis and Homo sapiens. cured hides could have been used for such items as Holloway et al. brain evolution stage: Stage 3. blankets, simple garments, thongs for stitching or tying things together, or containers. Other hominin taxa: possibly Homo erectus (East Asia and Java); (?) • Ground pieces from sites such as Twin Rivers, Zambia, are believed to be about 300,000 Key hominin cranial fossil localities: years old (Barham, 2002). These facetted pieces Neandertal: Devil’s Tower and Forbes Quarry, of hematite may have been ground to produce a ; , La Chapelle-aux- powder to decorate an object (or body). Saints, , and Saint-Ce- • Possible ritualistic or funerary behavior may be saire, France; Feldhofer Grotto, Germany; seen at the Atapuerca locality, Sima de Los Hue- Spy and Engis, ; and Vindija, sos (ca. 400,000 years ago), where the remains of ; , Ukraine; Grotta Guattari approximately thirty individuals appear to have (Monte Circeo) and Saccopastore, Italy; Amud been disposed of down a forty-foot shaft in a cave and Tabun, Israel; Shanidar, ; Teshik-Tash, (Arsuaga and Martinez, 2004). Found with this . incredibly dense concentration of hominin bones Modern or near-modern human: Herto (Middle was one well-made quartzite red handaxe, which Awash) and Omo Kibbish, Ethiopia; Ngaloba, may have been intentionally put there by the homi- Tanzania; Florisbad, , Fish Hoek nins. Such behavior is not seen again until the last (Skildergat), and Tuinplaas, South Africa; 100,000 years. Singa, Sudan; Eyasi, Tanzania; • Abstract decoration may be seen in a geometric, and Dar es Soltane, ; Jebel Qafzeh and evenly-spaced fan-shaped set of cut-marks on a Skhul, Israel; Cro-Magnon, Solutre, Chancel- fragment of tibia from the site of Bilz- lade, , and Combe Capelle, France; ingsleben in eastern Germany, estimated to be be- Vogelherd, Germany; Grimaldi , Italy; tween 280,000 and 400,000 years ago (Mania and Mladec, Zlaty Kun, Pavlov, Predmosti, Brno, Mania, 2005). This is an unusual and anomalous Pavlov, and Dolni Vestonice, ; occurrence, and such design will not be seen again Bacho Kiro, ; Zhoukoudian Upper until the last 100,000 years. Cave, China; Lake Mungo and Kow Swamp, Australia. • At the Acheulean site of Berekhat Ram in the Go- lan Heights, dating to about 400,000 years ago Average cranial capacity: a small lava pebble with three apparent linear Homo neandertalensis: 1427 cc. has been interpreted by some (but not all) palaeanthropologists as an enhancement to create a Homo sapiens: 1496 cc (Pleistocene); today’s crude representation of a human figure (Goren-In- humans: 1335 cc. bar and Peltz, 1995). Convincing representations Estimated encephalization quotient: of human figures are only seen in the early Upper Palaeolithic of Europe in the last 40,000 years. Homo neandertalensis: 0.99. Homo sapiens: 0.90 (this e.q. disparity relative Time Interval Seven: 250,000 Years Ago to today’s humans [1.00] may be due to overes- to Present (Later Middle Pleistocene, Late timates of body size in the Pleistocene sample.) Pleistocene, Holocene) Technological stage: very late Acheulean, Middle Pa- Overview: Hominin average brain size increases by laeolithic/Middle Stone Age, Late Palaeolithic (Upper about 200 cc over Homo heidelbergensis in the previous Palaeolithic, Later Stone Age, Palaeoindian, etc.) 302 3 The Human Brain Evolving: Papers in Honor of Ralph L. Holloway Toth and Schick 4 303 Key archaeological sites: • Intentional burials are known from Neander- tal times (e.g. La Ferrassie, Le Moustier, and La 1. Neandertal archaeological sites: La Ferrassie, Chapelle in France; Shanidar, Iraq; and Kebara in Le Moustier, La Quina, Combe-Grenal, Pech Israel) but usually without any clear . de l’Aze, Arcy-sur-Cure, and Saint-Cesaire, France; La Cotte de St. Brelade, ; Zafar- • Prepared cores: Prepared core forms, most no- raya, Spain; , , Kebara tably Levallois tortoise-cores and Levallois point Cave, and possibly Quneitra, Israel; Tata and cores are found in many Middle Stone Age/Middle Szeleta Cave, Hungary; Krapina, Croatia. Palaeolithic assemblages. Neandertals continue using prepared core methods for removing flakes 2. Modern or near modern human archaeo- of a predetermined shape. Most notable are disc- logical sites: Pietersburg, Klasies River Cave, shaped Levallois tortoise-cores as well as Leval- Die Kelders Cave, Blombas Cave, Howieson’s lois point cores for removing triangular flakes. Poort, Apollo-11 Cave; Skildergat, Nelson Bay Such cores require careful preparation of the core Cave, Border Cave, Eland Bay Cave, Pinnacle topographical surface and also careful preparation Point (Mossel Bay), and Rose Cottage Cave, of the in order to successfully South Africa; Mumba, Tanzania; Ishango, remove the target flakes. This platform prepara- Zaire; Dar-es-Soltane, Morocco; , tion usually included faceting (removing small ; Skhul, Qafzeh, and Boker Tachtit, Is- flakes from the striking platform to steepen and rael; Ksar ‘Akil, Lenanon; Chauvet, Laugerie strengthen an edge before flake removal) and care- Haute, Abri Pautaud, Solutre, La Madeleine, fully shaping the striking platform to isolate one Mas d’Azil, Enlene, Pincevent, and area of high topography to strike with a percussor Cave, France; Parpallo, Castillo, Altamira, (giving the edge as shape that the French call the Cueva Morin, and El Juyo, Spain; Vogelherd, “chapeau de gendarme,” showing the profile of a Hohlenstein-Stadel, and Gonnersdorf, Ger- 19th century policeman’s Napoleonic hat). These many; Dolni Vestonice and Pavlov, Czech Re- are quite sophisticated cognitive operations, re- public; Mezhirich and Menzin, Ukraine; Istal- quiring a good sense of three-dimensional geom- losko, Hungary; Kostienki and Sunghir, ; etry as well as the mechanics of stone fracture. Mal’ta, Siberia; Zhoukoudien Upper Cave (China); Lake Mungo, Australia; Monte Verde, • There appears to be more variability in Nean- ; Blackwater Draw, . dertal lithic assemblages compared to earlier time periods. Archaeologists in Western Europe, for ex- Other contemporary hominins: Homo erectus, ample, have identified a number of Middle Palaeo- Homo soloensis, Homo floresiensis lithic variants, including the Typical , Discussion of the Archaeological Record Denticulate Mousterian, Quina Mousterian, Fer- A number of technological and behavioral changes rassie Mousterian, and Mousterian of Acheulean emerge in the earlier part of this time interval associated Tradition A and B. Explanations for these variants with Neandertal populations. Sites bearing evidence of have included cultural, functional, and chronologi- early modern humans early in this time period, contem- cal ones. It can also be argued that there are more porary with the Neandertal sites, also tend to show pat- tool types than is seen in earlier time periods. terns similar to those observed at Neandertal sites. Late • The Chatelperronian: Late Neandertals in in this time interval, when Neandertal populations were France, around 32,000 years ago, are associated declining and disappearing, many new behavioral and at several sites with technologies, backed technological advances associated with fully modern hu- blades or points, and ornamentation in bone and mans emerge in the archaeological record. ivory. This so-called Chatelperronian is  Neandertal technological and behavioral traits contemporary with anatomically modern humans include: in France and Upper Palaeolithic () • Retouched flake tools predominate in the Ne- blade technology. At present there is a lively de- andertal Middle Palaeolithic (Mousterian) tool bate regarding the nature of the Chatelperronian: kit, notably side scrapers, denticulated scrapers, Did it develop out of local Middle Palaeolithic tra- backed knives, and points. dition, was it adopted by contact with Aurignacian • Points: Some stone point forms (Levallois points, peoples, or is it the product of admixture of materi- retouched unifacial Mousterian points, bifacial als from Middle and overlying Upper Palaeolithic “Blattspitzen” points) could have been hafted onto strata? wooden shafts, for thrusting or thrown spears. Anatomically modern human technological and Some of these points have thinned bases, possibly behavioral traits: to facilitate this . Unifacial points made on Anatomically modern humans, in the first part of thin flakes are first known from the Middle Palaeo- this time interval, show little or no major technological lithic of Europe and the Near East. Toth and Schick 4 303 or behavioral differences with contemporary Neandertal around the world. Some of these designs may sym- populations. But as time goes on, much more complex bolically represent specific words or concepts, al- technological and behavioral innovations can be seen. though this is very difficult to verify archaeologi- Major behavioral and technological innovations ob- cally. Although the precise meaning of this abstract served in sites associated with anatomically modern hu- art is unknown, it has been argued that much of it mans during the latter phases of the Pleistocene include: could be entopic hallucinatory images seen dur- ing shamanistic trances (Lewis-Williams, 2002). • Elaborate burials: The first burials with elaborate Other repetitive abstract designs might stand for grave goods are found associated with anatomically specific words or concepts and be a form of incipi- modern humans. Elaborate burials may include red ent writing. Yet others classified as abstract may, in ochre, stone or bone tools, as well as high-status fact, be representational, perhaps illustrating traps, items, possibly denoting social rank, at some sites. or tents, or geographical features. Instances include the very early burial at Skhul in Israel of a modern human male cradling a wild pig • Very refined stone tools: By the later Upper Pal- mandible approximately 90,000 years ago, and the aeolithic of Europe, incredibly skilled stone tools very elaborate burial of several individuals at the were being made, such as the bifacial 28,000 year-old site of Sunghir in Russia, including leaf points. Heat treatment was also reportedly two juveniles and one 60-year old man, with thou- used on silcretes at the site of in sands of small beads that appear to have been sewn South Africa about 72,000 years ago (Brown et al., onto clothing, the two juveniles flanked by long 2009). Possible evidence of pressure flaking has mammoth tusks, and many other special tools and been argued for some bifacial points at the site materials accompanying the grave. of Blombos in South Africa from approximately 80,000 years ago (Moure and Henshilwood, 2010), • Blades: Although sporadic blade industries are but in our judgement the flaking of these pieces found in earlier times, systematic blade production appears to be indistinguishable from delicate soft based upon specially-prepared prismatic cores be- hammer retouch. comes prevalent in the Upper Palaeolithic/Later Stone Age as well as some Middle Stone Age in- • Bone, antler, and ivory tools: Bone tools (ex- dustries of Subsaharan Africa (e.g. Howieson’s cepting soft hammers for knapping) are very rare Poort). Blades, which are flakes at least twice as prior to the Upper Palaeolithic/Later Stone Age. long as they are wide, can be produced by hard Beginning about 40,000 years ago, there is a ma- hammer percussion, soft hammer percussion, and jor technological shift to other materials that can punch (indirect percussion) methods. Blades were be shaped into a range of forms that might not be made into a range of forms such as end scrapers, possible in stone, notably needles, spear throwers, burins, backed knives, awls, and points. and barbed . These materials would have been worked with stone tools such as burins and • Personal adornment: The earliest probable beads scrapers. Other artifacts include points, perforated are perforated shells from South Africa, North batons, and pressure flakers. Africa, and the Levant. These include shells from in South Africa, dated to ap- •  tools: Archaeological evidence proximately 80,000 years ago (Henshilwood et from Australia indicates that hunter-gatherers al., 2004), specimens from dated to there began to manufacture ground stone be- approximately 82,000 years ago (Bouzouggar et ginning possibly about 35,000 years ago (Austra- al., 2007), and ones from Israel dated by chemi- lian Archaeology, December 2010; Morwood and cal means to between 100,000 and 125,000 years Trezise, 1989). Ground stone tools such as axes ago (Vanhaeren et al., 2006). Interestingly, this are normally not as sharp as a flaked stone tool, may have been a short-lived or sporadic tradition, but ground edges can stay functional for longer pe- and the next probable beads are found in Kenya riods of time before resharpening (re-grinding) is at Enkapune Ya Muto at about 40,000 years ago required. Ground axes are a substantial investment (Ambrose, 1998) and in the Aurignacian of Eu- in time (requiring hours or even days to produce) and the Near East between 40,000 and 35,000 and are normally hafted to a handle with some years ago. form of binding material (hide, sinew, vine, veg- etable cordage, adhesive mastic, etc.) Such ground • Abstract decoration: A clear geometric designed stone tools become especially common in the last was inscribed with a stone tool on a piece of ochre 10,000 years with the rise of agricultural commu- at Blombos Cave in South Africa, dated to between nities around the world as forests were cleared to 75,000 and 100,000 years ago (Henshilwood et al., plant crops. 2009). Abstract designs are well-known in the Up- per Palaeolithic art traditions in cave paintings, • Representational art: The first clear evidence of engravings and mobilary art of Europe, and later representational art is seen in the form of early 304 3 The Human Brain Evolving: Papers in Honor of Ralph L. Holloway Toth and Schick 4 305 Upper Palaeolithic (Aurignacian) starting after This includes the ivory of a “lion-man” 40,000 years ago, including animal and human from Hohlenstein Stadel in Germany dated to in ivory as seen at Vogelherd (>30,000 32,000 years ago (Wynn et al., 2009), the “Uni- years ago) and (35,000 years ago) in corn” (actually a two-horned fantastic animal) Germany (Conard, 2009), and cave paintings such from Lascaux Cave from the French Perigord as at (32,000 years ago) in south- dated to about 15,000 years ago and the so-called west France (Clottes, 2001). Interestingly, the antlered “Sorcerer” from Trois Freres Cave (Leroi- first representational art in the prehistoric record Gourhan, 1967) in the French also dated is remarkably skilled and well-executed; unlike to approximately 15,000 years ago. other aspects of technology, there is no evidence • Tanged points: The of North Africa has of a long period of simplicity that predates this ex- tanged points which may date as early as 100,000 pressive competence. The earliest representational years ago. Such tangs must denote hafting, pre- art known in Africa comes from Apollo-11 Rock- sumably for a spear. Tanged points also emerge in shelter in in southern Africa (Bednarik, the Solutrean of Europe about 25,000 years ago. 2003), dating to about 26,000 years ago. • Spear Throwers: The first mechanical devices for • Religion: Although the roots of human religion propelling spears are found in the Upper Palaeo- very likely pre-date anatomically modern humans, lithic of Europe going back to about 20,000 years many scholars point to the rich symbolic content ago. These hooked sticks (known in the Aztec of Upper Palaeolithic art and elaborate mortuary world as atlatls) gave a hunters arm a longer le- practices to argue that there must have been well- ver with which to impart more speed (and distance established religious and ritualistic behavior as and/or penetration power) to a spear. well as a belief in an afterlife and a spirit world (Dickson, 1990). Some cave art authorities (e.g. • Geometric : Small retouched forms, Clottes and Lewis-Williams, 1998; Lewis-Wil- often made on blades or bladelets and in geomet- liams, 2002) have suggested that the best interpre- ric shapes (trapezoids, crescents, etc.), could have tation of Upper Palaeolithic religion was a trance- been used as elements of composite tools such as induced shamanistic one. In one study of Upper and knives. These forms emerge especially Palaeolithic art caves in the Pyrenees (Reznikoff in the later Upper Palaeolithic and become wide- and Dauvois, 1988), it was found that high con- spread in the of early Holocene Eurasia centrations of art in caves coincided with areas and in many Later Stone Age industries in Africa. of these caves with unusual acoustic properties • Ceramic figurines: At Dolni Vestonice in the (resonance and echoes), and suggested that these Czech Republic, fired clay figurines of animals painted areas were also areas of chanting or sing- and humans are dated to approximately 26,000 ing during rituals. years ago (Vandiver et al., 1989). These are the • Musical instruments: Although there have been earliest known ceramic technologies, pre-dating claims of musical instruments from the Middle by some 14,000 years. Palaeolithic, these have not been substantiated • Mythology and folklore motifs: It is likely that on closer scrutiny. The earliest definitive musi- true folk traditions were passed on from generation cal instruments are in the form of bone flutes and to generation by the Upper Palaeolithic. One such whistles from the Aurignacian stage of the early folklore motif (a story or joke) may be manifested Upper Palaeolithic, ca. 35,000 to 40,000 years ago in the form of a sculpture of a deer or ibex, peering (Conard et al., 2009). back at its rear, perhaps in the act of either def- • Notational tallies: During the Upper Palaeolithic, ecating or giving birth. On the end of the protrud- there are a number of marked bones, antlers, and ing object is a bird, which forms the hooked end stones, beginning around 32,000 years ago, which of the spear-thrower. Several sites in the French suggest that these objects may have been record- Pyrenees (and one site over 100 km north of the ing devices for counting or documenting natural sites in the Pyrenees) have yielded such sculptures phenomena (e.g., days, lunar months, numbers of engraved on antler spear-throwers, including very people or animals, etc.) (Marshack, 1991). Notable complete specimens from the site of examples include the Aurignacian bone plaques Mas d’Azil in the French Pyrenees dating to about from Abri Lartet and Blanchard in the French Dor- 16,000 years ago and from the nearby site of Be- dogne region. deilhac (Bahn, 1982). This recurring motif almost certainly represents a specific story maintained by • “Supernatural” imagery: Some of the iconogra- oral tradition, presumably over a wide area in this phy in Upper Palaeolithic art appears to represent region. entities which are not found in the natural world, and may represent some mythological creatures. • Natural history: Many of the representational Toth and Schick 4 305

animal images in painting, engraving, and sculp- greased hide put over a depression in the ground ture in the Upper Palaeolithic show a remarkable to hold water) to boil the water for (e.g. at degree of anatomical and behavioral detail. One El Miron Cave in Cantabrian Spain about 15,500 specimen in particular is exceptionally fascinating. years ago) (Nakazawa et al., 2009). One advantage At the French Magdalenian site of Mas d’Azil, an of boiling over roasting is that all of the nutrition antler carving (possibly part of a spear thrower) of a food (e.g. fats, prized by hunter-gatherers) can shows three horse heads: a small one (possibly be retained in a broth rather than drip away into a a young individual), a larger head (probably an fire. adult), and another large ‘flayed’ head showing the • Lamps: The earliest stone lamps are known from skull of a horse (Leroi-Gourhan, 1967). This piece the Upper Palaeolithic of Europe starting approxi- could represent the life history of a horse. mately 40,000 years ago, pecked or carved out of • Architecture: Although there may be a few struc- a variety of softer stones (Beaune, 1987). These tures associated with European Middle Palaeoli- lamps probably used an animal fat as a fuel and thic (presumably Neandertal) hominins, most rec- a wick of moss or some other vegetable material. ognizable or tent structures are known from the It is likely that torches were also used by this pe- Upper Palaeolithic, such as those from Mezhirich riod, but no direct evidence has yet been found for and Molodova (21,000 years ago) in the Ukraine, these. Dolni Vestonice and Pavlov (27,000 years ago) in • Pottery vessels: The first fired clay pots are known the Czech Republic, and Pincevent (12,000 years from late Pleistocene and early Holocene hunter- ago) in France (Vasil’ev et al., 2003). gatherer populations in eastern Asia including sites • : Impressions on fired clay at Dolni Ves- in (known as the early Jomon culture and tonice and Pavlov in the Czech Republic indicate possibly in eastern China and Russia, beginning that by 26,000 these occupants were weaving plant at least 13,000 years ago (Kuzmin, 2006; Rice, materials into , mats, or textiles (Soffer et 1999)). Such ceramic vessels could be storage con- al., 1998). Before the advent of pottery this could tainers or cooking pots (or both). During Holocene have been a very important technology for making times pottery would be independently invented I containers to carry foods, material culture, or, if the Near East, East Asia, and the Americas. lined with a waterproof material such as pitch, the • The emergence of “ethnicity”: There is a general storage or transport of water. appreciation that beginning about 40,000 years • Needles/Sewing The first bone needles appear ago, hominin material culture becomes much more about 25,000 years ago in the Upper Palaeolithic, variable in time and space. Stone tool types and art suggesting sophisticated sewn apparel. Upper styles can become very particular and geographi- Palaeolithic figurines from Siberia show humans cally and temporally diagnostic (for example, Au- with parka-like outfits, denoting their to rignacian split-based bone points and carinated these severe environments. end scrapers, backed points, Solutrean leaf points, Magdalenian sagaie and harpoons, • Grinding stones: Early mortars and pestles that and parrot-beaked burins) and painted were used to grind wild cereals are found in early pebbles.) agricultural sites in many parts of the world. Very early instances of such grinding stones have been • Longer-distance trade: The Upper Palaeolithic reported from a Palaeolithic site in Italy, where ev- indicates that trade reciprocity networks were idence is claimed for the grinding of starch grains greater than in earlier times, particularly between into flour 25,000 years ago (Aranguren et al., 25,000 and 15,000 years ago, with raw materials 2007), and from an early Holocene site in China, such as high-quality sometimes moving more where evidence for the grinding of acorns has been than 200 kilometers, and exotic materials such as suggested from 11,000 years ago (Liu et al., 2010). sea shells or Baltic also moving appreciable Such grinding stones became much more common distances (Mellars, 1996). with the rise of agricultural communities around • The peopling of New Worlds: Australia, the the world in the last 10,000 years. Americas, and Siberia: In the latter part of this • /boiling: Clearly-made hearth struc- Time Interval, human populations made significant tures, sometimes delineated by a circle of stones, incursions into new areas of the earth not previously are common in the Upper Palaeolithic (e.g., see inhabited by humans. Early occupation of Austra- Movius, 1966 and Leroi-Gourhan and Brézil- lia by modern humans began between 40,000 and lon, 1983). Large quantities of fire-cracked rocks 60,000 years ago during a glacial period when sea have suggested to some prehistorians that Upper levels were lower, but still requiring the crossing Palaeolithic people were dropping hot stones into of at least 60 miles of open sea between the Sunda water (ethnographically, this could be done in a land mass of southeastern Asia and the Sahel land 306 3 The Human Brain Evolving: Papers in Honor of Ralph L. Holloway Toth and Schick 4 307 mass that included Australia, New Guinea, Tasma- lieve that this neurological evolution may be the conse- nia, and nearby islands. Siberia was occupied by quence of expanding diet breadth and higher diet quality Upper Palaeolithic times, as early as 40,000 years supported by the use of stone tools and allowing for the ago in southern Siberia, and with substantial sites larger brain evident in evolving Homo (Homo habilis and throughout much of northeastern Asia established Homo rudolfensis) during this time. During Holloway et between 30,000 and 20,000 years ago. This region al.’s Stage 2, Oldowan sites become more prevalent and is widely thought to be the staging ground for hu- widespread on the African landscape, and we see the man immigrations into Beringia, the land bridge emergence of Acheulean tools, with large handaxes and between Siberia and Alaska exposed during the cleavers shaped from large flakes or cobbles. The spread glacial maximum and whose steppe-like grass- of hominins and tool cultures over much of the south- land likely supported large herds of herbivores, ern to middle latitudes of Eurasia is also evident during and then for the ultimate spread of these human Stage 2 of hominin brain evolution. populations into North America as the ice sheets During Holloway et al.’s Stage 3 of brain evolution, began to recede. Such migrations would indicate significant technological and adaptive advances are ob- populations armed with the appropriate tools and served in the archaeological record. During the early part technology to cope successfully with challenging of this phase, associated with Homo heidelbergensis, environments and crossings. these include the development of refined Later Acheu- lean tools, commonly including extremely symmetrical • Broader-spectrum economies and the rise of and finely fashioned handaxes and cleavers, and often farming communities: Towards the end of the showing very intricate, controlled flaking and use of Pleistocene there is evidence, around the world, careful platform preparation and of soft hammer percus- of intensification of foraging patterns among sion in their production. Additional advances observed many hunter-gatherer groups. In many areas, a in the archaeological record and associated with Homo wider range of food items were exploited, includ- heidelbergensis include the use of wooden spears and ing shellfish (mussels, oysters, crabs, lobster), fish apparent evidence of some controlled use of fire (though (e.g. salmon), cereals (wheat, barley, millet, sor- its incidence was still rare and may not have involved ghum, rice, maize), etc. These so-called “broad skilled production of fire), as well as possible emergence spectrum economies” would, at the end of the Ice of early ritual or symbolic behavior. Changes associated Age and the beginning of the Holocene, lead to the with Neandertals add more complex (hafted) tools, ap- first farming communities. Intensification of cer- parent habitual use of fire, use of personal adornment, tain types of hunting prey (e.g. sheep and goats) and burial of the dead to the adaptive and behavioral would lead to the of certain animal repertoire. species as well. Farming would ultimately allow Such trends continued in earnest among the modern much larger, sedentary communities which would human populations as they grew and spread, eventually lay the foundations for the first complex state soci- involving the emergence of flourishing art traditions, ad- eties or “civilizations.” dition of other materials (bone, antler, ivory) to the tool- making systems, appearance of needles and sewing, de- Summary and Conclusion velopment of habitual architecture in various forms, and evidence for long-distance transport and trade of materi- Table 1 summarizes the major trends for each time als. By the time of the Upper Palaeolithic, regional pat- interval discussed in this chapter. Overall, a gradual pro- terns emerge in the archaeological record which would gression of technological sophistication is observed rela- appear to indicate geographically distinct clusters of tra- tive to Holloway et al.’s three stages of hominin brain ditions, perhaps indications of ‘ethnicity’ mirroring that evolution. observed among human groups in recent and modern During Holloway et al.’s Stage 1 of hominin brain times. The emergence and evolution of complex sym- evolution, the first evidence of hominin stone tools bolic behavior during this stage of brain evolution is emerges at 2.6 mya during the time of Australopithe- evidenced in highly endowed burials, often prolific use cus garhi. Fragmentary and teeth may suggest that of ornaments, and the proliferation of artistic traditions early Homo goes back to 2.3 million years ago (e.g. Ha- (including sometimes elaborate decoration of utilitarian dar AL-666), a few hundred thousand years after the tools). The emergence of such regional patterning and first appearance of stone tools, but without crania and en- the evidence for complex symbolic behaviors may indi- docasts, it is not clear whether these non-paranthropine cate evolution of complex language systems and abilities forms (i.e., not showing the dental features of robust aus- during this stage of brain evolution. tralopithecines) show any evidence of encephalization or Thus, there are important changes in hominin be- brain reorganization. haviors indicated in the archaeological record correlated Holloway et al. Stage 2 (early Homo) is seen in the with the progressive stages of hominin brain evolution prehistoric record about 700,000 years after the first rec- proposed by Holloway et al. (2004) based upon their ognizable stone tools. Many palaeoanthropologists be- study of hominin fossil and endocranial evidence. These Toth and Schick 4 307

Table 1. Time Holloway et Technology, behavior, Interval Age Hominin form cc EQ al. Stage other ONE 3.25-2.75 Ma Australopithecus 445 (0.43) Stage 1 (no established afarensis evidence) TWO 2.75-2.25 Ma Australopithecus 450 (.45?) Oldowan artifacts garhi Early sites in Africa THREE 2.25-1.75 Ma Homo habilis 610 (.62) Stage 2 Cut-marked bone Homo rudolfensis 788 (.66) Oldowan artifacts Early Homo 698 (~.64) (grouped) FOUR 1.75-1.25 Ma Early Homo 800 (0.58) Stage 2 Early Acheulean erectus (& Oldowan) Africa & Eurasia FIVE 1.25-0.75 Ma Homo erectus 950 (0.68) Stage 2 Acheulean SIX 0.75-0.25 Homo 1260 (0.81) Stage 3 Later Acheulean heidelbergensis Soft hammers Spears Some control of fire Ritual? 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