DEGREE PROJECT IN ARCHITECTURE, SECOND CYCLE, 15 CREDITS STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN 2018

Memorials to the Holocaust Victims in Minsk, Belarus History, Design, Impact

MARYNA SEMENCHENKO

KTH ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT Memorials to the Holocaust Victims in Minsk, Belarus

History, Design, Impact

Maryna Semenchenko Contents Contents Introduction ...... 4

I. Socio-Historical Background of Belarus within the Studied Subject Belarus and Minsk in the Second World War. Minsk ghetto ...... 8 Memory about the Holocaust in Soviet Belarus ...... 14 Memory about the Holocaust in contemporary Belarus ...... 16

II. Literature Review Holocaust memorials in Belarus ...... 22 Methods for the analysis of memorials ...... 26

III. Approach and Methods Studied cases and criteria for their choice ...... 34 Research questions and sources of information ...... 36 Method ...... 38 Approach to the memorials’ analysis ...... 40

IV. Findings Case 1. Memorial in the Pit History of the black obelisk ...... 44 History of the walking shadows ...... 48 Informal memorial, formal practices ...... 52 Case 2. Memorial in a Former Jewish Cemetery History of the Broken Hearth ...... 62 Memorials to the Holocaust Victims Social practices, not-such-a-social place ...... 68 in Minsk, Belarus. History, Design, Impact

Maryna Semenchenko V. Discussion Discourse ...... 76 Keywords: memorial, Holocaust, Minsk, memory, public realm Power ...... 77 Design and message ...... 78 Masters Degree Project in Urbanism Studies, Second Cycle, 15.0 credits, 2018 Implications ...... 80 School of Architecture and the Built Environment Acknowledgments ...... 81 KTH Royal Institute of Technology References ...... 82 Stockholm, Sweden VI. Design Proposal Bridge ...... 92

Poto on a cover: the Pit memorial in Minsk, 1992, by V. Miaževič Appendix A. Interview questions ...... 100 Appendix B. Decisions of Minsk Municipality ...... 102 During the recent lecture at KTH Open Coming back to a dramatic example of spaces were formed. Both of the Introduction Lab, an Israeli researcher Rachel Kallus Israel, in addition to millions of Jews who studied memorials are located on described her local context as an died in the concentration camps and a territory that used to be a part of intersection of different cultures and shooting operations of the Holocaust, Minsk ghetto during the Second World interests (Kallus, 2018). While working thousands of them perished on their way War. Additionally, World War II and with the community based-projects to a new home being displaced from their the Holocaust in Belarus had specific she interacts with Jewish, Palestinian, countries even after the war (Wyman, features, which required an introduction Ethiopian, and Russian groups that 1989). Though the example of the into Belarusian socio-historical context. are looking for their place both in the Holocaust was unprecedented I consider Due to an attention that this study pays society and in physical urban space. The it as a suitable lens for looking at the to discursive space, this thesis also briefly fact that her work takes place in Israel, current global issues of socio-spatial describes the politics of memory that though, leads to a discussion broader segregation, displacement, and massive were formed in Soviet and contemporary than just a city scale. As a country Israel migration. Such an approach seems to Belarus. Literature and media review as basically appeared for hosting the entire be particularly important at the moment well as a work with archival documents nation which used to seek the place to when communicative and personal allowed to discover how the design of the establish its national state. However memory about this event is disappearing studied memorials was formed and what various groups still struggle for their and transforming a great humanity’s actors were involved in their creation. In place in the cities, this phenomenon has drama into an abstract history lesson. turn, media review in combination with left the city limits and nowadays happens Therefore, the inclusion of a certain direct observations and interviews shed globally. Thousands of people are looking group to physical or social space is a light on social practices that have taken for a new place to live due to wars, linked to its status in a society. The place around the chosen memorials. discrimination, persecution, and climate status, in turn, represents the access to Therefore, this research comprehensively change escaping from the places of their the resources. Additionally to physical analyzed physical, social and discursive origin. and social space, Henri Lefebvre spaces and their relations that together Although international organizations distinguished another dimension, formed two memorial sites in Minsk. declare everyone’s right to have a which could be called discursive space. place to live and a freedom to choose it According to Lefebvre, these three (Universal Declaration of Human Rights, spheres produce the space by mutually 1948) the numerous groups, obviously, affecting and supplementing each other do not have these opportunities, hence, (Lefebvre, 1991). This allows concluding the basic rights turn into rare privileges. that socially and spatially excluded Someone’s location in physical space groups, most probably, are pushed out still affects his or her access to goods, from discursive space as well. Thus, a mobility, education or even safety (Young, lack of representation of a certain group 1999) in a city, national or international in media, art or politicians’ speeches scale. Therefore, limitations linked to a potentially leads to its stigmatization place of origin are related not only to a and further discrimination. In my thesis, quality of life but sometimes to a chance I took into account all of these three to stay alive by finding a shelter. So, an spheres while studying commemorative origin begins determining a life’s value. spaces such as two memorials to the This statement transforms a theme of Holocaust victims in Minsk, Belarus. exclusion and displacement from an Using the abovementioned research exclusively socio-spatial problem into an lens, this study examined the chosen ethical issue. memorials and identified how these

4 5 I Socio-Historical Background of Belarus within the Studied Subject

Map I. Minsk

2 km 1 : 100 000 I. Socio-Historical Background of Belarus within the Studied Subject

Belarus and Minsk Ascertaining an actual proportion of the occupation, that happened several days Jewish population in pre-war Belarus is after, Minsk did not have a formal rule in the also quite problematic though, obviously, or any plans of evacuation or resistance Jews composed a significant part of the (Epstein, 2008). Second World War. citizens. For an approximate calculation In a month after the occupation, on scholars categorize Belarusian Jews August 1, 1942 Nazis established a ghetto Minsk ghetto into three major groups. The first one in Belarusian capital. It was located includes those who lived in Eastern in today’s city center and included 39 Belarus. The second group refers to Jews streets. Different sources provide with who populated western regions annexed a number of the ghetto imprisoners by the Soviet Union in 1939. Finally, that varies from 80,000 to 100,000 the third group was a number of Jewish refugees who escaped from Poland in make Minsk ghetto one of the largest in 1939-1941. In total, an amount of Jews Easternpeople (Ботвинник, Europe and the 2000). second This largest figures who lived in Belarus by the moment of in the Soviet Union after Ukrainian Lviv Nazi occupation can be approximately - inhabitants of Minsk ghetto were killed except(Іофе, 2014).for those Noticeably, who managed almost to all escape. the Theevaluated amount as of800,000-900,000 perished Jews, in (Сми turn, This was an extremely risky but the only variesловицкий, in different 2000; Kotljarchuk,sources from 2013). 245 possible way to stay alive (Epstein, 2008). thousand to one million. In any case, Additionally to the ghetto, Nazis created numerous sources claim that around a developed infrastructure for Jews’ Although Belarus suffered from the 80% of Belarusian Jews died during the annihilation in the city and its suburbs most dramatic loss of population among war. According to the census of 1939, that comprised concentration and death all the countries (Rudling, 2008) the Jews constituted almost 30% of Minsk exact numbers of victims including inhabitants while by 1959 this number 2000). Jews are still not known. Additionally, - camps,One roads,of the reasonsrailways, why etc. so (Ботвинник, many Jews the boundaries of the Belarusian state perished in Minsk was a fact that Minsk changed twice in 1939 and 1945, which decreasedWorld War to approximately II came to the 8%Soviet (Смило ghetto had existed much longer than makes a precise calculation even more Unionвицкий, on 2000). June 22, 1941. A term Great ghettos in other major cities like Warsaw intricate. Due to this reason, recent works Patriotic War refers to hostilities that or Vilnius. Due to numerous factors, tend to provide separated numbers. So, took place in 1941-1945 on the Soviet it was liquidated among the latest in Leanid Smilavicki states that a pre-war territories and is still commonly used in October 21, 1943. A partial explanation population of Belarus was 10,528,000 post-Soviet countries including Belarus for this was Minsk’s strategic location citizens while 9,200,000 of them lived on a way to Moscow and, hence, the in its contemporary boundaries. The Nazi planes were already bombing Minsk necessity to place here military and official after-war statistics claimed that causing(Ластовский, dramatic 2009). damage On June to the 23 city. and 24 administrative reserves of the Nazi army. 2,200,000 Belarusian inhabitants died in In these circumstances the communist This “enormous machine of occupation” the hostilities, actions of extermination, leaders of Belarus managed to organize as well as due to the wounds, starvation, their own evacuation to Moscow and a maintenance and, of course, labor and diseases. Some researchers in the partial evacuation of children to the East. including(Смоляр, high-qualified2002) was requiring professionals the 90s, though, provided with a number of In the rest, by the moment of Nazi from the Jewish population (Epstein, 2008).

3,000,000 victims (Смиловицкий, 2000). 8 9 I. Socio-Historical Background of Belarus within the Studied Subject

Another distinction of Minsk ghetto was the frequency of the pogroms and extermination operations on its territory. While in other ghettos such actions took place periodically with months of a relatively safe life between them, in Minsk every week was darken by at least a local pogrom on one of the streets. Such an oppressive atmosphere affected both people’s emotional state and the practices that were common at the time Figure 1. An entrance to a Jewish cemetery in Minsk Additionally to a permanent danger, an(Смоляр, economic, 2002). social, and cultural status ghetto. Graphichs by M. Žytnicki, 1973 of Jews in pre-war times also determined their lifestyle and types of the resistance in Minsk ghetto. Due to a fact that the population of the Soviet Union was quite homogenous in economic and social terms, inhabitants of the ghetto did not have anything to exchange for food or other goods, especially by the second year of the occupation. Regarding cultural life, Jews were not allowed to institutionalize themselves in the 30s, therefore barely had their national art and community leaders before the war, which caused numerous difficulties in forming the resistance movement during the Nazi occupation. All the above- mentioned circumstances resulted in a fact that, by contrast to other ghettos, Minks did not have restaurants, shops, theaters or other places regular for a Figure 2. An order regarding establishing Minsk ghetto in June 20, 1942 peaceful life (Смоляр, 2002).

10 11 I. Socio-Historical Background of Belarus within the Studied Subject

Tankavaja Street

Tankavaja Street

Suchaja Street Niamiha Street Suchaja Street

Niamiha Street

Map II. Minsk ghetto, according to the memories of L. Melamed

Map III. Minsk ghetto, according to the memories of A. Rubenčyk Places of the pogrom on November 7, 1941 Building of Judenrat (local Jewish administration)

Places of the pogrom on November 20, 1941 Zonderghetto (an area where Jews deported from Europe lived)

Places of the pogrom on July 21, 1942

Place where «Hamburg Jews» lived on Nonember, 1941

Burial sites of the pogrom on March 2, 1942

12 13 I. Socio-Historical Background of Belarus within the Studied Subject

a term Holocaust was not used due to a Holocaust as a distinct event. Gitelman War II was a leader of Soviet Belarus in Memory about fact that the event was not distinguished claims that in the 40s-50s such reasons were Stalin’s and his adherents’ anti- statement, according to which the the Holocaust Semitic and “anti-cosmopolitan” views. republic1965-1980 lost Piotr its “every Mašeraŭ. fourth” His citizen,famous as aResearchers’ separated phenomenon opinion regarding (Ассман, Later, in the 60s-70s, October Revolution laid a foundation for the future memory in Soviet Belarus theХлебников, Holocaust’s 2013; status Huyssen, in the 1994).Soviet as a “legitimating myth” of the Soviet politics and, moreover, Belarusian memory politics slightly differs but regime had to be replaced by a newly national identity that has been influenced they mostly agree about the existence formed myth about the triumphal victory by the war more than any other event of significant limitations in its regard. of the Soviet people over Nazism. In this So, according to an American scholar legend, obviously, there was no place for Even though such a math was not Zvi Gitelman, the Soviet politics of the Jewish national agenda (Gitelman, 1994). accurate(Kotljarchuk, a phrase 2013; started Rudling, to be2008). repeated A contemporary Belarusian memory Holocaust in generalneither denied it Regardless the common features and symbolize common grief, which about World War II and the Holocaust is nor focused attention on it (Gitelman, in Soviet memory politics, attitude completed a status of a “nation-hero” with still significantly affected by the Soviet 1994). By contrast to Gitelman, a Swedish towards the Holocaust had some regional a new title of a “nation-martyr” - politics of memory but, according to characteristics. So, whereas a history the researchers, has gained its own a more radical way that the history of of Ukraine published in 1982 did not memory tended to highlight a crucial (Ластов role theresearcher Holocaust Andrej was Katliarčukdeliberately claims silenced in even mention Jews in regard to the ofский, Belarusians 2009). Additionally, in the victory, local specifically, politics of analyzing them, though, it is necessary and even “marginalized”. Moreover, in Holocaust, a work developed in Estonia through an image of a “Partisan Republic” tocharacteristics study their background (Ластовский, which 2009). was For his reflection on the Soviet politics of in 1973 freely explored this subject and, (Rudling, 2008). It is also noticeable that formed in the Soviet era. In this respect, memory, he introduces a powerful term furthermore, Estonian collaboration “politics of forgetting” that, according to with Nazis (Gitelman, 1994). Regarding blurred the distinctions between the to a concept of “path dependence” that him, were applied to the Holocaust by Belarus, it used to represent, for HolocaustMašeraŭ’s andpolitics the ofextermination memory additionally of starteda researcher to be Andrejapplied Katliarčuk to historical refers science. authorities (Kotljarchuk, 2013). What example, some bottom-up practices of Belarusian people by ignoring a factor While doing his evaluation of the current is essential, a principal distinction of memorialization that were common in of ethnicity and accenting a national memory politics in Belarus he takes into the Soviet public representation of the other Soviet republics. One of them was character of a tragedy. Although several account its Soviet past that to a high Holocaust was its consideration as a part an installation of informal memorials major memorial complexes were degree determined the present culture of of the genocide against “peaceful citizens”. built by the citizens in remembrance of erected during this period none of them remembrance (Kotljarchuk, 2013). Gitelman sees three main reasons their relatives in early post-war years. commemorated Jews as a specific group Whereas in Europe the Holocaust for the appearance of such an attitude. Nevertheless, Belarus still had local of victims (Kotljarchuk, 2013). played a role of a foundation in forming Firstly, due to non-democratic conditions, peculiarities. Some sources even claim What is worth mentioning is memory culture as it is known today, the Jewish community had limited that Belarusian authorities paid special that the Holocaust was not the only in the USSR it was presented by the opportunities in spreading knowledge attention to the history of the Holocaust taboo in the Soviet and, in particular, state memory politics as an ugly and about the Holocaust. As he mentions, like none of the Soviet republics did Belarusian memory politics. Other inescapable consequence of capitalism. the only publication that was regularly aspects of the war like, for example, Therefore, since the Holocaust was writing about the Holocaust in the Belarusian collaboration with the Nazis simply explained by the “nature” of Soviet Union was a monthly magazine memory(Ойленбург, culture Керпель-Фрониус, was possible due to a were also excluded from the official capitalism there was no necessity for its Sovetish Heymland which, though, was well-preservedНоймеркер, 2016). archive Partly of documents developed narrative because they contradicted problematization in the Soviet official still quite ideologized. Secondly, none of related to the Nazi occupation regime and an abovementioned myth about the discourse. Moreover, while for European the European countries lost as much of life in ghettos (Gitelman, 1994) but, for heroic victory of the solid Soviet nation intellectuals an experience of Jewish the non-Jewish population as the Soviet sure, there were political reasons for this (Kotljarchuk, 2013). This myth still genocide became a frontier between as well. strongly affects Belarusian official and past and new ethical standards, new the death of Jews was more “visible”. A politician who made, probably, public discourse to a certain degree understanding of humanism and social Finally,Union did; Soviet hence, authorities in the European had political context the most significant contribution to the continuing the Soviet tradition of responsibility, in the Soviet Union even reasons for not shedding the light on the memory about Belarusian role in World

remembrance (Ластовский, 2009). 14 15 I. Socio-Historical Background of Belarus within the Studied Subject

Though for a long time the Holocaust new national state also did not seem a “nationalization” of the memory. So, an Memory about the memorialization in Belarus had been convincing due to the effective politics appropriated myth about a key role of controlled by the Soviet state and isolated of Russification applied in Belarus in Belarusian partisan movement nowadays Holocaust from the global context a process of the the Soviet era. The solution was found contributes to forming and enhancing massive commemoration of its victims in referring to the memory of the Great - in contemporary has started approximately at the same Patriotic War and a unique role played by time as in other European countries. In Belarusians in the fight against Nazism characterizesBelarusian national contemporary identity (ЛастовBelarusian Belarus Sweden, for instance, this process became (Rudling, 2008). memoryский, 2009). politics The is second a shift factor of focus that from a part of the integration to the European One of the key transfers from the heroic actions to the civilians’ struggles. Union and has massively begun with a Soviet politics of memory was an After publishing new statistics, a Soviet governmentally initiated campaign Living application of the term “genocide” to formula about “every fourth” has been History in 1997. Anne Rothe suggests the entire nation. The only difference replaced by a statement that “every third” that a cause for new politics of memory constitutes the fact that today by nation Belarusian died in the Great Patriotic War was an aspiration to demonstrate politicians mean not Soviet people but (Kotljarchuk, 2013). Swedish adherence to European values Belarusians. It is worth mentioning Regarding contemporary Holocaust (Rothe, 2015). Even in Germany with its that recently installed memorials memorialization, Kotljarchuk portrays reputation of a pioneer in the Holocaust commemorate Jewish victims, which is its state mostly in positive terms though memorialization, this process reached a perceptible progress in comparison a factual situation seems to be more its peak after the fall of the Berlin Wall with the previous period. However, contradictory. His main argument in this debate is a fact that the government stage in the Holocaust commemoration rhetoric of the president Lukašenka and the president personally have been in(Ассман, Belarus Хлебников, was chronologically 2013). Thus, quite a new stillKatliarčuk does not points separate out that the theHolocaust official actively involved in the memorialization synchronized with a similar European and an extermination of other citizens. of the Holocaust victims. Additionally, tendency of the 90s. This turn, though, he argues that dozens of the Holocaust was caused by the local conditions, terminological mistake due to a fact that monuments have been installed in Minsk specifically, a much higher level of genocideThis, according has a very to Katliarčuk, precise meaning. is a major and smaller cities since the 90s, and 45 freedom in comparison to a Soviet period. Essentially, it is classified as an act done of them were erected “with the support of After the collapse of the USSR, Belarus with a special intent. By contrast to the state” (Kotljarchuk, 2013). However, it acquired its independence and, hence, Jews, Belarusians were never pursued is important or sometimes even essential an opportunity to form new politics of because of their ethnicity. Numerous not who financed a memorial but who memory. The Jewish organizations finally extermination operations against initiated its installation. Moreover, the were able to institutionalize themselves. Belarusian people were caused by the actors that managed the process of its However, according to Rudling, a new temporary circumstances of the war implementation, maintain it, and visit it authoritarian leader Lukašenka made but not special politics of the nation’s in the present are also symptomatic and the biggest contribution to the memory annihilation (Kotljarchuk, 2013). worth consideration. about World War II. Being selected in Despite undeniable connections In this regard, authors of a digest the elections in 1994, he started a search between the Soviet and Belarusian published by International Holocaust for a new coherent ideology that could memory politics, researchers distinguish Remembrance Alliance in 2015 mention legitimate his regime. The first efforts significant changes. They have started that activities related to the Holocaust in the 90s or even in the late Soviet era. commemoration in Belarus are usually they introduced such notions as This period is characterized by two supported by the local authorities while “Orthodoxwere controversial atheism” andor “market even paradoxical; socialism”. major tendencies in the memory politics the initiative usually comes from other Belarusian language as a foundation for a common for the Post-Soviet countries institutions. A positive role of Belarusian (Kotljarchuk, 2013). The first of them is officials was also appreciated by Simon

16 17 I. Socio-Historical Background of Belarus within the Studied Subject

Mark Lazarus Foundation which aims to Even though Belarusian memory culture indicate all the Holocaust extermination can be called quite homogeneous sites in Belarus by installing stone stelas (Lazarus, 2015). By the date of August certain tension and contradictions. 2018, the organization has managed (Ластовский,Among other 2009) positive it still factors experiences that to erect 114 Holocaust memorials out signal about achievements in the of approximately 500 of the planned (each for a known site). Being started mentions recently opened museums, for by a British couple nowadays it is a instance,Holocaust the memorialization Museum of Jewish Katliarčuk History collaboration between the original and Culture in Minsk (Kotljarchuk, activists and two American family 2013). This doubtlessly positive fact, foundations. though, requires some explanation. Such a mission was called “noble” by Firstly, the museum was organized with an Israeli researcher Leanid Smilavicki the efforts of the Belarusian Jewish who, though, criticized the way it had community and the American Jewish been implemented in a Jewish cemetery Joint Distribution Committee and is of Belarusian town Turov. According still maintained by them (Akapian, to his investigation, one of these same- 2015). Secondly, despite its significant looking memorials appeared in 2014 on contribution to archiving and studying a place of a former memorial installed the Holocaust, unfortunately, this small in 1946 by the local community. Money museum can be barely called public. for an original simple stone with the Probably, due to limited resources, a inscriptions in Russian and Yiddish visitor should previously give a call for Figure 4 were given by the relatives of the local making an appointment. After arriving Holocaust victims and collected by a and coming through a security post in head of a provincial store. For avoiding a separated building one should cross an official approval it was decided to an inner courtyard of Minsk Jewish 2018, in two large halls, I found only make the generic title “To the victims Community House and seek an entrance one plate which mentioned Jews by of fascism. 1941-1945”. Besides, the to the museum itself. Thus, in current stating “During the Nazi occupation Yiddish language and the memorial’s conditions with a lack of governmental on Belarusian territory, according location in the Jewish cemetery referred support, it can make just a modest impact to different sources, from 500,000 to a memorized group clearly enough. in the memory landscape. to 800,000 Jews perished” (fig.3). In the latest decades of the Soviet era The State Museum of the Great Additionally, copies of the historical former citizens of Turov who lived Patriotic War, by contrast, occupies document were exposed on a column, and in Israel, the USA and Germany were a huge newly designed building and an installation shaped like a silhouette supporting financially the maintenance attracts dozens of tourists and locals of grouped people demonstrated an of the cemetery. Therefore, for years the being a significant part of a dialog about amount of the ghetto victims in different memorial had been a meaningful place of the war. However, its exposition sheds Belarusian settlements (fig.4). While commemoration formed by a grassroots the light only on the period of Nazi in the books devoted to the Holocaust initiative. Regardless, this fact was occupation and a homogeneous idea of in Belarus description of the Nazi ignored during the erection of the new genocide against Soviet people but not occupation regime usually serves as just stone that was installed directly on the Jews in particular. According to the Soviet an introduction to its history, the main old one instead of organically including it tradition, a term Holocaust is not used state museum of World War II factually to the new memorial (Smilovitsky, 2017). there at all. During my visit in August uses the introduction instead of the story. Figure 3

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Map IV. Minsk city center with the studied memorials II. Literature Review

Due to a dramatic impact of the Second One of the rare sources related directly to Holocaust World War on Belarus, this subject is the Holocaust memorials is a publication in an edition of 300 copies. The work well represented in the literature. The of Marat Batvinik “Monuments to the hasby a an charity abovementioned civil organization structure “Гилф” and memorials Holocaust history, by contrast, for a long genocide of Jews in Belarus” made in demonstrates a typical for such books time had been a taboo, which caused 2000. Like two abovementioned books, title that rather applies to the emotions in Belarus its poor representation in the Soviet it includes the table with monuments than reflects the content. times. New studies and publications of and memorials to the Holocaust victims Therefore, work with this type of the victims’ memoirs started to appear erected in Belarus. The book also literature allowed making several in the 90s, and some of them mentioned provides with a brief introduction to the conclusions. Firstly, representation, the Holocaust memorials among other Holocaust in Belarus generally as well preservation, and transfer of a memory themes. Just a few of the found sources, as in its settlements and introduced a about the Holocaust in Belarus are though, focused its full attention on the brief history of major extermination sites still mostly performed by the Jewish questions of memorialization. community and related organizations. So, several sources about the barely describes the memorials from any However, it is important to admit that, Holocaust history in Belarus contain a (Ботвинник, 2000). Though, this work for example, Minsk Municipality was chapter or an appendix related to the itserves rather as a structured catalog of mentioned as a partner in such activities Holocaust memorialization. One of the theother memorial perspectives sites withoutexcept for their historical; analysis. multiple times. Secondly, there is an most valuable for my research was a book However, this work demonstrates that in obvious lacuna in a scientific knowledge “The Holocaust in Belorussia, 1941- Belarus, by contrast to the countries that about the Holocaust and the Holocaust 1944” written by Leanid Smilavicki in did not experience the Holocaust on their memorials in Belarus. Though personal 2000. In addition to the comprehensive territory, the memorials to the Holocaust memories are a valuable source of description of the Holocaust in Belarus, victims are usually linked to places of information about historical events, in it includes a chapter dedicated to the Nazi crimes. these publications they are usually not after-war commemoration of its victims. Another segment of the analyzed conceptualized. Regarding the memorials, This brief but informative introduction literature is represented by the one of the studied by this research into the topic sheds the light on bottom- memoirs of Minsk ghetto prisoners. It is memorial, Yama, is frequently mentioned up initiatives of memorialization, noticeable that such books tend to have or used as an illustration inside the books informal traditions of commemoration, a similar structure that includes two or even on their covers. None of the and governmental practices of their parts: personal memories of the former publications, though, is focused on the control in post-war Belarus. Also, the prisoners and archival documents related memorial as an independent subject for book distinguishes the main tendencies to a history of Minsk ghetto. Additionally, examination, and it is mostly presented in the use of Jewish cemeteries in this a common feature of such publications as a symbol of the community’s grief. period. This chapter is complemented is a small number of copies. Finally, with a list of the Holocaust monuments publishing of these books often happens and memorials in Belarus, which also due to a support of the international specifies their type, location, a date of foundations like, for instance, the the erection, and a number of Jews that American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee or IBB Johannes Rau in Minsk Similar but slightly fewer information and Dortmund. As an example here can isperished provided there in the (Смиловицкий, book “Executioners 2000). be provided a book “We remember! We testify” that was mostly composed of bequeath to the world to remember…” archival documents and published in 2009. (Крапина, 2012) that was published

22 23 II. Literature Review

Figure 5. March, 2, 1990. The Pit memorial.

Photo by A. Talačko

Among all the studied sources I can scale memorials. This article mentions distinguish the only effort to evaluate both of the studied by my research the aesthetical qualities of the Holocaust memorials, and its insights contributed to memorials in Belarus. Additionally, my work significantly. it attempts to follow the evolution of As literature review also the tools that have been used in the demonstrated, none of the analyzed contemporary Belarusian memorials. It sources mentions direct observations as is an article written by a sculptor Paval a method applied to Belarusian public Vajnicki that, regardless of its small spaces and memorials in particular. For volume, articulates numerous complex sure, this does not mean that it is not issues of the memorialization in Belarus. used by the scholars at all though allows One of them, for instance, is Soviet assuming that it is not widely spread taboo on mentioning the ethnicity of the among Belarusian researchers. Moreover, public life around memorials barely of the memorials’ focus from a cult of appears as a subject of their works, which thevictims; heroic another victor oneto empathy deals with to peaceful a shift are mostly focused on their historical or victims. As the most principal current memory aspects. All abovementioned problem Vajnicki distinguishes a common allows me to state that this research is, use of sculptural tools instead of spatial probably, the first one that aims to study instruments. He finds such a literal the design and history of Belarusian figurative expression of the memorized memorials in a respect to social practices Figure 6. March, 2, 1992. caused by them. The Pit memorial. fully use the spatial potential of large- events outdated; in addition, it does not Photo by V. Miaževič 24 25 II. Literature Review

Table I. The table is taken from the paper Design of memorials – the art of remembering. Method of place

One of the papers that I used for forming regeneration, Prostor, vol. 25, №2 (54) Methods my research method suggests its own definition of a memorial and a method to for the analysis evaluate its properties. In this work, such an analysis was made by examination of memorials of three post-1990s-war memorial sites in Croatia. According to this paper, in addition to a function of remembrance, memorials also play a therapeutic role by providing the ways to deal with the traumatic past and construct the future. The paper highlights the importance of both memorial’s ability to preserve a memory and its ability to heal. In the authors’ idea, this combination can be achieved by designing contemporary memorials as an integral part of public space and providing with conditions for reflection, debates, and exchange

For evaluating several case studies(Bojanić, authors 2017). use the parameters of accessibility, scale, and a so-called “concept of manipulation”. The latest is based on three criteria and their interconnections: “elements of focus”, Due to a fact that memorials are not a “vista”, and “walking choreography”. new subject for researches the existing Researchers divide the accessibility into studies are focused on a wide range of such subcategories as a location of a questions. While some of these works memorial site, distance from the center, study exclusively spatial properties of and usage. In the criterion of scale, the memorials, others examine memory they specify the number of inhabitants about certain events and consider in a settlement, a function of a place Therefore, though memorials are While the work intends to find a the memorials only as its physical and a fact whether it is public or not. evaluated here from an exclusively correlation between described properties representation. Despite such diversity Regarding the “concept of manipulation”, architectural perspective this approach of the memorials and their “healing” in approaches and optics, literature they consider a compositional dominant looks beyond their volumetric properties. effect it rather managed to make a review allowed finding similarities of each memorial as an “elements of The chosen places of commemoration comparative analysis of three places. between them and, hence, drawing focus”. A “vista” they apply to a type of are considered as a part of urban space Nevertheless, this paper articulates the some principal conclusions regarding a prospect that is available for the user and, hence, as a variety of dynamic spatial importance of memorial analysis in a memorials’ analysis. The crucial aspects while exploring a memorial. “Walking experiences. According to the authors, mandatory connection with the urban of the memorials that I distinguished as choreography”, in turn, describes the these experiences are supposed to context and spatial practices of visitors common for the used sources formed a user’s movement in a relation to the increase users’ awareness of the past and though, without suggesting universal base for my research method, which is focus, for instance, through or towards it reflection on the future. This connection, solutions. described in the next chapter. (table I). though, is not obvious from the paper.

26 27 II. Literature Review

The second paper that contributed to memorial is not mandatorily supposed to my research method is quite remarkable simply provoke the remembrance of an due to a fact that it is based on a famous event, especially not only one particular memorizing technique. A so-called “art of way to remember it. memory” appeared in the Classical period Another weakness of the suggested as a part of rhetoric (Yilmaz, 2010). For tool is in its subjectivity and again, as memorizing the speeches those who it was mentioned above, its narrow were practicing the art of memory had perspective of the memorial purpose. to pick an “image” that represented the According to the paper, a strong memorized and a “locus” – imagined or connection between an image and an real space where the chosen images were event creates a clearer message to the placed in a certain order. Mental walks public. By contrast, the weaker their through these places allowed memorizing relations are the bigger amount of Doubtlessly, originally these used to be and remembering the speeches precisely. individual connotations is possible. While strong symbols, on the one hand, of a Figure 8. A memorial in Trasčianeč According to the suggested approach, this correlation itself does not cause fateful road without a way back and, on a memorial serves for remembrance of any doubts the conclusions based on it, the other hand, of debugged machinery in a certain event by being such an image for sure, do. So, a diversity of potential this production of death. Today, though, situated in a certain location. Additionally connotations is seeing here as rather a a use of an old powerful metaphor risks to these two elements – image and locus - negative characteristic that can prevent to make a newly designed memorial the author adds to her analysis method a “right” understanding of a memorial. something what visitors expect to see in factor of their relations to each other. Does this mean that there is a “right” regard to the Holocaust and, hence, a part Although the paper suggests a solid version of memory and history? Must a of a cliché about it. method of memorial evaluation its memorial serve for its translation instead of encouraging or at least allowing the Figure 7. A memorial complex in Blahaŭščyna its practical implementation to actual plurality of individual interpretations? casesconclusions with all seem their debatable; complexity besides, causes In addition, there is no persuasive and numerous difficulties. The first of them universal way to evaluate a degree to is a proposed definition of a memorial which an image represents the essence of itself. This approach takes into account the memorized event. Furthermore, even only one aspect of the memorials – the most precise and expressive images remembrance – while more often authors tend to stale. As a successful example of pay attention to other of their functions an accurate image the author provides a including, paradoxically, oblivion “railway, which disappears in the darkness of the gate of the Auschwitz Concentration While preservation of the memory is Camp” that, according to her, has similar often(Степанова, considered 2018; as Yurchuk, a political 2014). mission associations for the most of the people. a right to forget or, at least, not to recall A railway and a wagon appeared in two traumatic memories is an individual’s recent Belarusian memorials and while need. Additionally, such a method seems in the latest one (fig.7) this image is to conflict a contemporary vision of the artistically and spatially interpreted by memory in general by assuming that the authors’ collective the earlier one we remember the “true” past but not (fig.8) simply claims that people were - transferred to the Belarusian camp this way. construct our own version of it (Хлебни ков, Ассман, 2013). Therefore, a 28 29 II. Literature Review

Regarding the second aspect of the art of surface and remembered its texture. teenagers demonstrated dramatically memory, locus, the author makes several After a couple of days she found out different levels of awareness and significant conclusions that can be that, in fact, her family was occupying a attitudes towards the phenomenon. controversial but definitely useful for the different building nearby. This incident Through analyzing the written narratives memorials analysis. So, the author claims she comments with a phrase: “This and their emotional tones the author that “detachment” of the memorial site is, basically, everything I know about managed to construct a coherent from the regular conditions in which it memory” understanding of what students knew exists forms unique space for the visitor’s in this case not a place or its historically and thought about the Holocaust. Instead perception. As Yilmaz states, this makes accurate location(Степанова, but the 2017). images Thereby, of gaining knowledge about separated memorization more “effective and constructed by her contributed to her facts via questioners this research long-lasting”. Although “effectiveness” perception the most. Not a place but dealt with whole narratives that varied is a debatable category in regard to rather an existing discourse affects a depending on pupils’ educational or memory and a memorial it is hard to visitor. ethnical backgrounds and even gender not agree that a sharp contrast between What is essential for my research (Ivanova, 2004). the memorial site and its surroundings about both papers is their attention to Such an approach demonstrated that can become an impressive spatial tool. the spatial properties of the memorials a careful consideration of discourse This, indeed, can enhance a visitor’s and spatial experiences that their design in which memory (memorials) exists experience, highlight a role of a memorial, provokes. Despite differences in the can significantly contribute to a and create a special atmosphere suitable approaches both works articulate that in comprehensive understanding of the for dealing with specific emotions. studying memorials a research should be subject. The way users, designers, and Another aspect of a locus, “guidance”, focused not on a memorial exclusively but politicians talk about the memorials has similarities with what was called its complex relations with a context and signals about a focus of public attention “walking choreography” in the previous a user. James E. Young goes further by as well as lacunas in public knowledge study. As much as detachment, guidance claiming that the art of memory “consists about the Holocaust and places of its can intensify the user’s experience by in the ongoing activity of memory, in the commemoration. Additionally, this constructing a certain narrative of routes, debates surrounding these memorials, in instrument can be especially substantial landmarks, and viewpoints. our own participation in the memorial’s for studying Soviet and Belarusian Though the location of a memorial is performance” (Young, 1994), which adds contexts where a language on the identified as extremely important by this to the memorial analysis discursive and memorials followed a very specific canon. paper as well as by other researchers social dimensions. As it was mentioned in the previous In addition to works that study chapter, such a word as “Jews” was simply not mandatory mean that a memorized memorials, I analyzed some researches excluded from it. event(Young, should 1994; be Yurchuk, physically 2014) represented this does on memory studies. So, the survey in a site where it actually took place. performed by Elena Ivanova in 2004 So, Russian writer Maria Stepanova in was focused not on the memorials to a biographical novel, or, according to the Holocaust but on memory about it. the author, romance “In remembrance Despite this fact, a method of discourse of remembrance” describes a moment analysis that she used can be valuable of her visit to a house where her Jewish in application to memorials as well. ancestors used to live. Being highly The main source of information for her impressed by this experience she research became a number of essays imagined the whole lifestyle of her family written by high school pupils from in this courtyard, tried to memorize every Eastern Ukraine. Being asked to share minor detail and smell, touched every their knowledge about the Holocaust,

30 31 III 4. Approach and Methods

Map V. Minsk city center with an approximate outline of the former ghetto III. Approach and Methods

“Only if we focus on the public function Studied cases of the monument, embedding it in public discourses of collective memory, can and criteria danger of monumental ossification be avoided.” for their choice Andreas Huyssen, 1994

For my research, I chose two memorials another. Also, my aspiration was to correlation between them and the Figure 9. Sculpture Walking to Death to the Holocaust victims in Minsk, analyze how the design of the memorial memorial’s design. Belarus. One them is Yama, which means and social practices that happen there Due to my intention to study social a Pit in translation from Russian. The have changed through the time, and how practices around the memorial sites, second memorial is located in a former they have determined each other. the key criteria for my choice were Jewish cemetery and, by contrast to the While the Pit had been started as a their location and availability to the Pit, does not have such an informal title. typical Soviet after-war commemorative public. As it was mentioned, numerous Both of the memorials are situated in the practice, a memorial on a former Jewish memorials to the Holocaust victims in central part of the city that belonged to cemetery has begun its history much Belarus were erected on the places of Minsk ghetto. During World War II, they later, in the 90s. This memorial also extermination sites. Therefore, many were major extermination and burial consists of several parts that, by contrast of them are located outside of the cities sites. to Yama, do not create a whole ensemble or in their peripheries, which does not Today’s Pit memorial consists of but, in fact, look quite disintegrated. The guarantee a permanent presence of several parts installed in different time first part is represented by a so-called people. Additionally, some places of periods by different actors. The first of Pantheon of Memory, a compact circular commemoration have a specific regime them is a so-called “black obelisk” that square with stone stelas around that have of access like, for instance, a memorial to was a result of a grassroots initiative been funded mostly by foreign actors the Holocaust victims by the Stockholm run by the Jewish community in the starting from the beginning of the 90s synagogue. As far as it was built on the early after-war years. Another one is (fig.10). Tombstones from the former fenced territory of the synagogue, the represented by a bronze sculptural Jewish cemetery lay on the grass nearby memorial is available for the visitors composition and a menorah-shaped creating an irregular pattern on the only during the working hours. Finally, stela that were installed in 2000 with surface. Another part of the memorial is a Minsk is my home city, hence, I knew its a participation of the Belarusian Broken Hearth, a sculpture that appeared context well and I had an opportunity government (fig.9). Additionally, an alley here in 2008 with a full financing from for conducting field observations and to the Belarusian Righteous among the Minsk Municipality. As in a case of the Pit, organizing necessary meetings. In respect Figure 10. Pantheon of Memory Nations was established nearby this place I aimed to follow the history of this place, to my interest in users’ interaction with in the middle of the 90s. In my research, which, though, turned out to be quite the memorials, I formed the following I aimed to provide a history of these problematic due to a lack of available requirements for the cases’ choice: “layers” that have so many differences sources. In addition, I performed an but today compose one significant place analysis of social practices that take place of commemoration by overlapping one there and attempted to identify a - location in the city center or good - location in the urban environment; - free access for the public. connection with it;

34 35 III. Approach and Methods

Research questions and sources of information The preliminary literature and media include such aspect as decision-making, review allowed me to form a set of design, message, and public reaction. For empirical- free research access for questions the public. relevant answering each of the questions I used to the chosen cases. The questions were multiple sources like literature and media formulatedb) Research in a respect questions to and the sources political, of informationreview, work with archival materials, social and urban context in which the results of the direct observations and The preliminary literature and media review allowed me to form a set of empirical research memorialsquestions relevanthave existed. to the Ichosen divided cases. the The questionsinterviews. were formulated A detailed in list a respectof the questions to the questionspolitical, socialinto four and urbancategories context that in which the memorialsand corresponded have existed. sources I divided is presented the questions in into four categories that include such aspect as decisionthe table.-making, design, message, and public reaction. For answering each of the questions I used multiple sources like literature and media review, work with archival materials, results of the direct observations and interviews. A detailed list of the questions and corresponded sources is presented in the table. Table II. Research questions with corresponded sources of information

1. Decision

a) Who did initiate and finance the a) Literature and media review, archival installation of the studied memorials? materials, interviews

2. Design

a) How did the design/appearance of the a) Literature and media review, archival studied memorials change through time? materials, interviews b) What aspects of the Holocaust are b) Literature and media review, direct presented in the studied memorials and observations why? c) Whom are the studied memorials c) Literature and media review, direct commemorate? What were the reasons observations for choosing these particular groups?

3. Message

Figure 11. Diary for direct observations a) How did the author/s define his/their a) Literature and media review, interviews message to the public? b) What were the tools for transferring this b) Observations, literature and media message? review, interviews

4. Reaction

a) Have the studied memorials provoked a) Literature and media review, interviews any public reaction? b) Do the citizens interact with the studied b) Observations, media review, interviews memorials and, if so, how?

36 c) Method 37

In my thesis project, I used exploratory research methods and a mixed-methods approach of qualitative and quantitative research performed in several stages. The first stage included a broad literature review. The second stage involved a comprehensive review of the archival documents, municipal policies, newspapers, and websites. The third stage was represented by a series of direct observations of the memorial sites. Additionally, two interviews were done as the fourth stage of my research. Finally, the last stage involved analysis of the collected data. I did not have initial assumptions or a hypothesis at the beginning of my research. Though, after the preliminary analysis of the chosen memorial sites via literature and media review I formed several empirical research III. Approach and Methods

Method

Documents review

The methods for this research are Due to a lack of text sources related to morning before the beginning of the meeting, I also accessed to the books qualitative and explorative case study the design of the Holocaust memorials working day, one in lunchtime, one at that were published in a small number analysis performed in several stages. in Belarus, visual information became an the end of the working day. The rest of of copies and spread mostly within The first stage included a broad indispensable source for my research. them were conducted in the weekend the community. The second interview literature review. The second stage The work in the archives of Minsk and or between these key hours. During involved Halina Levina, a daughter of involved a comprehensive review of the Minsk region contributed significantly the direct observations, I was counting an architect Leanid Levin who played a archival documents, municipal policies, to this study, especially a search in the passersby specifying their gender key role in designing both memorials. newspapers, and websites. The third the Belarusian State Archive of Photo and, in some cases, approximate age, Due to a fact that Halina is also a current stage was represented by a series of tracing their routes, and making notes leading architect in Levin’s architectural direct observations of the memorial videos and even artworks allowed me to in the diary. The notes usually described bureau as well as a famous Jewish sites. Additionally, two interviews were followDocuments the evolution in Dziaržynsk. in the Pictures,appearances interaction with the memorials or any activist, she was able to answer all the done as the fourth stage of my research. of the memorial sites. Additionally, atypical activities. questions to a certain degree. Besides, Finally, the last stage involved analysis some of them captured social practices this interview took place in Levin’s studio of the collected data. I did not have that had taken place there. Also, Interviews where publications, physical models and initial assumptions or a hypothesis at review of Minsk Municipality’s official graphical materials for both memorials the beginning of my research. Though, decisions was made. It provided with During my thesis project, I conducted two are collected. after the preliminary analysis of the valuable information regarding certain semi-structured interviews with open- In addition to the interviews, I also chosen memorial sites via literature and transformations of the studied memorial ended questions. Interviews questions had two significant informal meetings. media review I formed several empirical sites that were poorly described in the were categorized into four groups. The The first one was with an Israeli research questions, which are provided literature. first of them dealt with a personality of researcher of the Holocaust in Belarus above. All the further research was the interviewee and his/her role in the Leanid Smilavicki. Another one involved structured and performed with a respect Direct observations Holocaust memorialization in Belarus. a head of a Belarusian-German center to these questions and the aim to answer The second group of questions involved for the Holocaust studies in Belarus them. Direct observations aimed to study the history and design of the memorials. The “History workshop” Kuzma Kozak. Both design of the chosen memorials and third one was related to the memorials’ of these conversations were valuable for social practices that happen there these idea. The final group was asking about this study and made my search for the days. My main tools were photographing, memorials’ use and role for the city or sources much easier. Figure 12. The author during the direct observations counting, tracing, mapping, and keeping certain social groups. Since interviews a diary (Gehl, Svarre, 2013). A series were conducted in Russian, in the of seven observations was conducted appendix I provide with a full list of the in the period from July 16 to August questions with a translation into English. 16. Each session’s duration was from The first person I interviewed was a 15 to 20 minutes. For gaining the most head of the Museum of Jewish History comprehensive understanding of the and Culture in Minsk Vadzim Akapian. In social practices, my field observations this conversation, I focused mostly on the were performed at different time last group of questions related to the use and days of a week. Therefore, one of the chosen memorials and their role observation was performed in the for the Jewish community. Thanks to this

38 39 III. Approach and Methods

Map VI. Fragment of the Approach to the Minsk city center with studied memorial sites memorials’ analysis

The Pit

Literature review demonstrated that Therefore, each sphere described by analysis of the memorials is been Lefebvre corresponds with a particular performed by the scholars with the use aspect of the studied memorials. The of numerous different methods. Their dominant sphere, or representations of choice mostly depends on the research space, is the “space of scientists, planners, questions and studied contexts. This urbanists, technocratic subdividers and Tankavaja Street review, though, allowed making one social engineers”, in a word those who principal conclusion regarding memorials conceived this space. In application to studies. In addition to the physical the memorials, this sphere is represented properties of the memorials, analysis of by their physical appearance formed by social practices and discourse is needed. architects, sculptors, and decisions of These three dimensions perfectly the politicians. Representational space represent three elements of the theory is lived “through its associated images of space developed by Henri Lefebvre. and symbols” and constructed mostly by

While describing “production of space” artists, philosophers, and writers. Within Suchaja Street he distinguished three interconnected my method, this dimension of space spheres: representations of space, is represented by the discourse that representational space, and spatial forms the memorials and, at the same practice (Lefebvre, 1991). In my research, time, is partly formed by them. Finally, a

I attempted to apply this theory to the spatial practice is perceived, experienced The Memorial Park space of chosen memorials. By studying space combined by everyday and urban all of these three dimensions, I explored realities, individual routine activities and how the memorial spaces have been city routes that link them to each other. formed in the way the public sees them This sphere includes activities that take Niamiha Street today. place around the memorials.

40 IV Findings IV. Findings

As it was mentioned, this research aimed This memorial with an informal but well- information about its history is History to take into careful consideration the known name Yama, which means a Pit in fragmented and controversial. For actors that initiated the construction of Russian, was established on the territory instance, some sources refer to the Pit as of the black obelisk the studied memorials. In my idea, this of a former Minsk ghetto on a place of a a place where Nazis killed all the victims could actually explain a lot about their of that pogrom (Cohen, 2017), while, meaning for the citizens. In this regard, a 2004). For explaining this location, a in fact, people were killed all over the paper written by a historian and a former storydeep sandof the career memorial (Ботвинник, should be Шамрук, started head of the Jewish Museum in Minsk Inna not with a moment of its installation but to the career were staying on its edge Herasimava served as indispensable help. with a brief prehistory. On March 2, 1942, butghetto; not evenin the those bottom. who The were number shot next of Her detailed research on the Pit memorial on the Jewish holiday Purim, during the dead also differs. So, according to describes a process of the creation of the one of the major Minsk pogroms, Nazis the occupation documents, a number of earliest object in this place, black obelisk, and their local collaborators murdered victims reached 3,412 people whereas which truly turned it into a significant several thousand people. That day, documents from the Belarusian National space for sharing a common grief, according to the administrative decision, archive provide with a number of 6,000 commemorating dead, and discussing the Judenrat had to gather 5 thousand people future. Due to a fact that several activists under the pretense of construction Starting from the end of the war in of the obelisk’s installation were arrested works. For ghetto imprisoners, though, it 1945,(Ботвинник, activists 2000). in Minsk were trying to a few years after, KGB archives shed was obvious that a large extermination formalize the Jewish community at the

2008). Additionally, memoirs of Minsk 2002). When people did not show up installation of a monument in the Pit. ghettosome light prisoners on this and story their (Герасимова, descendants inoperation the morning had been Nazis preparing started to (Смоляр, reach Whensynagogue; after almostone of their two yearsaims wasin 1946 an contributed to my search a lot. them at homes in the surrounded ghetto. the Jewish community was legalized, Those who could not leave were shot city authorities rejected an official application for a memorial’s construction. go to the main square. According to the Due to significance and even a sacral witnesses,immediately; during the rest this were operation forced Nazis to meaning of this mission, a group of were killing the inhabitants of the ghetto activists had started the process without right on its streets and the main square, a formal approval. For manufacturing by the entrance to the ghetto, and by the the obelisk they hired a Jewish stone - master Marduch Spryšen who could create it out of an old gravestone from hundredslegendary ofPit murdered (Ботвинник, Jews 2000; were buriedМало the cemetery in the former ghetto. This, мед, 2008). After the massacre several though, was problematic since the Jewish cemetery was in a jurisdiction of several 2000).in the career; the rest of the victims on state institutions. Luckily, heads of those a JewishRegardless cemetery a fact nearby that the (Ботвинник, “Purim organizations were Jews who supported the initiative and secured it with the the biggest in Minsk ghetto, the massacre” (Смоляр, 2002) became one of 2008). necessary permissions (Герасимова,

Figure 13. Black obelisk, 1967. Photo by V. Marcyonka

44 45 IV. Findings

The entire community was to a certain of a memorized group (Kotljarchuk, degree involved to the project since 2013). - In another way, though, the black obelisk was a typical example of the post- Figure 14. Opening of the black obelisk, 1946. Jewisheveryone writer lost someoneHajm Malcinski in the Pitwrote (Спри a text war unofficial memorialization initiated Photo from a book « forшен, an 2008). inscription For example, first in Yiddish a famous and then by victims’ relatives or local communities. Fortunately, by contrast to some other Выжить – подвиг. Воспоминания и документы о Минском гетто» obtained its official approval. According places of commemoration, the obelisk in toin Russian;the memoirs, additionally, as an influential he personally figure of the Pit was not demolished or replaced the Jewish community, he was repeatedly by its “sterile” Soviet copy in 1948-1952 asked to represent the project. For during Stalin’s anti-Semitic campaign getting a formal permission he had to go (Gitelman, 1994). up to the sixth floor, despite a fact that he This campaign, though, dramatically lost his leg in the war. While talking to an affected those who took a part in authority from the censorship committee the obelisk’s erection. Starting from Malcinski mentioned his mother, wife, 1949 several members of the Jewish and a little son who were buried in the community who were engaged in its Pit. He managed to approve not only the creation were arrested for the “Anti-Soviet text in two languages but an erection of activity”. In fact, the Soviet state wanted the monument as well. As a result, the to prevent them from creating a strong black obelisk was installed in 1946 with community inside the homogenous the help of numerous Minsk Jews who donated their money or were involved the national state of Israel, which was notSoviet acceptable society; besides,within the they Soviet supported ideology 2008). in itsIn designfact, this or inscription approval (Герасимова, carved on the arrests, though, were quite absurd. a black stone in two languages makes So,(Герасимова, Marduch Spryšen 2008) Formal was arrested reasons for for the Pit truly unique. It says “In bright possessing 20 records with Jewish music, remembrance for all eternity of the which was enough for incriminating 5,000 Jews who perished at the hands “cosmopolitism” and “bourgeois of the cruel enemies of humanity – nationalism”. Today it is hard to believe fascist German fiends”. Due to this fact, but a stone master Marduch Spryšen got Gitelman called the black obelisk the only memorial in major Soviet cities that 2008) for preserving the memory about mentioned Jews as a specific group of the10 years Holocaust. of working Thus, campsin addition (Спришен, to its victims (Gitelman, 1994). Kotljarchuk, in previous status, the Pit acquired a new turn, also claims that it became the “first meaning. For decades it had become a urban monument in the Soviet Union” symbol of Jew’s struggle for their identity that directly pointed out at the ethnicity and memory.

46 47 IV. Findings

After the decades of the hidden Soviet events were happening during the History of the anti-Semitism, at the end of the 80s a celebration of the 50th anniversary public debate around the Holocaust of Minsk ghetto’s liquidation. Among walking shadows memorialization finally became possible. them were exhibitions, meetings, and a An idea of the Pit’s reconstruction procession through the former ghetto appeared in this period though it faced with the participation of the government both a lack of support and financing. So, members, foreign representatives, and for instance, religious Jews were against survived imprisoners. In 1992 for the any sculptural representation of people in first time, Levin exhibited his project the Pit due to a fact that it was prohibited by the religious canon in the interiors of big event in a so-called Russian theater inproposal Minsk becamefor the Pit not (Левин, only an 2005). honorable A the process of reflection and discussion celebration of Belarusian Righteous hadsynagogues started. (Левин, 2011). Nevertheless, among the Nations but also a stage for A personality that played a key the first public discussion of his work. role in the Pit’s reconstruction was a It took almost ten years and much famous Soviet architect Leanid Levin effort for implementing new design in who also had been actively involved 2000. A new dominant of the memorial in the life of the Belarusian Jewish became a bronze sculpture Walking to community. Probably, a combination of Death designed as a row of the schematic his professional authority and reputation people’s figures walking down to the Figure 14. Opening of the reconstructed Pit on July 10, 2000. Photo E. Kazjulia among the Jewish population allowed bottom of the Pit (fig.14). For designing implementing this project as well as this sculpture Levin involved famous many others. Being in his thirties, in Elza Polak who at that moment lived 1970 Leanid Levin and his colleagues in Israel being already aged and weak. won the most prestigious Soviet award, Polak created the sculpture on a base of Lenin Prize, for a project of a major Levin’s sketches in her expressive and memorial complex Chatyn dedicated to recognizable manner. A physical model the civil victims of the Great Patriotic War for the future memorial made by her was taken to Minsk and further developed by from 1991 till his death in 2014 he had a Belarusian sculptor Aliaksandr Finski. ledin Belarus a Union (Левін, of Belarusian 2011). JewishAdditionally, Public While in original Levin’s idea these Associations and Communities. As a part figures were conceived as more detailed, of a generation of so-called “children the final sculpture represented them of the war”, he saw the Holocaust in quite a stylized way. Levin himself commemoration as a significant called them the “shadows” claiming that these twisted human silhouettes were 2012). Therefore, since the 80s Levin supposed to represent that anyone could hadmission developed for modern the idea Belarus of the (Левин, Pit’s be on their place on the way to death transformations. The beginning of the 90s turned out 2014). Today the shadows are walking to be a crucial moment in the Holocaust down(Левин, the 2011, hill along 2012; the Рубинштейн, stone stairs that memorialization in Belarus. So, numerous lead to a large round paved area in the Pit’s bottom.

48 49 IV. Findings

According to an interview with Levin’s general impression of the original design daughter Halina, a small paved area in for the Pit memorial. Its physical model, front of the Pit was originally covered which was exposed in the Russian theater with cobblestones that recently were in 1992, demonstrates that initially replaced with simple concrete tiles. the surrounding of the black obelisk On the right side of this area, there is was conceived as more picturesque a granite menorah-shaped stela with a and irregular. The stairs leading to the number of metal plaques (fig.15). They bottom of the Pit were supposed to have inform what individuals and institutions different widths for becoming organic sponsored the construction of the continuations of the slope. Additionally, memorial mentioning among others a the shape of the paved area in front Figure 16 fund of Belarusian president. On the of the obelisk, by contrast to today’s left side from the sculpture, there is a symmetrical outline, was also designed narrow path with the old trees along it. irregular in a respect to the complicated Next to each tree, a metal plate with a landscape. Another part of the original name stays. This path serves as an alley project, the boulders chaotically lying to the Righteous among the Nations on the slope, was not realized at all. memorizing Belarusians who were saving Regarding a monument’s message, as Jews during the war (fig.16). It was built Halina Levina said, an original design also in the middle of the 90s, and considering suggested an installation of the memorial general tendencies in Belarusian politics stones symbolizing five major pogroms of memory of this time, this part of the that happened in Minsk ghetto. These memorial can be interpreted as a state’s stones would have complemented the effort to integrate Holocaust history to character of the landscape and played

2011). In fact, the creation of the alley is a symbol that represents the Jewish wasBelarusian not authorities’ national narrativebut Levin’s (Портнов, idea, and commemorativean informational tradition.role; besides, In addition, a stone most probably represented his actual Levin conceived memorial signs with deep gratitude to those who risked their the names of Belarusian ghettos and numbers of victims for each of them. The Thanks to a meeting with a daughter last element that was not implemented in oflives Leonid for saving Levin Jews and a(Левин, current 2012). leader of reality was a wall with autographs of the his architectural bureau Halina, I got a few survived ghetto imprisoners. Figure 15

50 51 IV. Findings

In the early after-war years, right after Though, political regime and a situation coming to meet each other, articulate Informal memorial, the black obelisk’s installation the Pit around the Pit had been changing their problems and even sign petitions, was visited and maintained by people through the time, which at a certain point which, though, were mostly ignored by formal practices whose relatives were shot or buried in transformed Yama from a peripheral the career. However, arrests of Jewish forgotten wasteland to a significant place During this period the Pit could have activists and overall anti-Semitic of collective remembrance. Numerous experiencedthe state (Спришен, major changes, 1997). which, atmosphere in Soviet Belarus in the memoirs claim that this happened in the fortunately, did not happen. So, according 50s caused that just a few people were 70s though one source points out at a to the authorities’ plan, the black obelisk coming there for commemorating the particular event that changed the Pit’s was supposed to be replaced with a new Holocaust victims. Being threatened by status. According to Michail Nordštejn, Soviet memorial with a reference to the potential consequences some of Jews in 1975 on May 9 a group of Jewish anonymous “peaceful citizens” - - activists organized in the Pit a major meeting dedicated to the twentieth were saying that the officials had (Норд a timepreferred reflect to that avoid at thisthat place moment (Норд the Pit anniversary of the victory. That day one radicalштейн, idea 2000). of levelingMoreover, the the Pit rumors with the wasштейн, surrounded 2000). Archival by the wildphotos grass of thisand of the event’s initiators, an officer and bushes, and the closest to the career a veteran of the Great Patriotic War was an assumption, a project for a new structure was a small country-look-like memorialground (Левин, was actually 2005). designed.While the For latest house with a rickety fence (fig.17). despite the presence of authorities, protesting against this decision the KGBDavidovič agents made and thean inspiringpolice. His speech call to same activists wrote a letter addressed remember the Jews who perished in the Pit affected the community strongly, and and collected more than a thousand personally to Belarusian leader Mašeraŭ Figure 17. 1967. Photo by V. Marcyonka Figure 18. June, 1963. Photo by T. Ananjina next year several thousand people came signatures. Although they never got an official response the project was canceled annual events, though, were still highly controlledto the meeting by the (Нордштейн, police that in 2000). the early Such went through some transformations 80s started to use loudspeakers with since(Нордштейн, a newly constructed2000). Nonetheless, nine-story Yama Soviet songs nearby the Pit for blocking residential building cut off a part of the an opportunity for public speeches. Pit’s site. Nevertheless, thousands of Jews were

52 53 IV. Findings

As it was mentioned, the 90s became a During this period thousands of people crucial point in the memory politics in were staying by the Pit’s edge, stairs, and Belarus, which, of course, affected the on its bottom not only on the Victory social practices that were happening by Day but also on the anniversaries of the memorial. Archival pictures from the ghetto’s liquidation in October and the 90s and the beginning of the 2000s a legendary March pogrom. The neat demonstrate a rise of attention towards the Pit from the local and international candlesticks and metal plaques with authorities. For instance, in 1992 Yama thecobblestones names of Belarusianreplaced thick ghettos grass; were was visited by Israeli Minister for Foreign installed by the black obelisk (fig.20). Affairs Shimon Peres (fig.19). The events The opening of the sculpture Walking to were becoming more and more formal Death became the most pompous event starting to include public speeches, laying accompanied with the guard of honor the flowers, and bringing white-blue and a speech of the president Lukašenka Israeli flags, which was unimaginable in (fig.21).

the earlier decades (Нордштейн, 2000).

Figure 21. Opening of the reconstructed Pit on July 10, 2000. Photo E. Kazjulia

Figure 20. 21 October, 1993. Photo by Minkovič

Figure 22. Opening of the Alley to the Righteous among

Figure 19. 1992. Photo by Minkovič the Nations, 1996. Photo by V. Miaževič

54 IV. Findings

Figure 23 Figure 24

Today, in addition to three major dates, practices by the Holocaust memorials the Pit celebrates International Holocaust in Minsk, which is a poorly studied area. Remembrance Day on 27 January though Thus, according to my calculation, out of representatives of the Jewish community 342 people who were passing by the Pit admit that fewer people come to these and, hence, had an opportunity to see it meetings nowadays. This, probably, 29 interacted with the memorial in some happens due to a massive migration way. By interaction, I mean any kind of of Jews that became possible after the contact including a detailed exploration collapse of the Soviet Union (Akapian, of the whole memorial as well as just 2015). Official visits, obviously, still reading an inscription on the menorah- happen here: during my observation of shaped stela, taking a look at the Pit, the Pit, I found by the obelisk two large and even discussing it with a companion flower wreaths from a Jewish charity from the distance. Among those 29 only organization and the state of Israel 14 went down the stairs and took a look (fig.23). Even though this makes the at a whole memorial. For some of the memorial site look visited and it is well visitors, obviously, a lack of a physical maintained the everyday life of the Pit access played a role. For instance, a young can be barely called eventful. mother with a stroller had to stay on the The field observations that were top of the Pit while her friend and their conducted by me this year in the period kids were exploring the black obelisk from 16 July to 16 August aimed to in the bottom. The same happened to discover what practices are common two other groups of visitors: while some nearby the Pit these days. Though, of their members went down others unfortunately, none of my observations decided to wait for them on the paved happened during the public events the area by the stairs. collected results shed a light on everyday

57 IV. Findings

Probably, the most remarkable practice that was established in the Soviet The rest of the activities that were noticed during my observations Union and given to thirteen cities that happening by the Pit turned out to be represents a specific kind of tourism expressed “outstanding heroism” in routine. The number of people and their or even a pilgrimage. During one of my the war including Belarusian Minsk activities slightly differed depending on sessions that took place around midday, and Brest (Smorodinskaya, 2007). In time and a day, which is shown in the a big group of visitors came to the Pit. addition, in this vacation, they went table and on the schemes. So, the most It was the largest group of people I had to major memorial complexes Chatyn of the counted people were just passing and Red Coast in other regions of the by. In after work hours, they tended to was quite specific. Three women of country. The family members seemed walk rather alone than in groups and differentseen there; ages additionally, and two young their menbehavior were very enthusiastic and expressed deep some of them were carrying the grocery walking to the memorial being followed knowledge of the subject by operating, bags, supposedly, coming back from by four children. Some of the adults for instance, names of the memorials’ work. Additionally to a destination walk, I were carrying the flowers and while authors. By the moment of our admitted such activities as walking with a coming closer to the stairs they started conversation, they managed to visit all dog or a baby, cycling, and rarely jogging to divide them among the kids so each of the Hero Cities except for Murmansk, and riding a skateboard. All of them, them, according to a Christian Orthodox Kyiv and Odesa. though, had a transit character and did tradition, had an even number. While Therefore, this observation gave me not happen exactly by the memorial. the main part of the group came down an impression of a very specific social Figure 24 the stairs to the obelisk two men and a practice. This large family, factually, was woman stayed on the paved area by the pilgrimaging to the places of memory sculptural menorah and waited for the about World War II. As it was clear from rest. Meanwhile, after laying of flowers a the behavior of adults, transferring young woman had a chat with a couple knowledge about its events to children that arrived at the memorial before them. was one of their aims in this trip. As an After finishing she came back upstairs older woman mentioned, they did not and stopped on the stairs for discussing have any Jewish roots but they thought of the memorial’s history with the children. the Holocaust as “unfair”, so decided to It was obvious to me that this visit express their respect to its victims. was carefully planned and had a special Generally, visitors’ behavior by the Pit meaning for these people, so I asked allowed assuming who of them came to those who stayed upstairs what the the memorial for a purpose and who just purpose of their visit was. During a brief noticed it while walking. By indirect signs conversation, I found out that this big like a photo camera, a use of a navigator, a family arrived from a Russian city Nizhny content of conversations, body language, Novgorod for spending their vacation in etc. I can suppose that besides a big Belarus. Interestingly, their family trip group of Russian tourists only 4 visitors had a very precise focus: their aim was to came to the Pit specially. The rest of visit all the so-called Hero Cities and local those who interacted with the memorial memorials related to the Great Patriotic seemed to be passersby that noticed the War. Hero City was an honorable title Pit and decided to explore it.

58 IV. Findings

Table III. Counting of the passersby nearby the Pit memorial

09.30-09.50, Thursday 14.35-14.50, Saturday women men children total women men children total Street 10 11 - 21 9 11 1 21 ZaslaŭskajaMelnikajte Street ZaslaŭskajaMelnikajte StreetStreet Zaslaŭskaja Street 7 7 - 14 10 5 3 18 Path along the Alley Path along the Alley 7 2 - 9 3 1 - 4 11.50-12.10, Wednesday* 16.30-16.50, Sunday*** women men children total women men children total Path along the Alley

4 7 - 11 15 12 - 27 ZaslaŭskajaMelnikajte StreetStreet ZaslaŭskajaMelnikajte StreetStreet - 5 - 5 8 9 - 17 Path along the Alley Path along the Alley - 1 - 1 3 7 3 13 12.40-13.00, Monday** 17.45-18.00, Friday**** women men children total women man children total

Melnikajte Street 28 16 3 47 34 6 8 48 ZaslaŭskajaMelnikajte StreetStreet ZaslaŭskajaMelnikajte StreetStreet 10 10 2 22 5 10 - 15 Path along the Alley Path along the Alley Scheme I. Tracing of the passersby routes nearby the Pit memorial. July 21, 2018. Saturday, 14.35-14.50 3 8 2 13 3 4 - 7

* A couple is exploring the black obelisk reading an inscription. Another group, three women of different ages and two young men, is walking to the memorial being followed by four children. While the main part of the group comes down the stairs to the obelisk two men and a woman stay on the paved area by the sculptural menorah. ** A man stops by the memorial, walks around smoking. He is holding a car key. Probably, he is just waiting for someone by his parked car and decided. Two girls come to the memorial; they take a look Zaslaŭskaja Street at the memorial but do not come down. Two women with four kids are coming. The one with a stroller stays on the paved area in front of it, the rest of them are going down. *** A man is reading an inscription on one of the plaques in the alley. He goes down and reads an inscription on the obelisk. He comes back up using small stairs on the right side right from the obelisk. Two women are coming; one of them is going down, another one stays by the stairs. The first one Path along the Alley reads an inscription on the obelisk and takes photos. **** People are mostly walking alone, transit function dominates. Some of them are carrying the grocery bags.

Residential buildings

Hotel

Public buildings Melnikajte Street

Scheme II. Tracing of the passersby routes nearby the Pit memorial. July 23, 2018. Monday, 12.40-13.00

60 61

IV. Findings

History of the Broken Hearth

Although the first memorial stones to the Holocaust victims appeared in a that this cemetery was used for burying former Jewish cemetery in the 90s a the(Смоляр, victims 2002). of pogroms It is important that happened to remind brief introduction into its earlier history in Minsk ghetto. All these circumstances is needed. Known as the “third” Jewish to a high degree determined a current cemetery, it was established in 1868. appearance of the today’s memorial park. According to different sources, it was It is not known much about this working as a graveyard until being closed place in the period between 1944 and in 1946 or 1951 under the veil of a lack the 90s, which may be partly caused - by anti-Semitic and atheistic politics of Figure 25. An entrance to a Jewish cemetery in Minsk ghetto, 1946. Photo from a the Soviet Union. Mostly the cemetery theof space former for Jewish new burial cemetery places serves (Воло as is mentioned in regard to a special book «Выжить – подвиг. Воспоминания и документы о Минском гетто» aжинский, city park, 2015). during Although Minsk’s occupationthese days commission that investigated Nazis it used to be a graveyard inside the crimes after Minsk’s liberation in 1944. ghetto. More specifically, it was situated According to the reports developed by on its southeastern periphery, next to the Extraordinary State Commission for zonderghetto – a district where Jews Ascertaining and Investigating Crimes deported from Europe lived. Since the Perpetrated by German-Fascist Invaders first group of European prisoners arrived and Their Collaborators, 5,670 people from Hamburg, they were informally were killed here between 1941 and 1943 called “Hamburg Jews” even though later transport brought people from 2010). The next stage in the history of other German cities as well as from this(Адамушко, place had Герасимова, started in the Селеменев, 70s when Austria, Czechoslovakia, Belgium, and the the cemetery was completely demolished

part of Minsk ghetto was surrounded made a decision about establishing a byNetherlands a fence and (Ботвинник, even had its 2000). own rule This city(Козак, park 2012). instead The of Sovietthe cemetery, authorities which that barely contacted with Judenrat. In was quite a common practice in relation addition, “Hamburg Jews” were treated as high-qualified workers and, hence, football field and opened stage replaced had some privileges both in terms of tombstonesto old graveyards that, probably,(Медведь, were 2012). even A provision and safety, at least in the used for a construction of new structures beginning of the occupation period

(Козак, 2012). 62 63 IV. Findings

As in a case of the Pit, the 90s opened a addition to the victims from Hamburg, new page in the commemoration of those the stones commemorate Jews deported who were murdered and buried here. It from Dusseldorf (October, 1998), Bremen has started in 1993 with an installation of (February, 2002), Cologne and Bonn a memorial stone to Hamburg Jews that (October, 2008), Berlin (June, 2009), were deported to Belarus. According to Austrian cities (September, 2009), an inscription on this stone stela made in Frankfurt am Main (March, 2012), Belarusian and German, more than 1350 Konigsberg and East Prussia (June, Jews were transferred to Minsk ghetto 2015), and Czech Brno (November, and only 8 of them survived. This stone 2015). Noticeably, the erection of these was designed by an architect Michail stelas was initiated and supported by Hauchfeld and became a starting point numerous actors including municipalities in remembrance of the foreign Jews of the abovementioned cities, embassies perished in Belarus. Today nine memorial of Germany and Israel, international stones shape a round square forming the organizations, Union of Belarusian Jewish Pantheon of Memory (fig.27). Its round Public Associations and Communities, shape symbolizes a circular yellow sign Minsk Municipality, etc. Additionally, an that Jews in Minsk ghetto were obliged to architect Leonid Levin had been involved Figure 26. A memorial stone in the design of the Pantheon of Memory. to the Jews deported from Bremen wear on their clothes (Левин, 2011). In

Figure 27

64 IV. Findings

Another significant part of the memorial 2008 (fig.28). Like the newest part of the park is a number of old Jewish Pit, it was designed by Leanid Levin, this tombstones placed on the grass next time in a collaboration with a sculptor to the Pantheon of Memory (fig.29). According to the local witnesses, they main metaphor Levin used an image of keep appearing on the ground around aMaksim destroyed Piatrul family (Левин, house 2011). represented As the the neighborhood, especially after by a Vienna chair and a cracked round the rains, continuously changing the table with bent legs. As Levin mentioned - in the interviews, he aimed to create a philosophical, non-literal illustration oflandscape the stones (Бордовская, appeared here 2015; in 2007,Воло to the grief avoiding common for afterжинский, being 2015). found Theby workers first large during series the Soviet memorialization military the construction of a new pipeline symbols or “violence”. “The memorial along the southeastern edge of the is very simple but causes an enormous emotional impact” builders still find the stones during the An additional effect was achieved by constructionpark (Воложинский, works, as 2015). it happened Nowadays in a careful attention (Левин,to the landscape, 2011, 2012). May 2018. So, during the demolition of in particular, an old picturesque tree an old building in the city center, they that was an onlooker of the sad events discovered that its foundation was made of Jewish tombstones with inscriptions 2008). An inscription on a red square in Hebrew. According to the agreement granitememorized podium by the in Belarusian,sculpture (Горевой, Russian, with the Jewish Museum in Minsk, all the Hebrew, and English says “At this place findings were transferred to the area by in 1941-1943 more than 5,000 of Jews the memorial where the museum staff were exterminated by fascists and their had to examine them and make a decision collaborators. Eternal memory to the regarding their preservation. In the idea innocent victims of Nazism”. Additionally, of the museum’s head Vadzim Akapian, this podium reminds of a house’s founded stones in the future should be arranged in a lapidarium, a special wall highlighted by Levin and his daughter with installed and exposed tombstones. Halina,foundation this (Горевой,part of the 2008). memorial As it was was For the realization of this idea, though, fully funded by the Minsk Municipality

Finally, the last part of the memorial project, though, was Levin himself with a Figure 28 ontoday a former there isJewish no funding cemetery (Кохно, became 2018). a group(Левин, of 2011).Minsk ghettoAn original imprisoners. initiator of the sculpture Broken Hearth installed in

Figure 29

66 67 IV. Findings

Social practices, not-such-a-social Due to a lack of the sources, it is not known much about the past of Jewish place cemetery and, in particular, social practices that had happened there. One of the web sources claims that in after war years Soviet authorities were preventing Jews from coming to the cemetery and taking care of their relatives’ graves. Few years after the Jewish cemetery was closed, which caused its deterioration. The park that appeared here in the 70s was designed with a football field and a summer

Figure 33. Opening of the Broken Hearth, 2008 infrastructure for leisure to inhabitants ofstage; the nearesttherefore, neighborhoods. it provided with Repeating an each other, websites state that in 1990 the territory of the cemetery was “leveled As it was mentioned, the first memorial to the hill, next to the Pantheon of with the ground”, which is controversial stone to Hamburg Jews was installed Memory. Today new stones continue since a foundation of the old opened in the park in 1993. Most probably, at arriving and disappearing: while at Figure 32. Summer stage in 2007. scene can be found on the photos from that moment old Soviet facilities were in the beginning of my field observations quite a poor state. At least, they definitely I found several dozens of broken Photo by V. Valožynski although the information about the were decaying several years after in the gravestones, in one month on their place former2007 (Воложинский, Jewish cemetery 2007). is fragmented Anyway, 2000s, which is obvious from the photos there were only two (fig. 30-31). this research was focused on social made in this period (fig. 32). Additionally, In 2003 Minsk Municipality stated practices related to the memorial, hence, some memoirs confirm a lack of the that among other green areas in the those that have taken place from the 90s. park’s maintenance by claiming that it city this park should be reconstructed had always been dark and the grass was in the period between 2004 and 2008. It is impossible to conclude without ancient Jewish tombstones started to a further research whether this Figure 30 Figure 31 appearnot cut (Петрова,on the ground 2015). surface. In the According 2000s, decision was caused by the continuous to the memories of a young Belarusian installation of the memorial stones or writer Siarhej Kalenda, young people not. Was it an aspiration to create a used to seat on these stones for watching more appropriate environment for a the football games on a sports ground. place of commemoration or to make a Besides, the teenagers used the park for good impression on foreign officials that other activities like gathering, lighting the were opening the stones? For sure, this - might be just a planned reconstruction. Regardless, in this period the park foundfires, drinking, tombstones and have even been having transferring sex (Пе radically changed its appearance and трова, 2015). Starting from 2007all the status.

68 69 IV. Findings

Doubtlessly, the erected memorials

most probably, they provoked rather occasionalaffected social activities practices than around; a change though, in the everyday use of the park. In addition to the ceremonies of each stone’s installation, other events happen by the Pantheon of Memory. For instance, Regarding routine social practices, seven saw twice how they made their parents to in 2017 Jewish Religious Community field observations demonstrated that come closer to the sculpture for walking organized a meeting dedicated to the different parts of the memorial do not on its base, playing around or touching International Holocaust Remembrance affect them significantly. Among the most it (fig.34). This was also confirmed by Day on 27 January. Considering that the common activities in the triangular area Halina Levina who mentioned children’s Pit has always gathered people for such around the memorial, I distinguished active attention towards the memorial occasions, the memorial on the former transit walking and various recreational during the interview. Therefore, among cemetery may have a good potential for practices that did not involve interaction the 130 people who were passing by the providing with alternative, more intimate with the memorial. In the recreational memorial 12 interacted with it. 3 of them space for commemorative events. practices I included walking around a were children who were followed by 3 Besides, this proves that the place can park, sitting on park benches alone or serve not exclusively for international in a small group, walking a dog, walking on the stone stelas and carefully explored formal delegations but the local groups with a stroller or with older children. them.adults; The only rest one 5 manjust quicklyread an looked inscription at the and their needs. Additionally, less frequently people Pantheon of Memory while passing by. were smoking, reading or checking According to several official decisions their cellphones on the benches, playing of the Minsk Municipality, different with their kids, cycling. As the schemes private institutions were planning to show, visitors’ activities and a number develop a detailed plan for a site where of people in the park differed depending the Jewish cemetery was situated. As on time and day, sometimes significantly. my search showed, this happened at So, for instance, around lunchtime, I least twice in 2005 and 2006 . Being saw two groups of people who met their concerned about the future of the burials acquaintances, greeted them and had a the Jewish community addressed a letter quick chat. Most probably, these people to a responsible firm. It is not known were co-workers who were having a walk if their protest or other factors played during their lunch breaks. It was the only a key role but nothing was built in the moment when this type of activities was area yet. Despite this fact, today a large noticed. part of the park is surrounded by a fence Among practices that involved and looks like it is currently under the interaction with the memorial, I can construction. The search on the satellite distinguish taking a look at the memorial maps confirmed this. Certainly, these stones of the Pantheon of Memory may be works related to underground or reading the inscriptions on them. engineering or landscaping, and public Surprisingly, all the contacts with the land will not be appropriated by the sculpture Broken Hearth were initiated private actors. Even in this case, though, by children. During my observations I Jewish graves still may be in a risk of destruction. Figure 34

70 71 IV. Findings

Table IV. Counting of the passersby in the memorial park

08.50-09.10, Thursday* 14.00-14.20, Saturday**** women men children total women men children total A A 1 2 1 4 2 1 - 3 B B 1 - - 1 1 1 - 2 A C C Suchaja Street 6 3 - 9 2 3 - 5 11.20-11.40, Wednesday** 17.05-17.25, Sunday Kalektarnaja Street women men children total women men children total A A 4 10 1 15 3 2 - 5 B B B C 5 2 - 7 - - - - C C 7 10 1 18 2 2 - 4 12.05-12.25, Monday*** 18.05-18.20, Friday***** women men children total women man children total A A 8 3 4 15 1 5 3 9 B B 4 1 2 7 - - - - C C 7 11 1 19 1 - - 1 Scheme III. Tracing of the passersby routes in the memorial park. July 21, 2018. Saturday, 14.00-14.20

* Two municipal park caretakers are working around the studied site. ** Two women take a look at the stones. A man around 60-years old reads an inscription on the stones and properly explores them. *** Men are sitting on benches by one or in a group of two. A mother helps her little son to urinate under the tree in front of the Broken Hearth. Two groups consist of a mother, a grandmother and two Hospital children. Two women are looking at the stones while passing by. People are meeting and greeting each other, probably, while having a lunch break and meeting the colleagues. A **** A homeless man is peeing by the trashcan in front of the Broken Hearth. Public buildings Suchaja Street ***** A family with two kids interacts with the Broken Hearth sculpture. Seems like children initiated this interaction being attracted by a shape of the memorial. Industrial buildings Kalektarnaja Street

B C

Scheme III. Tracing of the passersby routes in the memorial park. August 8, 2018. Wednesday, 11.20-11.40

72 73 V Discussion

July 3, 1993. Photo by M. Minkovič V. Discussion

Discussion Discourse Although generally public’s perception fragmented and commemoration of memorial complex in the suburbs that of the Great Patriotic War in Belarus is the Roma victims is represented by only was designed on a place of a former - three memorials that mention this ethnic group (Kotljarchuk, 2013). Therefore, Holocaustconsidered is as less homogeneous solid than one (Ластов could existing Holocaust memorials narrate 2018).concentration Since almost camp allTrasčianeč the existing and expect.ский, 2009), So, both the of memory the studied about memorials the only about a part of its history. This Holocaustopened in Junememorials 2018 (Касперович, in Minsk are linked have experienced the attacks of neo- narrative can be complemented by new to Levin’s personality, it is hard to assume Nazi organizations. During their actions, memorials that commemorate other how the Holocaust memorialization will vandals covered the memorials with groups of victims or provide with a new be developing after his death. paint and left a note with threats by the perspective on the familiar events. Regarding the changes in the design Pit. A researcher Leanid Smilavitsky of the studied memorials, the research also claims that Jewish cemeteries and Power demonstrated that they have always synagogues around the country had been been connected to the changes in the regularly attacked by vandals during the A question of power, in other words, politics of memory. For instance, an Coming back to my original research 90s (Smilovitsky, 2007). Thus, alternative who has conceived the commemorative erection of the black obelisk was a typical questions, I can state that all of them attitudes towards the Holocaust exist in spaces, was one of the crucial in this example of bottom-up memorialization were answered to a certain degree. Belarus. research. As this study demonstrated, the in after-war years that took place in Due to the time limitations of my thesis Additionally, a visible solidity of the Belarusian government was involved in Belarus, Lithuania, and Latvia (Young, project, I was not able to perform a full war discourse in a case of Belarus may both the reconstruction of the Pit and an 1994). In turn, a demolition of the Jewish review of the archival documents. Their signal rather about its selective character installation of the memorial in the Jewish cemetery and establishing the park on detailed analysis could have discovered than a social agreement regarding it. cemetery. However, not the government its place was also not a unique practice additional details about the decision- As it was mentioned, official discourse but the Jewish community initiated making process regarding the memorials’ does not support an inclusion of certain in the studied memorial sites have not installation and the process of their aspects of the war like, for example, a role of Leanid Levin is noticeable. So, been(Медведь, random 2012). but represented Therefore, new a certain objects design. Such a work, though, would collaboration of Belarusians with Nazis. othertheir erection; places of additionally,commemoration a personal to the tendencies in the politics of memory. require weeks or even months and could In turn, within the Holocaust subject, Holocaust victims installed in the latest Recognizing the uniqueness of each case, be appropriate for a doctoral thesis. there are other lacunas. One of them, years in Minsk were also designedby though, can allow capturing what makes Also, an amount of direct observations Levin’s studio. The first of them is a a certain memorial an influential place of was not enough for making informed extermination of the Roma minority monument to the ghetto victims in the commemoration and another one a silent conclusions about the patterns of the duringaccording the to Holocaust. Andrej Katliarčuk, Knowledge is anabout - stone. social practices around the memorials. this aspect of the Holocaust in Belarus is My research, though, can serve as a base city center that appeared in 2009 (Вай for making some starting hypothesis for ніцкі, 2017). Another one is a large the further studies in this area. Therefore, even though a narrative about the studied memorials is still not full, this research summarizes the information regarding their history, design and a social role comprehensively, which was not done before. Such a summary can contribute significantly to the further studies on the Holocaust memorials in Belarus.

76 77 V. Discussion

memorialization. Nevertheless, a sculptor memorials. This study can serve as a base questions further investigation is needed. Vajnicki attempts to do this by claiming for further research with a focus on the This research also discovered that that figurativeness is commonly used in public’s perception of these messages. the roles of the studied memorials are the Holocaust memorials of the recent So far, though, some preliminary quite different. Although a meaning years. According to him, such a tool can assumptions are possible. Firstly, media of the memorial for a certain group is be suitable and expressive for small-scale review demonstrated that there is subjective, even on a stage of literature monuments but does not allow a full use certain confusion regarding a function and media review the importance of of a sand career on a place of the Pit the Pit became obvious. Yama appeared 2017). On a basis of my research, though, memorial. So, the sculpture Walking to in the movies, on the books’ covers, in itof isthe impossible larger spaces’ to distinguish potential such(Вайніцкі, a Death is interpreted by some sources as a the memoirs of the ghetto imprisoners. tendency since it included the analysis of representation of historical events during While almost every publication about the only two places of memorialization. which Jews were descending into the Pit Holocaust in Minsk referred to the Pit, a It is worth mentioning that both for being shot and buried there(Cohen, search of information regarding the other memorials specify the Jews as a 2017). As an introduction to the Pit’s memorial was much more challenging. commemorated group, which sharply history demonstrated, it is not exactly The direct observations also confirmed contrasts the Soviet era when this was this hypothesis. So, a number of people impossible. Additionally, the Broken the ghetto and only several hundreds around the Pit was approximately 2.5 Hearth mentions Nazi collaborators oftrue; them the were victims buried were in murdered the Pit. Was all thisover times larger than around the studied shedding a light on an issue that is inaccurate interpretation caused by a area in the former cemetery. Besides, usually not articulated by media, scholars shape and a position of the sculpture? several individual visitors and groups Figure 35 or politicians. The Pantheon of Memory Are these walking figures perceived by came to the Pit for a purpose, whereas is quite unique in this regard, due to a the public too literally? no one came specially to the Pantheon of fact that it commemorates European Secondly, the direct observations Memory or the Broken Hearth. Jews including Belarus into the European allowed discovering a few unexpected This difference can be caused memory context after the decades of practices that were taking place around by numerous reasons including the the Soviet isolation. Though, a fact the Broken Hearth memorial. As it was memorials’ location within the city fabric. that Jews are not mentioned in regard pointed out, two groups of children were It is obvious to me, though, the main Design and message to the Second World War in Belarus playing on the memorial’s foundation. distinction of the Pit is its symbolical is still topical. So, an organizer of the Additionally, a young mother was helping meaning for the Jewish community. However, drawing any principal guided tours around Jewish places of her little son to urinate under the tree The history of the memorial formed the conclusions regarding the tendencies BelarusSviatlana Berger reacted on the right in front of the sculpture. Besides, myths that, in turn, have constructed a in the memorials’ design itself is opening of the memorial in the former an adult who looked like homeless was famous place of memorialization. The quite problematic, at least due to a concentration camp on her Facebook urinating almost in the same place the place where thousands of Jews died. The small number of the contemporary page. Her post said “I very carefully other day. Of course, I am not equating place where the community installed the Holocaust memorials in Belarus. Besides, reread the news about the opening of the these practices but all of them are quite first obelisk to them. The place where the considering that numerous memorials noticeable. Did these people think that first massive meeting happened. The Pit, to the Holocaust victims in Belarus websites. Not a word about Jews. Why?” their behavior was appropriate for a for sure, can serve as an example to the were designed by one author, Leanid (fig.35).memorial in Trasčianeč on the available memorials site or simply were not aware Levin, it is rather possible to follow the Additionally, the research mentioned of the sculpture’s role? If the latest is spaces in connection with social practices evolution of his personal style than a what messages Leanid Levin attempted right, was an author’s metaphor too constructedLefebvrian triad; this significant physical and space discursive known contemporarynational tradition of to express through the design of his indirect? Regardless, for answering such to everyone as Yama.

78 79 Implications Acknowledgments

I would like to sincerely thank the Swedish Institute that made my study - This research did not seek to make makes the memorial recognizable and at Urbanism Studies Master’s Program Я бы искренне хотела поблагодарить- practical implications regarding expressive. In fact, this feature of the Pit possible by providing me with Visby Шведский Институт, который выде memorials design on a basis of two can serve as an example of what Yilmaz scholarship. Also, I highly appreciate the лил мне стипендию Visby для обуче analyzed cases. Nonetheless, its findings calls “detachment” (Yilmaz, 2010). At help of Ax:son Johnson Foundation that ния на Магистерской программе по- allow drawing several conclusions the same time, though, “detachment” allowed me to develop this research in урбанистике. Также я высоко ценю that can be applied specifically to prevents visitors from going down the Pit a bigger volume and have a productive помощь фонда Ax:son Johnson, кото Belarusian context or to other cases. and exploring it. Additionally, review of and absolutely necessary trip to Minsk. рая позволила мне увеличить объем- These conclusions problematize a lack the visual materials confirmed that the Additionally, I want to express my моего исследования и осуществить of information about the memorials and Pit have been often visited by the elderly, gratitude to my academic supervisor продуктивную и совершенно необ an access to them as well as a deficit of thus, safe and comfortable conditions for professor Tigran Haas for his enthusiastic ходимую поездку в Минск. Я также - participatory practices in the design of different groups are absolutely necessary. support and a level of freedom he was хочу выразить благодарность своему the memorials. Regarding the memorial on the former giving me as well as professor Karen A. научному руководителю Тиграну Ха One of the biggest challenges in this cemetery, problems of the physical access асу за его воодушевление, поддержку research was a lack of information or are not that obvious there. Though, an my work’s structure and development. и уровень свободы, который он мне - a limited access to it. For example, a entrance to the memorial park is not ItFranсk is worth for hermentioning, valuable thatadvice without regarding the предоставлял, и профессору Карен heritage of Leanid Levin has still not equipped with a ramp making this place kind support of the staff of Belarusian Франк за ее ценные советы по струк being transferred to the city archives. of memorialization not fully inclusive as archives, libraries and museums this туре и ведению моего исследования.- Therefore, a personal visit to his studio well. research would be impossible. Especially Стоит отметить, что без поддержки is the only way to see the original Finally, the study revealed that public I would like to distinguish a director и отзывчивости сотрудников белару projects of the memorials he designed. participation in the memorial’s funding, of the Museum of Jewish History and ских архивов, библиотек и музеев, это Unfortunately, such significant materials approval, design, maintenance, etc. Culture in Minsk Vadzim Akapian, исследование было бы невозможно. are not available for the public and, significantly increases its further impact. an international researcher Leanid В особенности я бы хотела выделить moreover, even for photographing. In a case of the Pit, such an involvement Smilavicky whom I was lucky to meet and директора музея истории и культуры Making these projects available would was caused by a lack of resources, Halina Levina who significantly enriched евреев Беларуси Вадима Акопяна, contribute significantly to the work of anti-Semitic politics, and other mostly my understanding of the studied subject. международного исследователя researchers and architects and, hence, negative factors. It seems possible, Finally, I would love to thank my friends Леонида Смиловицкого, которого мне - the memory of the Holocaust. though, to increase public engagement and family who have always been посчастливилось встретить, и Галину Additionally, as the direct observations today for creating more diverse and supportive and understanding, and my Левину, которая чрезвычайно обогати demonstrated, the Pit memorial site does meaningful places of memorialization. parents for teaching me that education ла мое понимание исследуемой темы. not provide with a physical access to the For sure, this requires new policies that and respect to people’s otherness are Наконец, я хотела бы поблагодарить- groups with special needs. Its natural would regulate the procedure of the great values. своих друзей и семью, которые всегда landscape sharply contrasts with the memorial design with an involvement of поддерживали меня, и моих родите surrounding urban environment, which the state, spatial experts and civil society. лей за то, что научили меня понимать ценность образования и уважению к «инаковости». 80 81 References

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88 89 VI Design Proposal VI. Design Proposal

application of the knowledge about Bridge the Holocaust and its memorialization to the contemporary challenges of massive migration and displacement, in a word, homelessness. As a KTH professor Mieke Schalk once admitted in our conversation, numerous Holocaust memorials commemorate the Jews who perished but none memorizes the struggles of those who survived. This idea does not mean that commemoration of

the variety of perspectives on a variety ofthe experiences. dead does not The matter; Bridge it proposes just suggests to reflect on an experience of those who seek a new home, which is a dangerous and challenging transition. Bridge project questioned traditional ways of memorialization by addressing the current issues, combining a place of memory with transit public space, and working on the edge between urban An original idea for my thesis project design and public art. A metal frame was designing the Holocaust memorial in placed on the bridge between iconic Stockholm where I was doing my Master’s towers in Stockholm city center is filled program. Though, the correspondence with archetypal shapes that together with the local Jewish organizations did form a unique spatial experience for not demonstrate any current demand those who want to cross a bridge. A in such a project. Since I did not find passer through who happens to walk here an actual opportunity to design a place should enter this transparent but chaotic of commemoration in Stockholm I construction and find his or her own exit decided to participate in an international through narrow paths, stairs, whimsically competition Creative Conscience with my connected closed and opened spaces. proposal. The competition provided with Confusion, isolation, and disorientation both its limitation and more freedom are, probably, common feelings among in comparison with a realistic design those who are on their way to a new proposal. Therefore, as a part of my thesis home. This urban intervention was project I developed a proposal for public conceived as a physical metaphor for space intervention called Bridge. This homelessness. It was designed for project was shortlisted and published on drawing public attention to a specific the website as outstanding. issue, and bridging the emotional and As I mentioned in the introduction, discursive gap between traumatic past one of my aims in this research was an and challenging present.

92 93 VI. Design Proposal

94 95 VI. Design Proposal

96 97 VI. Design Proposal

98 99 Appendix A

Interview questions Questions related to the design and idea of the memorial: Вопросы, относящиеся к дизайну и идее мемориалов:

1. What was the rationale for choosing this site for the memorial’s installation? 1. Почему был выбран именно этот участок для установки мемориала? 2. What aspects of the Holocaust were planned to reflect in the memorial? 2. Какие аспекты Холокоста планировалось отразить в мемориале? 3. How do you see the mission of the memorial? 3. В чем вы видите миссию мемориала? 4. What metaphors were chosen for the memorial? Why them? 4. Какие образы были выбраны для мемориала? Почему именно они? -

5. WhatКакими were выразительными the tools used by the средствами author for авторexpressing пытался the chosen сконструировать images? Do you вы think heбранные succeeded? образы? Считаете ли Вы выбранные средства успешными? -

6. HowЧем isотличается today’s appearance сегодняшний of the memorialвнешний differentвид мемориала from the от originally изначально conceived? заду Whyманного? did these Почему changes произошли happen? эти изменения?

7. Whom does the memorial commemorate? Why was this group of victims chosen? Questions related to the personality of the interviewed person: 7. Кому посвящен мемориал? Почему выбрана именно эта группа жертв? Вопросы, связанные с личностью интервьюируемого/интервьюируемой:

QuestionsВопросы, relatedотносящиеся to the use к использованию of the memorials мемориаловand public reaction и общественной to them: реакции 1. IntroduceПредставьтесь, yourself кратко and briefly объяснив, explain какова your role Ваша in the роль preservation в сохранении of memory памяти about о на них: theжертвах Holocaust Холокоста in Belarus. в Беларуси. -

1. WhatКакое is значение the meaning имеют of the эти memorial мемориалы for you для and Вас the и Jewish еврейского community? сообщества Мин Questions related to the history and design of the memorials: ска? Почему? - Вопросы, относящиеся к истории и дизайну мемориалов: 2. HowКак используютсяis the memorial мемориалыused today? Who в настоящее does initiate время? the events Кем инициированы that take place by меро the 1. Whose idea was an installation of the memorial? memorial?приятия, проходящие у мемориалов? 1. Кому принадлежит идея установки мемориала? -

2. WhoКто участвовалparticipated в in разработке developing andи финансировании funding the memorial? мемориала? How was Как the происходило collaboration 3. IsЕсть there ли any общественная public reaction реакция on the memorialна мемориалы (its design, (их дизайн, the fact ofсам its факт existence)? присут If so, betweenвзаимодействие different actorsмежду going? акторами процесса? whatствия is в the городском reaction? пространстве)? Если есть, то какая? -

3. WhatКакова was роль the частныхrole of private инициатив, initiatives, государства, the state, the еврейской Jewish community, общины, foreign иностран 4. AreЕсть there ли планы any plans по regardingустановке the новых installation мемориалов of the new жертвам memorials Холокоста to the Holocaustв Минске и organizations,ных организаций etc. in и creatingт.п. в создании the memorial? мемориала? victims?Беларуси? Who Кем does они initiate инициированы? them?

100 101 Appendix B

Decisions of Minsk Municipality

Решение №1334 от 04.08.2005. В соответствии с Законом Республики Беларусь от 5 июля 2004 года «Об архитектурной, градостроительной и строительной деятельности в Республике Беларусь» и во исполнение Учитывая необходимость наращивания площадей зеленых насаждений общего пользования и в целях подпункта 3.2 пункта 3 Указа Президента Республики Беларусь от 23 апреля 2003 г. № 165 «Об утверждении комплексного благоустройства объектов зеленого хозяйства г. Минска Минский городской исполнительный генерального плана г. Минска с прилегающими территориями и некоторых вопросах его реализации» Минский комитет РЕШИЛ: городской исполнительный комитет РЕШИЛ:

1. УП «Минскзеленстрой» (Струков А.И.), УП «УКС Мингорисполкома» (Ладутько Н.А.) обеспечить 1. Разрешить обществу с ограниченной ответственностью «Метадос» за счет собственных средств выполнение работ в соответствии с перечнем объектов зеленого хозяйства общего пользования г. выступить заказчиком на разработку градостроительного проекта детального планирования в Минска, подлежащих реконструкции и строительству в 2004-2008 гг. (далее - перечень), согласно границах ул. К.Цеткин - Кальварийской - Короля - Сухой - продолжение ул. Коллекторной (восточная приложению. сторона сквера), (далее - детальный план).

2. Финансовому управлению (Керножицкий А.В.) и комитету строительства и жилищной политики 2. Комитету архитектуры и градостроительства Мингорисполкома (Белогорцев Р.И.) в установленном Мингорисполкома формировать ежегодные титульные списки капитального строительства объектов порядке подготовить и выдать архитектурно-планировочное задание на разработку детального зеленого хозяйства и их финансирование, согласно вышеуказанному перечню. плана.

3. Контроль за исполнением настоящего решения возложить на заместителя председателя 3. Принять к сведению письмо общества с ограниченной ответственностью «Метадос» от 6 июля 2005 г. горисполкома Белохвостова В.М. № 05-106 об обязательствах последнего передать в коммунальную собственность г. Минска проектную документацию (детальный план). Приложение к решению Мингорисполкома 4. Контроль за исполнением настоящего решения возложить на заместителя председателя от 18.09.2003 г. № 1640 горисполкома Кушнера В.Я.

Решение № 1390 от 20 июля 2006. В соответствии с Законом Республики Беларусь от 5 июля 2004 года «Об архитектурной, градостроительной и строительной деятельности в Республике Беларусь», во исполнение подпункта 3.2 пункта 3 Указа Президента Республики Беларусь от 23 апреля 2003 г. № 165 «Об утверждении генерального плана г. Минска с прилегающими территориями и некоторых вопросах его реализации» Минский городской исполнительный комитет РЕШИЛ:

1. Разрешить обществу с ограниченной ответственностью «Трайпл» за счет собственных средств выступить в установленном порядке заказчиком на разработку градостроительного проекта детального планирования территории в границах ул. Немиги - ул. Коллекторной - ул. К. Цеткин (далее - детальный план).

2. Комитету архитектуры и градостроительства Мингорисполкома (Никитин В.Д.) в установленном порядке подготовить и выдать архитектурно-планировочное задание на разработку детального плана.

3. Детальный план подлежит согласованию и утверждению в установленном порядке.

4. Принять к сведению письмо ООО «Трайпл» от 19 июня 2006 г. № 224/в об обязательствах передать в установленном порядке на безвозмездной основе в коммунальную собственность г. Минска (комитету архитектуры и градостроительства Мингорисполкома) утвержденный детальный план.

5. Контроль за исполнением настоящего решения возложить на заместителя председателя горисполкома Кушнера В.Я.

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