The Depiction of War Reporters in Hollywood Feature Films from the to the Present Author(s): Stephen Badsey Source: Film History, Vol. 14, No. 3/4, War and Militarism (2002), pp. 243-260 Published by: Indiana University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3815431 . Accessed: 24/12/2010 17:19

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http://www.jstor.org FilmHistory, Volume 14, pp. 243-260, 2002. Copyright? John Libbey ISSN:0892-2160. Printedin Malaysia

The depiction of war reporters in Hollywood feature films from the vietnam war to the present

Stephen Badsey

The Hollywood depiction of war reporters in emotional or subjective truth as both different from feature films (taking a loose definition of a objective factual truth and equal in value, justifying 'Hollywood' film to mean one made chiefly for the departure from factual narrative, also reflects a an American and generally anglophone com- position common to many war memoirs, that the mercial audience) presents a number of conceptual personal experience of infantry combat is the only problems. War films other than comedies or science perspective on a war of any validity. 'What we see, fictionare usually set in a historicallyreal war. Inmany what we live, "is";what contradicts our experience war films, historical events are considerably changed "is not",' wrote a French veteran of the First World for cultural or commercial reasons, such as in the War, 'The high command could not know, for only ErrolFlynn version of The Charge of the LightBrigade their intelligence was in contact with the war, and war (1936). But often war films make claims for factual is not to be perceived by intelligence alone'.2 In the authenticity, creating a tension with the narrative context of war films, it also cannot be ignored that structure and characterisation of the film itself. A this idea of emotional truth transcending reason is further layer is added to this issue when the film is found in many militaryor militaristicvalue systems, based even notionally on a war history, a novel, or appearing in Nazi ideology as 'thinking with the on personal memoirs. blood'. Yet a furtherissue concerning objectivity and At the time of writing, the most recent Holly- the nature of truth is added to those war films that wood film to feature a war reporter is We Were include reporters.3 Most Hollywood films, and most Soldiers (2002), based on an account of the battle in war films, are highly formulaic, but this is particularly the la Drang valley in 1965 between the US Army's true of films featuring war reporters, which fall into 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile) and the North Viet- only a small number of easily recognisable catego- namese Army, written by Harold G. Moore, former ries dependent on these issues. In war films that commander of the 1st/7th Air Cavalry, and Joseph have American soldiers in combat as their main L. Galloway, who as a UPI reporter accompanied the AirCavalry in the battle. In a letter writtento 'the men Stephen Badsey PhD MA (Cantab.) FRHistS is a of the 7th Cavalry'director and screenwriter Randall senior lecturer at The Royal MilitaryAcademy Sand- Wallace set out his view of the distinction between hurst. He has published extensively on the history of truth in documentary and feature filmmaking. 'The military ideas and on media portrayals of the military main difference between our approach and that of in fact and fiction, and been an advisor on historical war dramas. other media,' Wallace wrote, 'is that in movies - Correspondence to: Department of War Studies, The dramatic, as opposed to documentary, filmmaking Royal MilitaryAcademy Sandhurst, Camberley GU1 5 - we are out to communicate on an emotional level 4PQ Great Britain. - to communicate emotional truth'.1This claim of an E-mail: [email protected]. 244 ,.,,,S _tt^SSSSSSs Stephen Badsey

reflected in several Hollywood films of that period.4 Among war photographers the attitude was exempli- fied by the catchphrase, 'I don't take sides, I take pictures'. In the 1960s, the character of the enquiring journalistalso began to take on the narrativefunction previously occupied by the private detective or inves- tigator. In such films the actual mechanics of journal- ism are secondary to the role of the journalist as observer on behalf of the film audience. Just as Hollywood war films, for reasons of dramatic narra- tive or characterisation, often depict behaviour in combat that seems comically inept to real soldiers, so the behaviour of war reporters is often quite unlike that of actual journalists, reflected in particular in actions or statements that appear impossibly naive. Often a Hollywood reporter will also double as a photographer. The photojournalist or news camera- man is largely absolved from the need to also ask questions, and it is sufficient in film terms that he is there to act as a witness. The Cold War thrillerThe Bedford Incident (1965), made while the Vietnam War was being fought, explores contemporary anxi- eties through the eyes of journalist Ben Munceford (played by Sidney Poitier). The film's plot centres on the determination of Captain Eric Finlander (Richard Widmark)of the warship USS Bedford to harass and Fig. 1. In focus, the reporter is either an important secondary pursue a Soviet submarine, an example of Cold War uniformand character who is won over to the militaryin the course brinkmanship that leads finally to their destroying readyto shoot. of the film, or a minor character who is a figure of each other. Munceford, on board the Bedford to BarryPepper on Infilms that do not feature American wars, interview Findlander and events, func- thebattlefield contempt. photograph the is the central character but the is tions foremost as a device the other andlooking every reporter story plot enabling incha soldieras about personal relationships, never about actual re- characters to explain things to the audience through UPIphoto- porting. him. But in the climax as death looms, Munceford journalistJoe It has been plausibly argued in the context of becomes the film's own voice. 'You knew there was Gallowayin We the Vietnam Warthat journalistic ethos and culture in this chance, do something!' Munceford yells at the WereSoldiers the United States underwent a significant change stunned Finlander, speaking for the film against mili- (2002). between the First and Second World Wars in re- of Cold War safety, 'Answer me, [Courtesyof The tary guarantees CinemaMuseum.] sponse to changes in the newspaper industry.As the damn you!' The ending in a nuclear blast is ambigu- news media became a bureaucratised production ous; it is not clear whether only the Bedford and its industry, so in response journalism became a pro- antagonist have been destroyed, or the entire world. fession; the American press came to see itself as In addition to the value of the reporteras a plot both objective and as independent even of newspa- device, going anywhere and asking questions on the per owners. The issues raised by this transition ap- audience's behalf, any reporter in a Hollywood war pear in the confrontationsin CitizenKane (1941) film who occupies more than a minor role also fits between Charles Foster Kane (Orson Welles) and his the conventions of the private detective genre by journalist employees. From these concerns came being a flawed human being; one who starts the film the ideal of the journalist who was committed to detached from events but is forced by the war to take report the truth, detached from events and free from a moralstance. An earlycase is TheQuiet American ideology, fittingwell with the 1950s American political (1958), set in and near Saigon (modern Ho Chi Minh consensus that also saw itself as free from ideology, City) during the First Indochina War 1945-1954, in The of war in feature films from the Vietnam War to the 245 ?-?l--?--.rrrEaii'_IlsPrPsoappaaaandepiction reporters Hollywood present

Fig. 2.The momentof bondingbetween soldierand reporteras portrayedin The GreenBerets (1968).After the battleat 'Dodge City',journalist George Beckworth(David Janssen)tells ColonelMike Kirby()that he cando himmore goodwith his typewriter. [Courtesyof The CinemaMuseum.]

which the French fought unsuccessfully to keep Vi- example the crew of an artillerybattery), who are a etnam as part of their empire (and filmed partly on very small minorityin any real overall war-effort, but location in and near Saigon itself). The film follows engage in fighting as Homer understood it. The Britishjournalist Thomas Fowler (Michael Redgrave) Hollywood formula frequently shows the 'bonding' and an idealistic young American for whose death process, militarytraining or assimilation and subor- Fowler becomes responsible (listed only as 'The dination of the individual to the group that is crucial American' in the credits and played by Audie Mur- to this form of militaryorganisation, followed by the phy), his rivalfor the affections of a young Vietnam- experience of the bonded troops in combat. Holly- ese woman.5 Part of The Quiet American is a debate wood films of the Vietnam War are more often set in between Fowler and the American on the war and the 'main force war' between American ground the United States' perspective on it. Fowler insists troops and the uniformed forces of the North Viet- that as a journalist he is not involved, and the Ameri- namese Army 1965-1973 that resembled the jungle can replies, 'My friend, you are a mass of involve- and city fighting of the Second WorldWar, than in the ment'. In Fowler's case the journalistic ideal of more ambiguous guerrillaor 'village war' against the detachment proves humanly impossible. Viet Cong.7 American soldiers featured are also usu- The way that the United States fought all its ally from exceptional or elite units, such as the US majorwars of the later 20th Century,from the Second Marines, the Special Forces, the Airborne Forces or World War to the 1991 Gulf War, depended heavily the Air Cavalry, rather than from the line infantry on bureaucratisation, industrial production, and divisions or other more typical units.8 Michael overwhelming firepower based on technological su- Wayne, son of John Wayne and producer of The periority.6Hollywood action war films, in contrast, Green Berets (1968) about the Special Forces in the frequently focus on a small group of footsoldiers (or Vietnam War, described this film in 1975, 'Itwas the more rarely airmen or ships' crews, but never for story of a group of guys who could have been in any ,

246 4 Stephen; 0 ; or;- - ; - Badsey S sr; ,y4:~~ e i3 9i<: ' ~ 5 war. It'sa very familiarstory. War stories are all the backed by lawwas abandoned, and reporterswere same. Theyare personalstories about soldiers and no longerincorporated and assimilatedinto the mili- the backgroundis the war.This just happenedto be tary,instead asserting an institutionalindependence, the VietnamWar'.9 An importantpart of this bonding The resultwas not, on the whole,direct confrontation is the adoption of a militarypatois. In the late 20th but an accommodationreached politicallybetween Century,United States armedforces used a mixture the UnitedStates governmentand the news media, of acronyms,obscenities, euphemisms, borrowings and in the war zone between the armedforces and fromother languages and nonce-words(particularly war reporters,whereby the media accepted limited marked in the 'Nam-speak' of the Vietnamera), militarycontrol in practicein returnfor access to the which is almost unintelligibleto anyone not part of story.13 the group. The extent to which a Hollywoodfilm Thefirst Hollywood Vietnam , and also adopts Nam-speak or its later equivalents for its the firstabout Vietnamto featurea warreporter as a militarycharacters is a good indicatorboth of its character,was John Wayne's , likelihoodto claimauthenticity and of its supportfor released in July1968.14 The film'smain plot features the values of the groupthat it portrays. an attack on a US ArmySpecial Forces ('Green In the Second WorldWar, American war re- Berets')camp in the centralhighlands of SouthViet- porterswere integratedor assimilatedinto the mili- nam by the North Vietnamese Army.Although a tarystructure. Although continuing to workfor their moderatecommercial success thatwas quitepopu- respectivemedia employers,they wore uniformand lar with audiences, the film attractedconsiderable held militaryrank, were subject to formal military criticismfor its poor productionvalues and the large disciplineand censorship backed by law, and were gap between its stance and the factualevents of the generallysupportive of the perspectiveof the armed war. The final scene, in which Colonel MikeKirby forces as a patrioticduty. Although this relationship (John Wayne)walks along a beach supposedly at was neveras harmoniousin fact as intheory, it lasted Da Nang on the coast of SouthVietnam with the sun at least untilthe KoreanWar 1950-1953.1?By the setting intothe sea - a geographicalimpossibility - VietnamWar (which lasted 1961-1975 withAmerican is particularlynotorious. The filmwas overtlypropa- 'main force' involvement1965-1973) the circum- gandist.Wayne wrote to PresidentLyndon Johnson stances had changed significantly.In the face of the in December 1965 about his intentionto make the Cold Warand nuclearconfrontation, the Soviet Un- film, citing Sands of Iwo Jima (1949), The Alamo ion as the real enemy could not be attacked and (1960), and The FightingSeabees (1944) as exam- destroyed. Instead,from the later1950s the United ples of his work and asking for presidential'guid- States' global strategywas to fightwars of 'contain- ance' and support: ment,'also knownas 'limitedwars,' against what was We are fightinga war in Vietnam.Although I perceived as a Soviet-backedCommunist strategy personallysupport the Administration'spolicy of worlddomination. For those who espoused this there, I knowit is not a popularwar, and Ithink world-view,such wars were fought as much for just it is extremelyimportant that not onlythe peo- the survivalof the UnitedStates as the Second World ple of the UnitedStates but those all over the War;but the destructionof the 1950s politicaland worldshould knowwhy it is necessary for us culturalconsensus in the 1960s made this strategy to be there.15 highlycontroversial, another repeated theme in Hol- lywoodwar films.11 The characterof reporterGeorge Beckworth In the same period,the relationshipbetween (David Janssen) of the fictitiousChronicle-Herald the UnitedStates militaryand warreporters changed illustratesmany themes that re-occurin Hollywood significantlyfrom 'incorporation'to 'manipulation,' filmsthat featurewar reporters.If the small bonded with the result that controversiesabout American group of Americansoldiers appears, then they are warswere accompaniedby parallellesser controver- the centreof the plotand the reporteris a secondary sies about Americanwar reporting.12The reporters character.The reporter'smoral worth is judged en- often remaineddependent on the armed forces for tirelyby the extentto which he supportsthe values access to the war zone, information,protection, of this militarygroup. Infilms in whichthe reporteris transport,and especially for communications,and more than a passing character,he - it is almost might still wear uniform. But formal censorship always he - begins by establishinghis detachment The depiction of war reporters in Hollywood feature films from the Vietnam War to the present 247 fromevents and fromthe group,but proves attractive the 1970s, made in the aftermathof Vietnam,the to the group by displayingmilitary-like courage, and news media and reportersare positivefigures, de- is quicklywon over intothe group'svalues, symbol- fenders of the countryagainst the excesses of gov- ised by his picking up a weapon. The idea that a ernment power particularly when related to reporteror anyone else might share the group's espionage or militaryissues, a positionmade overt experience and not adopt its values is not enter- in Allthe President'sMen (1976), the dramatisation tained. The characterof the reporteris also a plot of the role of WashingtonPost reportersin uncover- device, askingnaive questions of the soldierson the ing Watergate.Pessimism in these conspiracyfilms audience's behalf,and acting as the film'switness. almost seems to diminishvisibly with time. In The Ifthe reporterremains outside the militarygroup, or ParallaxView (1974) investigativejournalist Joseph is only a minorcharacter, then he is a contemptible Frady() is defeated and killed,and and frequentlya comic figure, especially if he at- then a government investigationwhitewashes his tempts to portrayhimself as a soldier by wearing murder.At the end of Three Days of the Condor uniform. (1975) CIAanalyst Joseph Turner(Robert Redford) The Green Berets startswith a press confer- gives informationon a governmentespionage scan- ence at Special Forces headquartersat FortBragg dal to the newspapersas his last hope and defence, in NorthCarolina, where soldiers earnestlyexplain but the ending is left uncertain.In Twilight'sLast the war to the journalists,who mostly react uncriti- Gleaming (1977) renegade US Air Force General cally.Master Sergeant Muldoon (Aldo Ray) tells them LawrenceDell (Burt Lancaster) seizes a nuclearmis- passionatelythat 'What's at stake hereis Communist sile silo in an unsuccessful demand for newspaper dominationof the world!'Beckworth is openly hos- publicityabout 'the truth'behind the UnitedStates' tile, reflectinghis newspaper'spolicy that the United involvementin Vietnam. Only in the far-fetchedCap- States should not be involved in the war, and is ricornOne (1978) does a journalistdefeat the sys- challenged by Colonel Kirbyto for tem: RobertCaulfield (Elliott Gould) uncovers a plot himself.At Da Nang, Beckworthis still hostile, but to conceal the fakingof the firstlanding on Marsby accepted by Kirbyas being brave enough to travel killingthose involved;and in The ChinaSyndrome withhim to the Special Forces camp 'Dodge City'in (1979) television journalistKimberly Wells (Jane the centralhighlands. There the process of assimi- Fonda)wins out overboth establishment attempts to lationstarts. The Beckworthcharacter adopts mili- conceal the risksof nuclearpower and over herown tary uniform in some scenes, and during the televisioncompany's sexist attemptsto controland climacticbattle sequence he acts as partof a mortar stereotypeher. Inall these 1970s films,although the crew.This dramatic moment at whicha warreporter establishmentis powerful,journalists or those who becomes a soldier in combat is by no means com- appeal to the news media at least have a chance. pletelycounter-factual. The reporterMichael Herr, in Butwar films of the periodare an exception:there is his own widely-readbook Despatches about the no portrayalof a warjournalist as a positivecharac- VietnamWar, described 'one nightwhen I slid over ter, and in fact veryfew films of the VietnamWar at to the wrong end of the story, propped up behind all. MichaelHerr complained of this in 1977, adding some sandbags at an airstripat Can Tho with a 'TheGreen Berets doesn't count. Thatwasn't really .30-calibreautomatic in my hands, firingcover for a about Vietnam,it was about Santa Monica,'not the four-manreaction team tryingto get back in'.16At the onlyadverse commentabout Wayne'sfilm made by end of the battle sequence, Beckworthcarries a those who experiencedthe war.17 carbine ratherthan his typewriter,and has aban- 's doned both his journalisticdetachment and his (1979),reissued with restored scenes as Apocalypse newspaper'sprejudices. 'If I say what Ifeel I may be Now Redux (2001) is an overtfantasy ratherthan a out of a job,' he tells Kirby,who replies'we'll always factual portrayalof the VietnamWar; and like The give you one'. Beckworthsays that he can do Kirby Green Berets it includes impossible geography: more good with his typewriter.At the film's end there are no reallymajor rivers into the centralhigh- Beckworth,wearing uniformand witha militarykit- lands of Vietnam,and the riveron whichthe Ameri- bag to balance his typewriter,returns to 'wherethe can boat crew travelon theirvoyage of discovery war is' to continuereporting. would have to flow uphillto reach theirobjective.18 In Hollywoodpolitical conspiracy thrillersof Thisfantasy aspect to the filmis intension with some 248 _ . . ~. . . . ? ~ , ~ . . . ~. . . . , ~ _. . Stephen Badsey

photographer (Dennis Hopper, credited only as 'Photo Journalist,' and partly based on Herr's friend photojournalistSean Flynn),who in Coppola's words functions as 'a foil and a fool to Brando's king' and as 'comic relief'.20 He is also a commentator and guide to Willard,and disappears from the film when he has fulfilledthis function. A variation on the theme of the war reporter that has appeared in two Hollywood films about Vietnam is that of the reporter who has no need to struggle with assimilation or detachment because he is also already a serving soldier. The unusual low- budget 84 Charlie MoPic (1989) made with a cast of unknowns, features a US ArmyCombat Cameraman introduced only by his job title as 'MoPic,' for 'US Army Motion Picture Division,' (played by the scarcely seen Byron Thames) accompanying a pa- trol of soldiers from the 173rd Airborne Brigade into the South Vietnam jungle in 1969. The film is osten- sibly the unedited material shot by 'MoPic' for a training film on the patrol's methods. Essentially the same format was later used for the low-budget psy- chological horrorfilm The Blair Witch Project (1999). The film ends with 'MoPic' being himself killed on camera while rescuing a wounded soldier, once more in the tradition of a journalist abandoning his detachment to participate in events. A better known Vietnam War film using the device of the soldier-re- porter is 's (1987), also writtenby Kubrickwith ,and , on whose novel it is based.21 In the Holly- wood formula, the film follows a group of recruits Fig. 3. Thewar specific factual references, particularlythe depiction including the cynical 'Joker' () reporteras foolat of the 1st/9th Air Cavalry, a real unit which fought in through basic training as US Marines at Parris Island thesurreal court the la Drang battle that is the basis of We Were in South Carolina, and into battle in South Vietnam of a madwarrior Soldiers (although it does not feature in that film). with 1st Marine Division in the recapture of Hue City king.Dennis Michael whose book shows admi- the of 1968. In a Hopperas 'Photo Herr, Despatches during January signifi- Journalist'greets ration for the Air Cavalry, has a minor screenwriting cant departure from the novel version, Joker's post- CaptainWillard credit in Apocalypse Now, partlyfor dialogue and for ing to South Vietnam is as a Sergeant Combat andhis boatcrew some scenes based on factual events in his book or Correspondent reporting for Stars and Stripes, the atthe end of their a related article. In addition, there are two appear- official militarynewspaper.22 In the Da Nang hut that in journey ances by war reporters in the film. One is a very brief is their newsroom, these soldier-reporters are or- ApocalypseNow director's joke: as Captain Benjamin Willard(Martin dered by the equally cynical Lieutenant Lockhart (1979). Air to [Courtesyof The Sheen) and the boat crew first encounter the () modify their stories to fit military CinemaMuseum.] Cavalry during a battle they move past a filming needs, since 'it is our job to reportthe news that these television crew, whose director (played by Coppola why-are-we-here civilian newsmen ignore'. The himself) calls out 'don't look at the camera!' a fre- Joker character has no need to pick up a weapon, quent cry of real war cameramen.19 The other ap- symbolically or otherwise, as he already carries one; pearance by a is a familiar plot as his accompanying photographer 'Private Rafter- device: the presence at Colonel Kurtz's (Marlon man' (Kevyn Major Howard) explains, 'I'm here to Brando) sanctuary of a hippy-like and eccentric war take combat photos' but in actual combat if neces- The depiction of war reporters in Hollywood feature films from the Vietnam Warto the present 249 sary 'I'llgo to the rifle. Joker is simultaneouslypart in the war.23Unlike Beckworth in The GreenBerets, of the fightingand a detached commentatorupon it, Cronkitewent to South Vietnamto see for himself moving between locations unencumbered by re- and did not share the militaryperception, something sponsibilities,while quite uninvolved in his ostensible manyfound hardto comprehend. task of reporting.This ambiguous position is ex- The Tet Offensivetook place a few months ploitedby the film'sclimax, in which Joker abandons beforethe release of TheGreen Berets, and the fact his cynicaldetachment to shoot a mortallywounded thatWayne's film was a reasonablypopular success Viet Cong girl prisoner(played by Ngoc Le) rather is itself supportingevidence that Americanpopular than leaving her to die. In a position of command opinionhad by no means turnedagainst the war.But among the partyof marinesJoker could do this with TheGreen Berets' portrayal of Americannewspapers unchallengedmilitary authority; as a civilianreporter as ignorantand as hostileto boththe militaryand to he wouldnot do it at all;but as neitherhe must make the truthabout the war reflectedthe startof a long a personaland humandecision. and acrimoniousdebate. The issue of whetherthe The briefappearance in the filmof a television VietnamWar was lost throughits depiction by the camera crew duringthe Battleof Hue is for comic United States' news media has been subject to purposes, highlightingthe difference between the thoroughhistorical investigation, and remainsone of 'emotionaltruth' of combat and whatevercan be the war's most studied areas of controversy.Taken caught on documentaryfilm. Kubrickunderscores literally,the chargecannot be substantiatedeither by the pointby introducingthe camerateam witha long statisticalanalysis or by any otherforms of evidence. sidewaystracking (or crabbing) shot - showingthem The belief that the Americanforces in the Vietnam filmingthe marines with a long sideways tracking War were betrayed by their own country's news shot. The director'scamera duplicatesthe action of mediahas even been comparedto the German'stab the supposed combat documentarycamera. This is in the back myth'after the FirstWorld War, which followedby a sequence, very similarto those in 84 formed a criticalpart of Nazi propaganda.24But in CharlieMoPic, of the marinesbeing interviewed.In the mannerof 'emotionaltruth,' the attitudepersists all cases except for Joker they put on their public stronglythat war reporters lost the VietnamWar, and faces for the camera, replyingin language utterly by the 1980s this had become Americanmilitary differentfrom the mannerin whichthey talkamong orthodoxy. themselves. Of all the Hollywoodfilms about the Vietnam FullMetal Jacket includesan importantscene War,this attitudeto war reportersis portrayedmost of a briefingby Lockhartto his reporterson the first emphaticallyin HamburgerHill (1987), a filmmade day of the Tet Offensive.Although a militaryvictory very much from the perspective of the American forthe UnitedStates and SouthVietnamese forces, soldiers as victims, good men in a bad war; its Tetwas in retrospectthe turningpoint of the Vietnam publicitytag line was 'Warat its worst. Menat their War,since it convincedWashington that the warwas best'. Based on a real battlefought in May 1969 in far from being won, and the militarlydemand for the Ashau valleyby 173rdAirborne Brigade against increased numbersof Americancombat troopswas the NorthVietnamese Army, Hamburger Hill again politicallyunacceptable. The paradox of a won battle followsthe bondingof a smallgroup of soldiersand leading to a lost war led to the controversialand their experiences in combat (which are modified frequentlyrepeated military claim that biased Ameri- slightly from those of the historical battle). The can war reportingwas to blame;that, in the clich6d screenplay, so full of 'Nam-speak'to be at times phrase, the VietnamWar was lost on the television almost incomprehensible,emphasises repeatedly screens of America. In the film, the unseen news the need for militarysubordination of the individual mediaare indeed held responsible.Lockhart tells his to the group. In a mid-filmscene that otherwise people that 'the civilianpress are about to wet their serves no plot purpose, a uniformedwar reporter pants, and we've heardeven Cronkite'sgoing to say (J.D. Van Sickle, credited only as 'Newsman')with the war is now unwinnable'.The subsequent visitto an accompanyingcameraman attempts to interview SouthVietnam of veterantelevision newsman Walter the men as they return,dazed, exhaustedand filthy, Cronkite,himself an Americaninstitution, and his from yet another attempt to capture the hill. The announcementthat the UnitedStates' war effort was group's leader Sergeant Frantz(Dylan McDermott), 'miredin stalemate'is identifiedas a criticalmoment an entirelypositive character within the film,delivers 250 250 Stephen Badsey - A~ Stephen Badsey

Fig. 4. an abusive, foul-mouthed, angry speech that is an 'advocacy journalism,' also later known as the 'jour- Witnessesto eloquent summary of widespread 1980s militarybe- nalism of attachment,' whereby the journalist takes 'otherpeoples's liefs, telling the humiliated newsman that 'I got more a side and expresses personal emotions and opin- wars'.Sydney respect for those littlebastards up there. At least they ions. It has been well argued that both the American Schanberg(Sam take a side. You just take pictures,' and threatening political attitude and manner of news reporting is Waterston)and to kill him if he sees him on top of the hill after its markedly different in 'other people's wars' in which DithPran (Haing S. Ngor)survey capture since 'You haven't earned the right to be American combat troops are not directly involved thedevastation of here.' Screenwriter James Carabatsos also wrote the than in 'our wars,' and it is unsurprising to see a Cambodiain The war action comedy Heartbreak Ridge (1986), a very different treatment by Hollywood also.26 In all these KillingFields similar film in structure dealing with the bonding films, as in The QuietAmerican, the war journalistand (1984). process of US Marines in training, and climaxing in his personal relationships become the centre of the of The [Courtesy a triumphalist interpretation of the 1983 invasion of film, although the process of journalism itself is vir- CinemaMuseum.] Grenada, an operation from which United States' tually irrelevant to the story. An early and untypical forces controversially excluded all reporters, behav- case - arguably not a 'war film' at all - is Peter Weir's iour widely believed by the media themselves to be The Yearof LivingDangerously (1982), set during the in revenge for Vietnam.25 1965 Indonesian revolution. But subsequent Holly- One consequence of the Vietnam War for wood films of 'other people's wars' follow a very American journalism was a challenge to the idea of consistent formula. They are set in a poor country professionally detached reporting, but not in the way that is disintegrating through civil war, with an em- that the militaryexpected. In a complex war that was phasis on urban destruction and civiliandeaths; and impossible for any one person to describe or com- the film utterly demonises one side. The journalist prehend, some journalists reverted to the traditionof figure, although established as an experienced war ------The depiction of war reporters in Hollywood feature films from the Vietnam War to the present- 251 ~~?--~~~~-?Cs-----.. ? - II?-~-~-p reporter,is a naiveinnocent abroad in his behaviour; he starts detached or indifferentto circumstances, but achieves his humanitythrough emotional in- volvement that includes someone that he loves deeply. He becomes a human being exactly at the pointthat he stops being a journalist,and success is equated not withprofessional achievement in re- portingthe war, but withescaping alive fromit. The politicalcontext of the war, a subject that otherwise rarelyfeatures in Hollywoodwar films, is that in a humandisaster the UnitedStates is ineffectual,both in the face of bureaucraticniceties and because of politicalconvenience. Real televisionfilm of events and majorpolitical leaders is cut intothe film'snar- rative,in such a way as to criticiseor condemnthem. The film makes no distinctionbetween the evils of UnitedStates policy and those officials in the war zone who carryit out. If portrayedat all, American soldiers are villainsand hostile to the reporter,al- thoughsome Americancivilian officials are sympa- thetically portrayed if they defy orders from Washington. These themes, together with the constant theme of the war reporteras witness and commen- tator,are centralto The KillingFields (1984), based on the exploitsin Cambodiaof SydneySchanberg of the New YorkTimes ()and his Cam- bodianpartner (Haing S. Ngor).27The film opens withan episode based on a real incidentin August1973 at the village of Neak Luong,in which Schanberg and Dith Pran reporton a Cambodian village destroyed by American bombers, and in whichAmerican military officials attempt to sanitise the story.28It then follows events from the fall of PhnomPenh to the KymerRouge in 1975 and the country's collapse into anarchy through to Dith Pran'seventual escape to safetyand his reunionwith pays tributeto DithPran's contribution; but this pro- Fig.5. Thewar Schanberg in October 1979. Dith Pran's odyssey fessional triumphis soured by the accusation of a reporterand the throughCambodia as a witness to events in the fellowwar reporterthat Schanbergforced DithPran spy.In Under Fire country,a survivornot a journalist,is the main plot. to stay withhim for selfish reasons in orderto winthe (1983),the photo Russel The Schanberg characterstarts the film riskinghis award. When are reunitedat the film's end, journalist they Proce(Nick life unthinkinglyfor the story, assuming that his Schanbergasks DithPran to forgivehim.29 Nolte)meets the Americanpassport and journalisticdetachment will By the early1980s the natureof the American ambiguousand be respected by all; Dith Pran remains in Phnom news media was again undergoingmajor changes ambivalent Penhafter his familyis evacuated to demonstrateto withthe advent of real-timetelevision direct satellite Nicaraguan Schanberghis ownjournalistic professional commit- broadcasting,illustrated by the rise of CNN,and the 'businessman' ment;but when the KymerRouge arriveDith Pran is convergence of differentcommunications media re- MarcelJazy (Jean-Louise forced to stay in while Schanberg and flected in the of news and entertain- amalgamation Trintignant). other Westernjournalists are repatriated.In a mid- ment industries. One result was a shift in news [CourtesyofThe filmscene in New York,Schanberg receives a 1976 presentationtowards a more entertainment-based CinemaMuseum.] 'journalistof the year' award for his reportingand style, contemptuouslydescribed by its critics as 252 Stephen Badsey

'Happy Talk'or 'Infotainment'news, in which the to findthat photographs he has takenof the Sandan- personalityand appearanceof the reporterbecame istas are being used to identifythem for Oates' a muchgreater part of the news presentation.These death-squads. His slide into commitment starts institutionalpressures caused rifts between news when one of the guerrillasthat he accompanies is media companies and reporterswho believed that shot by Oates, and Pricegrabs a riflerather than his theirprofession and its values were being trivialised. camera,although he does not open fireand is after- In a broadercultural sense, the values of the older wards shocked by his behaviour.Price's abandon- 'advocacy'journalists of the Vietnamera were com- mentof journalisticvalues comes withhis agreement ing intoconflict with the 'yuppies'or 'me generation' to fake a photographof the dead guerrillaleader of the 1980s, whose attitudes also contrasted 'Raphael,' showing him apparentlyalive despite sharplywith the groupvalues of the military.30These Samoza's claims, inorder to influenceUnited States' issues are reflectedin two verysimilar and formulaic governmentpolicy and preventa large arms ship- war films of the 1980s, UnderFire (1983 - one year mentto Samoza. Thisbelief in the verydirect impact beforeThe Killing Fields) and OliverStone's Salvador of visualimages on governmentpolicy, latterly called (1986). the 'CNNEffect' is a commonone among journalists The main plot of UnderFire is a love-triangle themselves, althoughlittle substantiated. The photo- between photojournalistRussel Price (Nick Nolte), graph is hailed as a great professionaltriumph for reporter'Clair' (Joanna Cassidy), and reporterand Price,who is greatlytroubled and confesses the fake televisionanchorman Alex Grazier. (Gene Hackman), to Grazier.Later, Grazier is killed by government Price'sfriend and mentor.Grazier is eventuallykilled troops and Price nearlykilled, but rescued by Clair accompanyingPrice in search of a story,played out together with his photographs of Grazier'sdeath, against the civilwar in Nicaraguain 1979, when the which again make a considerable impact in the Sandanista rebels overthrewthe Somoza regime. United States. 'Maybe we should have killed an Whenthe filmwas released, the UnitedStates was Americanjournalist fifty years ago', a Nicaraguan backing the Nicaraguan'Contras,' including sup- womandoctor tells Clairsombrely. The film ends with portersof Samoza, againstthe new Sandanistagov- the Sandanistavictory in July1979. 'Doyou thinkwe ernmentin fightingthat lasted until1988, and which fell in love withtoo much?Clair asks as they prepare togetherwith the accompanyingcivil war in ElSalva- to leave; 'I'ddo it again,' Pricereplies. dor was often described as potentiallyanother Viet- Whilein Nicaraguathe UnitedStates was sup- nam. The film contains several ambiguous and portingthe insurgentsagainst the government,at the cynical charactersthat are assumed to be working same time in nearbyEl Salvador1980-1994 it was forthe UnitedStates government,but who have none supportingthe governmentagainst the insurgents. of the convictionexhibited by Sergeant Muldoonin Salvador,which again appeared while the war was The Green Berets. Hub Kittle(Richard Masur), the being fought,was directedby OliverStone who also American public relations representative for co-wrote the screenplay with Richard Boyle, on Samoza, drylytells Price that a Sandanistavictory whose exploits the film was based. Boyle was an could mean 'the Commies take over the world'. experiencedwar reporterwho covered Vietnamin- 'Oates'(), a clean-cutAmerican mercenary cluding the My Lai massacre, and wrote a book who is Price's militaryalter ego and darkside, per- highlycritical of the Americanforces.31 Although real sonallycheerful and utterlyprofessionally detached, events in ElSalvador 1980-1982 are featured,nota- greets Priceas an old friendat the film'sstart, set in bly the assassination of ArchbishopOscar Romero 1979 in the bush war in Chad, and at its end calls to of San Salvadorin his own cathedral,the filmopens him 'See you in Thailand!'But by then Price has with the disclaimerthat 'charactershave been fic- undergonethe familiartransformation from journal- tionalised' istic detachment to commitment.It is established In Salvador the Boyle character (James that Price got his firstjournalistic success covering Woods) lays claimto impressivewar reporter'scre- South Vietnamin 1963. Butwhen arrestedby Nica- dentials: Vietnam, Afghanistan,Northern Ireland, raguan militarypolice he produces his American Lebanon,most of centralAmerica, and beingthe last passport and announces that he is a journalist;and journalistout of Cambodiain 1975, 'Schanbergwas in the holdingcell he actuallytells a prisoner,'I don't runningto get his PulitzerPrize and I was almost take sides, I take pictures'.Price is laterastonished gettingcholera, but we managed to save 1100 refu- The depiction of war reporters in Hollywood feature films from the Vietnam War to the present 253 t _ V~A

Fig. 6. Heading forredemption? Whilein the background photojournalist JohnCassady (JohnSavage) getsgood shots of corpesleft by right-wingdeath squadsin Salvador(1986), RichardBoyle (JamesWoods) hasother things on his mind. [Courtesyof The CinemaMuseum.]

gees from the Kymer Rouge'. This Boyle is a self- is thwarted at the very end of the film by American confessed 'weasel' but fundamentally 'a good- immigration officials, leaving him to deliver the film's hearted person'. At the film's start in San Francisco, message, 'You don't know what it's like in El Salva- his wife takes their child and leaves him, he is evicted dor'. for non-payment of rent, and he no longer has his Secondary to this main plot is the film's criti- job with Pacific News Service (PNS) or his Press cism of American government policy. In El Salvador, Card. His disc-jockey friend 'Doctor Rock' (James Jack Morgan (Colby Chester) of the CIA tells Boyle Belushi), described as 'a walking museum of the that if the guerrillas are not stopped 'infive years time 1960s,' bails him out of jail for a driving offence, and you're going to be seeing Cuban tank divisions on they set off for El Salvador in a car loaded with drink the Rio Grande' (the Mexican-American border). The and drugs. Boyle's transition is not from journalistic only American militaryfigure to feature as a signifi- detachment but from self-absorption, as he finds cant character, Colonel Bentley Hyde (WillMacMil- redemption (a word used more than once in the film) lan), who wears Air Cavalry insignia and has served not through journalism but through his relationship in Vietnam is, like Morgan, superficially polite to with 'Maria'(Elpidio Carrillo).Many of the film's ear- Boyle while utterly hostile. 'I happen to hate the lierscenes are horror-comedy as he bungles his way species you belong to,' he tells Boyle, although the from one lethal situation to another, becoming more screenplay suggests 'a sort of camaraderie as Boyle sympathetic as a character as his commitment in- has at least seen combat'. In the course of the film creases. He is at his most attractive as the voice of Boyle also interacts with various war reporters as the film, delivering impassioned speeches on his witness to the war. He attaches himself to photojour- belief in America as a force for good, and the need nalist John Cassady of Newsweek (John Savage), a to think of the people of El Salvador rather than figure very close to Russel Price in Under Fire, who strategic interest. Boyle's attempt to rescue Maria wants to rival legendary war photographer Robert and her - possibly their - children from El Salvador Capa. Inevitably, Cassady is killed taking photo- 254 Stephen Badsey

graphs in action, and his dying words are an insis- turnedoff, and the pressmen are co-opted as medi- tence that his picturesget back to New York.Televi- cal staffand intoother subordinate roles. InUniversal sion reporterPauline Axelrod of 'ANSNews' (Valerie Soldier (1991) reporter Veronica Roberts (Ally Wildeman)is a superficialblonde, accordingto the Walker)of the televisioncable news network'CNA' screenplay a 'glamourpus down here to make her is a near-parodyof the KimberlyWells character from bones,' and one of the 'yuppies'that Boyle loathes.32 TheChina Syndrome, an aggressive reporterfired for Itis preciselyher detachment, and thatof others,that insubordinationwho goes in search of a storyabout Boyle finds intolerable;while at press conferences an eliteAmerican military unit. She discoversthat Luc and interviewsother reporters (and anyone else try- Deveraux(Jean-Claude Van Damme)is likethe rest ing to co-operatewith the system) findBoyle's intru- of the unita technicallydead but cryogenicallypre- sive, committed questions and behaviour an served human robot, who escapes with her as his impedimentand an embarrassment.In additionto humanpersonality starts to re-emerge. Ina familiar the wider issues that it raises, the film portrayalof VietnamWar theme, Deverauxand SergeantAndrew Boylereflects well journalistic debates of the period, Scott (DolphLundgren) were bothvictims of the war, culminatingin the controversiesof reportingthe 1991 killed in South Vietnam in 1969, and Deveraux's Gulf War.33 over-ridingmotivation is to returnhome. Once the In contrastto these portrayalsof the commit- plot is established, the Robertscharacter changes ted printreporter or photojournalistas generallya fromdominant reporter to subordinatewoman under positive and sympatheticfigure, the new 'Infotain- Deveraux'sprotection, and the filmbecomes a con- ment' style of instanttelevision news of the 1980s ventionalpursuit and escape story.'s rapidlyproduced a stock Hollywoodcharacter of the StarshipTroopers (1997), a finely-judgedsatire on televisionreporter as a comic and contemptiblefig- one of the most controversialbooks in the science ure.The action adventureDie Hard(1988) success- fictioncanon, portraysthe soldiers of earth at war fullycombines the conventionsof severalHollywood with an alien species of giant insects, the 'bugs'.34 genres, the warfilm among them.The film's premise As in his earlierRobocop (1987), also set in a near- is the takingof hostages in a Los Angeles corporate futuredystopia and also withEdward Neumeier as a tower-blockby foreignterrorists, with a plottwist that screenwriter,Verhoeven uses televisionbroadcasts they turnout to be robbersinstead. The response is both as a plotdevice and forsatirical effect. Thewar by the police ratherthan the military,but both sides reporterin StarshipTroopers (Greg Travis, billed as possess firepowerand equipmentthat, together with 'NetworkCorrespondent') is 'incorporated,'in that levels of death and destructionand the behaviourof he wears militaryuniform and apparentlyworks un- hero Detective John McClane (),are der governmentand militarycontrol. He remains moreappropriate to a warfilm. An important sub-plot neverthelessa comic figure.On his firstappearance is the behaviourof television news reporterDick at a space station before a battle he is sharply Thornburg(William Atherton) of 'WWTW-TVNews,' correctedby the film'shero Johnny Rico (Casper Van whose irresponsibleand self-obsessed pursuitof Dien) of the MobileInfantry for suggesting that the the story endangers McClane and his wife Holly enemy species may have acted in self defence. On (Bonnie Bedelia). At the film's end Thornburgat- his second appearance (whichalso formsthe televi- tempts to interviewHolly, who punches him on the sion-style'tease' at the startof the film)on the enemy nose; but Thornberg'sonly concern is if the camera planet'Klendathu' he is seized by an angry'bug' and got the picture. By the 1990s this portrayalof the is literallyripped in half, filmed by his cameraman televisionreporter - individuallyor as partof a 'press who makes no effortto help him. Inthe action com- pack' - as a comic intruderinto the world of the edy Streetfighter(1994), which presents the Ameri- fightingman was well established,and used repeat- can child's view of United Nations' peacekeeping edly in science fictionor fantasyaction filmswith a and humanitarianoperations in the 1990s, heroic wartheme aimed at familyaudiences. Inthe opening leader Colonel WilliamGuile (Jean-Claude Van scenes of Star Trek- Generations(1994) Captain Damme)is contemptuousof reporterChun-Li Zang James Kirk(William Shattner), on the new spaceship (playedby Ming-Na)of 'GlobalTelevision News'. 'He USS EnterpriseB forits inauguralcruise, is amusedly doesn't like women, does he?' Chun-Li asks tolerantof the accompanyingmob of pressmen;but 'Cammy'(Kylie Minogue), one of Guile's officers, as soon as dangerthreatens he ordersthe cameras who replies 'No, he doesn't likejournalists. I assure The depiction of war reporters in Hollywood feature films from the Vietnam War to the present 255 you it's an EqualOpportunity dislike'. As might by governmentand armedforces had the rightand duty now be expected, Chun-LiZang goes in pursuitof to secure that public support before committing her storyand uncovers a crucialmilitary secret, but Americantroops to battle.As withthe originalidea then casts off her reporter'srole to revealthat she is of 'limitedwar' itself, this need to secure public a martialarts master and allies herselfwith Colonel opinionseemed to its proponentsso obvious as to Guile, who disregards orders from his ineffectual be beyond the need for debate.38It meant major politicalsuperiors and stormsthe enemy stronghold changes in the way that the UnitedStates military with his forces in the name of 'peace, justice and considered both the role of war reportersand the freedom'. news media as a whole,and provokedconsiderable StreetFighter appeared in the same year that furthercontroversies. a controversialAmerican humanitarian military inter- The establishmentof viable civiliancommer- ventionforce leftSomalia, amid arguments that tele- cial global televisioncommunications by the end of vision reportinghad dictated both its deployment the 1980s also markedthe decline of any automatic and withdrawal.35Even at its most serious, Holly- American militarymonopoly on communications wood has addressed the difficultissue of American froma war zone, theirmain strength in dealingwith militaryintervention in civil wars for humanitarian the Americannews media. The news media them- reasons inthe 1990s by turningit intotraditional and selves were becoming more internationalin all re- formulaicwar films, includingRidley Scott's Black spects, and therewas littlepoint in appealingto the HawkDown (2001) set in Somalia, and BehindEn- Americanpatriotism of a news televisioncrew from emy Lines(2001), set in Bosnia.36The British-Ameri- anothercountry whose materialwould nevertheless can productionWelcome to Sarajevo(1997), set in reach Americannetworks. Together with other as- 1992 duringthe siege of the city, is in the traditionof pects of the increasingglobalisation of the media TheKilling Fields and Salvador,with the added jour- and of society includingbetter access to all formsof nalistic preoccupationsof the 1990s. At the film's transport,this meant that the news media were be- start Britishtelevision journalist Michael Henderson ginning to achieve significantindependence from (Stephen Dillane) is criticalof his American rival the militaryin reportingwars. The Americanmilitary 'Flynn'() for his 'news-is-entertain- response was a further- although gradual - change ment' grandstandingunder fire. Flynnexplains that of policytowards the media that markedthe 1990s, Americanaudiences have heardof him,not of Sara- from'manipulation' to 'courtship,'adopting the tech- jevo.37Henderson soon loses his early journalistic niques of publicrelations and spin-doctorsto influ- detachment ('we'renot here to help, we're here to ence the media and seek theirco-operation.39 This report'),smuggling a young orphangirl to safety in policywas viewed withsuspicion by journalistsand London where his family adopts her. Again, real by politicalcommentators in the beliefthat the armed televisioninterviews with political leaders (andsome forces were not sincere in their'courtship,' and that reconstructions)are cut intothe film,which is highly the hostile attitudeof the 1980s derivingfrom Viet- criticalof the United Nations and its humanitarian nam still remained.The 1991GulfWar saw a major forces. These forces (whichincluded American air- dispute between war reporters who accepted craft but not ground troops) and theirwork barely manipulationand limited incorporationinto the appearin the film- indeed it is theirnon-appearance Americanmilitary in the 'press pools,' and the 'unilat- to fightalongside a people at warthat is the criticism. eralists'who functionedoutside the system; as well One reason that 'limitedwar' had originally as a paralleldispute back in the UnitedStates over appeared attractiveas a concept in the 1950s was the extent to which governmentstriving for public the expectationthat these wars could be conducted supportfor the war had been, in Noam Chomsky's by professionalisedarmed forces with littleimpact well-knownphrase, a case of 'manufacturingcon- on the UnitedStates' civilian public or their economic sent' .4 prosperity.After the VietnamWar, political and mili- Duringthe GulfWar the UnitedStates called tarythinkers concluded that,even if the war had not on the Iraqisto revoltagainst .Then strictlybeen lost on television,lack of politicaland after the war Saddam massacred his Iraqioppo- popularsupport in the UnitedStates as a positive nents whileAmerican troops were forbiddento inter- force had been a criticalfactor in the defeat. Ifthe vene. Thisgap between UnitedStates' strategicand United States was to go to war in futurethen the politicalinterests and the expectationsof the Ameri- XW~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

256 Stephen Badsey ge,)0e .a ^ ,sBi S aaa_ _

Fig. 7. Thewar can public is the background for the plot of Three Dunn) pursues Gates' team into the desert in search didnot take place Kings (1999), a war comedy in the surreal traditions not of the gold but of her own 'gold story,' risking her - excepton of Apocalypse Now. Major Archie Gates (George life and those of her cameraman and hapless military television.Robert a former Delta Force soldier as a driver. Both are self-obsessed, fixated not de Niroas the Clooney), serving reporters cheerfularch press escort officer in the Gulf War just after the just on the story but on the immediate event. Like manipulator ceasefire and two weeks from his retirement, leads Pauline Axelrod in Salvador, Daitch is a glamorous ConradBrean in a team of soldiers to steal a fortune in gold taken blonde content with conducting vapid interviews. Wagthe Dog from KuwaitCity by the Iraqis during the occupation; Cruz is a five-time Emmy award runner-up, aware (1997). a victimless crime in the context of the greater crime that her career is fading with her looks. 'I was man- of The [Courtesy of war.41Caught up in events and pursued by their aged by the military,'she complains self-pityingly, 'I CinemaMuseum.] own side, the soldiers end up helping a group of Iraqi try to be substance-based not style-based,' but refugees to safety across the border into . 'There is a sexual politics to this business. It's about At the film's start Gates' superior Colonel Horn looks. It's about sex. It's about style'. Cruz becomes (MykeltiWilliams) tells him 'This is a media war'.42 committed to Gates' side in the showdown at the Gates is first seen having energetic but dispassion- Iranianborder, where Gates and his men give up the ate sex with television reporter Cathy Daitch (Judy gold to Colonel Horn to save the refugees. Captions Greer) of 'NRG,' after which she immediately asks over the end sequence inform the audience that the him for a story. The film's metaphor is obvious: the men were honourably discharged because of Cruz' media and the militarymake use of each other, but television reporting of the story. In a 'media war' they they are not in love. This portrayal of women war-re- escape punishment for their crime not because they porters as sexually voracious also reflects a common did the right thing, but because television took their militarymyth. Reporter Adriana Cruz of 'NBS' (Nora side. Gates becomes a militaryconsultant on Holly------The depiction--1 of war reporters in Hollywood-----F-- feature films from the Vietnam War to-- the presentI 257 wood war films, emphasising the linkbetween the piece of documentaryfilm from the Gulf War, but media portrayalof actual war and the Hollywood when challenged replies with flippantunconcern. version,a trickreminiscent of the endingto M*A*S*H Brean lists for Motts politicalslogans and images (1970). fromAmerican history remembered after the events Inthe war'saftermath, postmodernists argued themselves are forgotten,with the implicationthat in Jean Baudrillard'sfamous phrase that 'the Gulf the 'mediawar' has alwaysbeen centralto American War did not happen,' in the sense that what the politics. media portrayedwas not the truth, but that any This bringsthe account back to We WereSol- distinctionbetween the mediaversion and an objec- diers,the most recentHollywood film to featurea war tivetruth had become meaningless.43The emphasis reporter,dealing with the startof the 'mainforce war' on visual images ratherthan factualcontent implicit in Vietnamin 1965. Intheir prologue to theirbook on in 'news-is-entertainment,'combined with industry the battle,written in 1992, the authorscomplain that financialand time pressures, led to concerns that 'Hollywoodgot itwrong every damned time, whetting majortelevision news companies wouldtake mate- politicalknives on the bones of our dead brothers,' rialfrom the dailyand global 'video stream'offered a statementthat directorRandall Wallace took as a to them, regardlessof its origins,rather than sending challenge,citing his historicalcostume dramaBrave- theirown reporters.The faster global 24-hournews heart (1995) to them as representativeof his own cycle due to new technology,coupled with American approach. The book's co-author Moore confirms military'courtship' of the media, and ambiguous that 'he got it rightand has honouredall Vietnam interventionjustified on humanitariangrounds in veterans'.46The character of the otherco-author, UPI 'other people's' confusing civil wars, also contrib- photojournalistJoe Galloway(Barry Pepper), is uni- uted to an extensivedebate on the probablenature formedand incorporatedinto the 1st/7th Air Cavalry of future 21st Centurywar, includingthe war re- from his first appearance flying into battle. When porter'splace init.44 Some Vietnamveteran reporters asked on the battlefieldby LieutenantColonel Hal and radicalcritics of governmentsee these changes Moore(Mel Gibson) why he is not in the Armyas he as a politicalcrisis and conspiracymarking the end is obviouslybrave enough, Gallowaycites his fam- of truthfulreporting. Although strictly not a war film, ily's militarycredentials back to the AmericanCivil and with no war reportersmaking an appearance, War,explaining that he is therein the same tradition, the politicalsatire (1997) reflects all but hopes to understandthe war by photographing these issues.45 Faced with a presidentialscandal, it. Inalmost his nextappearance, rather than picking spin-doctorConrad Brean ()and Hol- up a riflehe is handedone and uses itwith increasing lywoodproducer Stanley R. Motts() effectiveness,only laterreturning to his camera and successfully create for the Americanpublic an en- performingthe functionof witness forthe audience. tirelyfictitious war withAlbania by media manipula- Afterthe battleis over Gallowayis contemptuousof tion, includingan elite militaryunit who marchto a other reporterswho arriveon the battlefield.The pastiche of The Green Berets' title song. American film's ending includes a scene of him back in a televisionnews shows as evidence of the warMotts' newsroomin the UnitedStates, alienatedfrom other faked video (a creationof blue-screeningand com- reportersby his militaryexperience. When compared puter editing), with only the thinnest of warnings withwar and the news media at the startof the 21st about its unknownprovenance. For Breanthe truth century,this portrayalof a war reporterin We Were has no existence, whateveris on televisionis reality Soldierscould be described as a returnto the cer- forthat moment.He claims to have faked a famous taintiesof a bygone age.

Notes

1. Quotedin RandallWallace, We Were Soldiers - The and the Fire: Myths and Anti-Mythsof War(London: Screenplay(New York: Wheelhouse, 2002) 172-173; Leo Cooper, 1992, firstpublished 1980), 209; see see also HaroldG. Mooreand Joseph L. Galloway, also Terraine's analysis and criticism of this view. We Were Soldiers Once...And Young (New York: RandomHouse, 1992). 3. For a guide to sources on the representation of journalists in Hollywood films see the website of the 2. JeanNorton Cru, quoted in John Terraine, The Smoke University of Southern CaliforniaAnnenberg School 258 Stephen258SteheBadsev- Badsev-- --

for Communication project on 'the Image of the Moskos, 'Towards a Postmodern Military:The United Journalist in Popular Culture,' posted at States as a Paradigm,' in Charles C. Moskos, John http://www.ijpc.org, visited at 1 July 2002. Allen Williamsand David R. Seagal (eds.), The Post- modern York:Oxford 4. Daniel C. Hallin, 'The Uncensored War' The Media Military(New University Press, 14-31. and Vietnam (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 1986), 63-68; Peter Biskind,Seeing Is Believing (New 13. For some of the critical issues in the context of York: Pantheon, 1983); Theodore Peterson, 'The Vietnam see Daniel C. Hallin, 'The Uncensored War' Social Responsibility Theory,' in Fred S. Siebert et The Media and Vietnam(New York:Oxford University al., Four Theories of the Press (Urbana II:University Press, 1986); William M. Hammond, Public Affairs: of IllinoisPress, 1963, first published 1956), 73-104. The Militaryand the Media, 1962-1968 (Washington DC.: Center of MilitaryHistory United States Army, 5. A more recent Hollywood filmtreatment of the novel, 1988). The Quiet American (2002) stars Michael Caine as Thomas Fowler and Brendan Fraser as Alden Pile 14. Adopted from the best-selling novel by Robin Moore, ('The American'). The Green Berets (New York: Crown Publishers, 1965). See also GilbertAdair, Hollywood's Vietnam: 6. The literature on this subject is immense; for an From The Green Berets to Apocalypse Now (New introduction see Stephen Badsey, 'The Doctrines of York: Proteus, 1981), 35-51; Albert Auster and the Coalition Forces' in John Pimlott and Stephen Leonard Quart, How the War Was Remembered: Badsey (eds.), The Gulf War Assessed (London: Hollywood and Vietnam (New York:Praeger, 1988), Arms and Armour, 1992), 57-80. 31-34; PhilipTaylor, 'The Green Berets,' in David W. 7. An important exception, and one of the few Holly- Ellwood (ed.) TheMovies as History(Stroud, Gloucs.: wood films to address the issue of Viet Cong terrorist Sutton, 2000), 36-43. urban is the war and attacks against areas, comedy 15. Letter 28 December 1965 from John Wayne to Lyn- vehicle for Robin Williams Good Vietnam Morning don B. Johnson, reproduced in Lawrence H. Suid set in Saigon in 1965. (1987), (ed.), America in Filmand Propaganda: A Documen- 8. An exceptionis OliverStone's Platoon(1986). tary History: Volume IV: 1945 and After (New York: Greenwood Press, 1991), 390. See also subsequent 9, Interviewwith Michael Wayne, 5 August 1975, The letters and memoranda reproduced in the same Green Berets, Georgetown University Special Col- volume for the White House response. lections Library, Washington DC, reproduced in Lawrence H. Suid (ed.), America in Filmand Propa- 16. Michael Herr,Despatches (London: Picadore, 1978; ganda: A Documentary History:Volume IV:1945 and first published 1977), 60. After(New York:Greenwood Press, 1991), 404-405. 17. Michael Herr,Despatches (London: Picadore, 1978; 10. For conflicts between American (and British)report- first published 1977), 153. The first Hollywood war ers and the militaryauthorities in the Second World film after The Green Berets to feature Vietnam and WarI am gratefulto MatthewMcPartland, whose PhD make any sort of impact was The Boys in Company and a famil- thesis, 'The Dynamics of War Reporting:The Media- C (1978), a Hong Kong-USA production MilitaryRelationship inthe Second WorldWar' (Leeds iar story of a group of soldiers passing through critical of University, 2002) will shortly become available. For 'bonding' training and into battle, although the Korean Warand the erosion of the Second World the broader American war effort. 's in War consensus see Peter R. Young, 'A Restatement (1978) also included scenes set of the Problem: Theory and Practice,' in Peter R. South Vietnam itself, but like most Hollywood films with Young (ed.), Defence and the Media in Time of about the Vietnam War was chiefly concerned 'Ameri- Limited War (London: Frank Cass, 1992), 69-86; the impact of the war at home, following the theme. Stephen Badsey, 'Propaganda, the Media and Psy- cans as victims' chological Operations: The ,' in Peter 18. For details of the filmand its making see Peter Cowie, Dennis and Jeffrey Grey (eds.), The Korean War The Apocalypse Now Book (London: Faber & Faber, 1950-53: A FiftyYear Retrospective (Canberra:Army 2000), which provides evidence on many of the History Unit, 2000), 150-162. issues discussed in this section. 11. For a brief and clear discussion of this strategy see 19. This is actually the title of the memoirs of a famous Robin Brown, 'Limited War,' in Colin Mclnnes and Britishdocumentary filmmakerof the Second World G.D. Sheffield (eds.), Warfarein the TwentiethCentury War, HarryWatt, Don't Look at the Camera (London: (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988), 164-193. Paul Elek, 1974) 12. I owe this model of the change from 'incorporation' 20. Peter Cowie, The Apocalypse Now Book (London: of the media by the military in modern warfare to Faber & Faber, 2000), 82. Sean Flynn disappeared 'manipulation' in late modern warfare and then to while on assignment as a photojournalist in South 'courtship' in postmodern warfare to Charles C. Vietnam in 1970. The of war in feature films from the Vietnam War to the 259 ki- Ei:; -depiction - ; bOd,'--Xi ~;~~ :j.'eAo;x B . , sd: S ;- -~Q, =,, reporters - - , - - ;, ~-, HollywoodsiCR::: :H...~...... ~....S S :'iSW.( tS2S[./.t:. ', . MS;/ v _ : M . - ,- ~~ - " - - -~" '- - '-" - -- - -present .-,---,:SS.:,7iS:/!:d: .

21. Gustav Hasford, The Short Timers(New York:Harper A Social History of the Media (Cambridge: Polity, & Row, 1979); see also Stanley Kubrick,Michael Herr 2002), 313. For personal account of these institu- and Gustav Hasford, FullMetal Jacket. The Screen- tional conflicts in the context of war reporting see play (London: Secker & Warburg, 1987). ArthurKent, Risk and Redemption (Toronto: Viking, 1996); MartinBell, In Harm's Way (London: Hamish 22.. The published screenplay gives Joker as workingfor Hamilton, 1995). The Sea Tiger, the US Marines official newspaper, but in dialogue he twice says it is Stars and Stripes. 31. Richard Boyle, Flower of the Dragon (San Francisco CA: Ramparts Press, 1972). See also the published 23. For brief summaries from different viewpoints see version of the filmscreenplay, which contains several Michael Maclear, Vietnam: The Ten Thousand Day scenes and characters not in the released version of War (London: Thames Methuen, 1981), 264-271; the film:Oliver Stone and Richard Boyle, Platoon and MarilynB. Young, The VietnamWars 1945-1990 (New Salvador: The Screenplays (London: Ebury Press, York: HarperPerennial, 1991), 216-231; Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy (London: Simon & Schuster, 1987). 1994), 663-670. A very detailed analysis of the 32. The contrast with the KimberlyWells character in The reportingof the Tet offensive is Peter Braestrupp, Big China Syndrome is instructive. The screenplay also Story: How the American Press and Television Re- contained scenes not in the released film portraying ported and Interpreted the Crisis of Tet 1968 in an American mercenary 'Mike Stankovich,' a rather Vietnam and Washington (Boulder Colo.: Westview more brutalfigure than Oates in Under Fire,who tells Press, 1977). Boyle that the press lost the Vietnam War. 24. Susan L. Carruthers, The Media at War (London: 33. Likemany other aspects of factual war reporting,the 111. the literature on this MacMillan, 2000), Again literatureon these debates is not only extensive but issue is substantial. A brief is good summary Carlyle often highly partisan, and to some extent outside the A. 'Vietnam:A Critical in Peter R. Thayer, Analysis,' scope of this article. For some introductorydiscus- Young (ed.), Defence and the Media in Time of sions see Susan L. Carruthers, The Media at War LimitedWar Frank 89-115. See (London: Cass, 1992) (London: Macmillan, 2000), 131-145; Stephen Bad- also John E. Presidents and Public Mueller, War, sey, 'The Media War,' in John Pimlott and Stephen MD: Press of Opinion (Lanham University America, Badsey (eds.), The Gulf War Assessed (London: 1985). Arms and Armour),219-246. 25. See Geoff Mungham, 'Grenada: News Blackout in 34. See Robert A. Heinlein, (New York: the Caribbean', in Derrik Mercer, Geoff Mungham G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1959 and numerous reprints). and Kevin Mercer, The Fog of War(London: Heine- The controversies surrounding this book, which is mann, 1987), 291-310; Peter Young and Peter perhaps best understood as an essay on civic virtue Jesser, The Media and the Militaryfrom the Crimea and responsibility, are less relevant to the film given to Desert Strike(London: MacMillan,1997), 120-128. Verhoeven's very different use of the basic plot. 26. Susan L. Carruthers, The Media At War (London: 35. See Susan L. The Media At War MacMillan,2000), 197-243. Carruthers, (London: Macmillan, 2000), 218-224 for a summary of the 27. Specifically on the article, Sydney H. Schanberg, 'The arguments. Death and Life of Dith Pran,' New YorkTimes Maga- 36. zine, 20 January 1980; see also [Anon.], The Killing The plot of Black Hawk Down is based on the factual Fields: The Facts Behind the Film: With Personal account MarkBowden, Black Hawk Down (London: Accounts by Sydney H. Schanberg and Dith Pran Bantam, 1999); the plot of Behind Enemy Lines is (London, Weidenfield & Nicholson, 1984); Haing S. based very loosely on a real incident. with Warner, the Fields Ngor Roger Surviving Killing 37. The film is based on the factual account by Michael Chatto & Windus, (London: 1988). Nicholson, Natasha's Story (London: MacMillan, 28. WilliamShawcross, Sideshow: Kissinger, Nixon and 1993), later republished as Welcome to Sarajevo the Destruction of Cambodia (London: Fontana, (London: Pan, 1997). There are significant differ- 1980), 294. ences between the grey-haired extrovert Nicholson, a veteran of 15 wars starting with Vietnam, and the 29. Inthe account of the actual reunion given in [Anon.], character of 'Michael Henderson' portrayed in the The KillingFields: The Facts Behind the Film: With film. See also Michael Nicholson, A Measure of Dan- Personal Accounts by Sydney H. Schanberg and Dith ger: Memoirs of a British WarCorrespondent (Lon- Pran (London, Weidenfield & Nicholson, 1984), Dith don: HarperCollins, 1991). Screenwriter Frank Pran confirms that Schanberg did ask his forgive- Cottrell Boyce states that the Henderson character ness, but in a rather difference context. is not intended to be Nicholson but 'Everyman, 30. Francis Wheen, Television (London: Century Pub- guiding us through the city'. See the published ver- lishing, 1985), 97-98; Asa Briggs, and Peter Burke, sion of the screenplay, Frank Cottrell Boyce, Wel- 260 Stephen Badsey

come to Sarajevo (London: Faber & Faber, 1997), 43. PhillipKnightley, The FirstCasualty (revised edition, introduction viii. London: Prion, 2000) especially 501-526; Jeffrey Walsh The Gulf WarDid Not 38. See for example Eugene J. Carol and Gene R. La (ed.), Happen. Politics, and WarfarePost-Vietnam Roque, 'Victoryin the Desert: Superior Technology Culture (Aldershot:Arena, Noam The New MilitaryHumanism or Brute Force?' in Victoria Brittain (ed.), The Gulf 1995); Chomsky, ME.:Common Rich- Between Us (London: Virago Press, 1991), 43-60; (Monroe Courage Press, 1999); ard Secret Silent Press Univer- Harry G. Summers, On Strategy (Novato CA.: Keeble, State, (Luton: sity of Luton Press, Presidio, 1982). 1997). - - 39. For this model of 'incorporation manipulation 44. See for example Martinvan Creveld, The Transfor- courtship' see note 12 above. mation of War(New York:The Free Press, 1991); Alvin 40. For a general introduction to the different perspec- and Heidi Toffler, War and Anti-War (New York: tives on this issue see W. Lanz Bennett and David L. Warner, 1993); Chris Hables Gray, Postmodem War Paletz (eds.), Taken By Storm (Chicago: University (New York:Guilford Press, 1997); MaryKaldor, New of Chicago Press, 1994); Hamid Mowlana, George and Old Wars (Standford CA.: Stanford University Gerbner and Herbert I. Schiller (eds.), Triumphof the Press, 1999); Michael Ignatieff, VirtualWar (London: Image (Boulder Co.: Westview Press, 1992); John Vintage, 2001). Mueller,Policy and Opinion in the GulfWar (Chicago: Based on the novel Ameri- University of Chicago Press, 1994; and see also 45. loosely by LarryBeinhart, can York: Much has Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky, Manufac- Hero (New Pantheon, 1993). been made of this film's appearance before the 1999 turing Consent (London: Vintage 1994, first publish- Monica scandal and the Kosovo conflict, ed 1988). Lewinsky during which Yugoslav television showed Wag the 41. the same and theme were used in Essentially plot Dog frequently. Cf. the mythology that attached to the Second WorldWar Heroes comedyKelly's (1970). The ManchurianCandidate (1962) after the Kennedy 42. Strictlythis is probably an anachronism as the term assassination the following year. appears to have been firstused in 1992. See Stephen Badsey 'The Media War'in John Pimlottand Stephen 46. Harold G. Moore and Joseph L. Galloway, We Were Badsey, The Gulf WarAssessed (London: Arms and Soldiers Once...And Young (New York: Random Armour, 1992), 219-246; Philip M. Taylor, Warand House, 1992), prologue, xx; correspondence and the Media: Propaganda and Persuasion in the Gulf interviews reprinted in Randall Wallace, We Were - War (Manchester: Manchester University Press, Soldiers The Screenplay (New York:Wheelhouse, 1992). 2002), especially vii-xi, 193-198.