Hauraki Gulf Forum
The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report Preface
Vision for the Hauraki Gulf It’s a great place to be … because … • … kaitiaki sustain the mauri of the Gulf and its taonga … communities care for the land and sea … together they protect our natural and cultural heritage … • … there is rich diversity of life in the coastal waters, estuaries, islands, streams, wetlands, and forests, linking the land to the sea … • … waters are clean and full of fish, where children play and people gather food … • … people enjoy a variety of experiences at different places that are easy to get to … • … people live, work and play in the catchment and waters of the Gulf and use its resources wisely to grow a vibrant economy … • … the community is aware of and respects the values of the Gulf, and is empowered to develop and protect this great place to be1.
1 Developed by the Hauraki Gulf Forum
1 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004 Acknowledgements The Forum would like to thank the following people who contributed to the preparation of this report:
The State of the Environment Report Project Team
Alan Moore Project Sponsor and Editor Auckland Regional Council Gerard Willis Project Co-ordinator and Editor Enfocus Ltd Blair Dickie Editor Environment Waikato Kath Coombes Author Auckland Regional Council Amanda Hunt Author Environmental Consultant Keir Volkerling Author Ngatiwai Richard Faneslow Author Ministry of Fisheries Vicki Carruthers Author Department of Conservation Karen Baverstock Author Mitchell Partnerships Andrew Benson Author Auckland Regional Council
Other Contributors
Max Smitheram and Alison Pye (Rodney City Council), Tony Reidy and Trish Kirkland- Smith (North Shore City Council), Sue Parsons (Auckland City Council), Carol Bergquist (Waitakere City Council), James Corbett, Laurie Franks and Carolyn Wratt (Manukau City Council), Raewyn Sendles (Franklin District Council), Peter Wishart and Fiona King (Thames Coromandel District Council), Paula Rolfe (Matamata-Piako District Council), Allan Turner (Waikato District Council), Marina van Steenbergen (Hauraki District Council), Simon Casford, Shane Kelly and Dominic McCarthy (Auckland Regional Council), Malene Felsing, Rick Liefting, Bill Vant, Nick Kim, Beat Huser and Graeme Silver (Environment Waikato), Marilyn Fullam (DOC), Mark Leggett (Enfocus Ltd), David Cumming (Public Health Unit, Waikato District Health Board), Leslie Breach (Auckland Regional Public Health Service), Jim Sim (New Zealand Food Safety Authority), Liane Ngamane (Hauraki Trust Board), Lucy Tukua, Technical Support staff from Waikato and Auckland Conservancies (DOC), GIS staff: Jacky Hovens, Cedo Matic, Mark Williams and Dan Borman (Environment Waikato), Neil Dingle (ARC).
ISBN: 1–8–77353–72–8
DISCLAIMER: While Environment Waikato and Auckland Regional Council have exercised all reasonable skill and care in controlling the contents of information contained in this report, neither Environment Waikato nor Auckland Regional Council accept liability in contract, tort or otherwise howsoever, for any loss, damage, injury or expense (whether direct, indirect or consequential) arising out of the provision of this information or its use by you. 2 Preface Chairman’s Foreword No matter what people have called it – Te Moananui o Toi, Tikapa Moana or The Hauraki Gulf – the semi enclosed stretch of water east of present day Auckland has long been a special place for those who know it or have passed through it. The rich history of the Gulf refl ects the value that our ancestors saw in it, and the reasons our early setters – both Maori and Pakeha – were drawn to its shores remain as strong today as ever. In contemporary society people value the Gulf for all sorts of reasons. To tangata whenua the Gulf is a link to the past. It was the landing place for many of the migratory waka from Polynesia; the highway that connected people for centuries; and the location of major food sources. Many battles have been fought on its waters. Today the Gulf provides opportunities for the future prosperity of Maori in the fi shing, aquaculture and tourism industries. To holiday-makers the Gulf is a place to enjoy over long summer breaks, to weekend fi shers the Gulf is a place to catch the “big one”, to conservationists and researchers the Gulf is a place of fascinating biological diversity. To business the Gulf is an important trade route and place of abundant commercial opportunity. To many observant Kiwis, the Gulf is place of iconic landscape and an evocative expression of natural, social and cultural identity. The Hauraki Forum was established to recognise these multiple values and multiple interests. One of its key functions is to prepare a state of the environment report in recognition that the many interests in the Gulf share one thing in common – a quality, sustainable environment. The production of this report is the single-most important achievement of the Form to date. Not only does the report provide a snapshot of the state of the Gulf but it includes a stocktake of what the statutory agencies are doing in response to these issues. The report provides a basis for the Forum to prioritise future action. It also provides a tangible example of what the Forum is all about – taking a holistic and integrated approach to the management of the Gulf: an approach that crosses statutory functions and deals with the Gulf as a single natural and social system. Inevitably, some may suggest that the report could contain and present information to better advantage. To that I would simply say that this is a fi rst effort at an extraordinarily complicated task. The Forum will continually search for better ways to tell the story of the Gulf. It will have its next opportunity in three years time when it produces its second State of the Gulf report. Finally, I would like to thank all those with contributed to the report’s production and commend it to all those with an interest in the future of the Gulf.
Laly Haddon Chair
3 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004
4 Preface Table of Contents Acknowledgements 2 The State of the Environment Report Project Team 2 Other Contributors 2 Chairman’s Foreword 3 Table of Contents 5 List of Figures 7
PART 1 CONTEXT 9
1 Introduction 11 1.1 Purpose of the Report 11 1.2 Focus of this Report 11 1.3 How this Report is Structured 13 1.4 Quality and Reliability of Information Contained in this Report 14 1.5 What this Report Does Not Address and Why 15 1.6 Matauraunga Maori 15
2 The Gulf and its Catchment 19 2.1 How the Gulf was Made4 19 2.2 The Gulf Today 19 2.3 Marine Environments 25
3 Underlying Pressures on the Gulf Environment 31 3.1 Land Use and Land Use Change within the Catchment 31 3.2 Settlement and Population Growth 31 3.3 Increasing Affluence and Consumption 33 3.4 Increasing Development and Intensification 33 3.5 Increasing Land Value 37
4 Environmental Management in the Gulf 39 4.1 The Gulf and Integrated Management 39 4.2 The Hauraki Gulf Forum 39 4.3 Administrative Boundaries of Local Authority Members 39
PART 2 Key Issues 43
5 Water Quality of the Gulf 45 5.1 Introduction 45 5.2 Maori Cultural Perspective 46 5.3 State of waters in the Gulf 47 5.4 Pressures on the Gulf’s Waters 69 5.5 Responses to Pressures on Water Quality 81
5 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004
6 Biological Diversity of the Gulf 93 6.1 Introduction 93 6.2 State of the Gulf’s Biodiversity 94 6.3 Pressures on the Gulf’s Biodiversity 103 6.4 Responses to Pressures on Biodiversity 116
7 Natural Character and Landscape Values of the Gulf 127 7.1 Introduction 127 7.2 What is Natural Character? 128 7.3 What is Landscape? 129 7.4 State of Natural Character and Landscape Values 129 7.5 Pressures on Natural Character 140 7.6 Responses to Pressure on Natural Character 144
8 Access to the Gulf 149 8.1 Introduction 149 8.2 State of Access to and Along the Coast 151 8.3 State of Access within Coastal Space 158 8.4 Pressures on Access to the Gulf 164 8.5 Responses to Pressures on Access 167
9 Cultural Heritage of the Gulf 173 9.1 Introduction 173 9.2 State of Cultural Heritage 178 9.3 Pressures on Cultural Heritage 179 9.4 Responses to Pressures on Cultural Heritage 182
10 Coastal Hazards of the Gulf 187 10.1 Introduction 187 10.2 State of Coastal Hazards in the Gulf 188 10.3 Pressures on, and from Coastal Hazards 190 10.4 Responses to Pressure on and from Coastal Hazards 191
11 Conclusion 195
Glossary 199
Appendix 1 201
Appendix 2 213
Appendix 3 217
Appendix 4 221
Appendix 5 223
6 Preface ist of Figures L Figure 1.1 The Hauraki Gulf, the Marine Park, and the Catchments of the Gulf 12 Figure 2.1 The Hauraki Gulf and its Catchment 20 Figure 2.2 Wind, Current and Circulation Patterns in the Gulf 22 Figure 2.3 Wave Environments in the Hauraki Gulf 24 Figure 2.4 Marine Environments Classification for the Gulf 26 Figure 3.1 Land Use in the Gulf Catchment 32 Figure 3.2 Population Growth 33 Figure 3.3 Centres of Population in the Hauraki Gulf Catchment 34 Figure 3.5 Land Values within the Auckland Region and Thames Coromandel District 35 Figure 3.4a Percentage change in occupied dwellings 1991-2001 36 Figure 3.4b Percentage change for occupied dwellings 1991-2001 for the Auckland Metropolitan area 37 Figure 4.1 Jurisdictional boundaries of constituent parties 41 Figure 5.1 Bathing beach locations and monitoring results 51 Figure 5.2 Coastal water quality in the Auckland region 53 Figure 5.3 Water quality monitoring locations in northern Gulf 54 Figure 5.4 Chlorophyll a concentrations (µg/L) 58 Figure 5.5 Zinc levels in sediment in the Auckland region 59 Figure 5.6 Concentrations of zinc (red), copper (green) and lead (yellow) at sediment monitoring sites in the Hauraki Gulf (Auckland). 61 Figure 5.7 Location of mussel monitoring sites for the Shellfish Contaminant Monitoring Programme 63 Figure 5.8 Coastal sites in the Waikato Region meeting bacterial guidelines for shellfish gathering 65 Figure 5.9 ‘Red tide’ Leigh Harbour, December 2002 65 Figure 5.10 Relative numbers of discharge consents in the Gulf Catchment (excluding stormwater) 69 Figure 5.11 Wastewater treatment plants in the Gulf Catchment 70 Figure 5.12 Catchments for the Firth of Thames and major Coromandel Peninsula estuaries 76 Figure 5.13: Location of livestock in the Hauraki and Coromandel portion (Waikato Region) of the Gulf Catchment 77 Figure 5.14 Stream health, assessed using several macroinvertebrate indices, in Hauraki and Coromandel streams of the Gulf Catchment 79 Figure 6.1 Gulf and Bay of Plenty snapper biomass 96 Figure 6.2 Estimated numbers of scallops in commercially fished beds since 1990 97 Figure 6.3 Catch per unit effort for rock lobster in the area Kaipara Harbour – East Cape 98 Figure 6.4 Average Landings (Tonnes) of Main Commercial Finfish Species and Kina 104 Figure 6.5 Reported annual landings of scallops from Hauraki Gulf beds 108 Figure 6.6 Reported annual landings of rock lobster in the Area Kaipara Harbour – East Cape 109 Figure 6.7 Location of existing marine farms and applications for proposed farms 112 Figure 6.8 Operation of the Quota Management System 122 Figure 7.1 Milford Beach in 1910 and today showing changes, in this case reclamation, that have occurred to estuarine systems 130 Figure 7.2 Coastal Protection Areas and Areas of Significant Conservation Value 132 Figure 7.3 Percent of indigenous vegetation – forest and regenerative scrub 133 Figure 7.4 Sand dune and beach vegetation inventory 136 Figure 7.5 Comparison of dunes at Cooks Beach 1940 and mid 1980s 136 Figure 7.6a Significant and outstanding landscapes of the Auckland Region 138 Figure 7.6b Significant landscapes of the Waikato Region 139
7 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004
Figure 7.7 Number of units built within 1 km Gulf coast of the Auckland Region 140 Figure 7.8 Proportion of buildings built within 1km of the Auckland Region’s Gulf coast 140 Figure 7.9 Set back along northern beaches 141 Figure 7.10 Set back along North Shore beaches 141 Figure 7.11 Average value of new buildings in the Thames Coromandel District 142 Figure 7.12 Annual sales in the Coromandel 142 Figure 7.13 Average floor area of new buildings in Thames Coromandel District 142 Figure 7.14 Comparison of Buffalo Beach before and after coastal protection works 143 Figure 7.15 Coastal Structures in the Gulf 143 Figure 7.16 Armoured shoreline of the Gulf 144 Figure 8.1 Percentages of Gulf coastline adjacent to public and privately owned land 151 Figure 8.2 The Gulf coastline coloured to show whether it is adjacent to public or privately owned land 152 Figure 8.3 Origins of people on Whangamata and Pauanui beaches, Coromandel, January 2002 154 Figure 8.4 Frequency of use of North Shore beaches for swimming 154 Figure 8.5 Annual number of visitors to some of the regional parks bordering the Gulf 155 Figure 8.6 Percentage increase in annual visitor numbers for regional parks along the Gulf from 1995 to 2002 155 Figure 8.7 Annual visitor numbers for Tiritiri Matangi 1998-2003 156 Figure 8.8 Annual ferry patronage in Auckland Region 1991-2003 156 Figure 8.9 Takapuna Beach, North Shore City – An example of a legal restriction of access to a beach where the property extends to mean high water mark 157 Figure 8.10 Recreational boating areas and routes 159 Figure 8.11 Distribution of boat ramps around the Gulf 161 Figure 8.12 Main restrictions on public access within the Gulf 163 Figure 8.13 Key contributors to the quality of life in Auckland 165 Figure 8.14 Annual expenditure on certain public access facilities by city and district councils along the Gulf coastline in the last three financial years, shown by council 170 Figure 8.15 Annual expenditure on certain public access facilities by city and district councils along the Gulf coastline in the last three financial years, shown by facility type 171 Figure 9.1 Archaeological sites of the Gulf 180 Figure 9.2 Cultural heritage sites of the Gulf 181 Figure 10.1 Sea level rise in the Waitamata Harbour since 1899. 190
8
PART 1 CONTEXT
9 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004
10 Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Introduction
1.1 Purpose of the Report Box 1–1
This is the State of the Environment The Hauraki Gulf Marine Park Act 2000 report for the Hauraki Gulf (‘the Gulf”). The special nature of the Gulf has been formally recognised over It is the fi rst time that information on the many years - by government through the establishment of the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park in 1967, by local Government through the Vision environment of the Gulf as a whole has Hauraki initiative, and by iwi in 1992 through the Motutapu Accord. been brought together in one document. More recently, the need to better understand and manage the The Hauraki Gulf is a special place. complex interrelationships of the Gulf, its islands and catchments led Its waters and islands are home to to the enactment of the Hauraki Gulf Marine Park Act (“the Act”) in outstanding biological diversity, landscape 2000. The Act recognises the national significance of the Gulf quality, and economic and recreational The purpose of the Act is to integrate the management of the Gulf opportunity. It is little wonder that the through, (in particular): Gulf and its hinterland have a rich history • the creation of the Hauraki Gulf Marine Park encompassing the of human settlement and use. The Gulf waters of the Gulf, the foreshore and seabed within the Gulf, and all publicly owned reserves located on the islands of the Gulf (see provides a sense of belonging for many Chapter 2 for further explanation); and New Zealanders, including Maori (see Box • the establishment of a governing Hauraki Gulf Forum comprising 1–2). representatives from iwi and from central and local government This report provides those with an agencies with statutory responsibilities for managing use, interest in the Gulf with an understanding development and conservation within the park and its Catchment. of its environment – what condition it is in, The Forum works to co-ordinate action and better recognise the what is affecting it, and what is being done complex cause and effect relationships experienced in the Gulf. It respects both conservation and development needs and encourages in response. The Hauraki Gulf Forum is management that crosses cultures, administrative jurisdictions and required to produce a report such as this land/water boundaries (see Chapter 4 for further explanation). every three years under section 17(1)(g) of the Hauraki Gulf Marine Park Act 2000 (see Box 1–1). In fulfi lling that obligation 1.2 Focus of this Report the Forum hopes the information in the pages that follow will: References are made in Box 1–1 to • Raise public awareness about the – variously – the ‘Hauraki Gulf’, the state of the Gulf’s environment, its ‘Catchment’ of the Gulf, and the ‘Hauraki vulnerability, and what constituent Gulf Marine Park’ (see Figure 1.1). parties of the Forum and others are To most people, the term Hauraki Gulf doing to safeguard it. refers to the waters around the offshore • Inform policy-makers, and assist them islands to the immediate north and east in prioritising actions, programmes and of Auckland and the Firth of Thames. initiatives in the light of the information The Hauraki Marine Park Act (“the Act”) contained in this report. defi nes the Gulf as the area seaward of • Provide a benchmark on the state of mean high water springs to a distance of the Gulf’s environment - one that 12 nautical miles off shore and it extends can be reviewed on a regular basis, to the common understanding of the Gulf to identify emerging pressures, and to help include the waters east of the Coromandel determine the effectiveness of corrective Peninsula. actions. According to the Act’s defi nition, the Gulf takes in the foreshore, which
11 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004
Figure 1.1 The Hauraki Gulf, the Marine Park, and the Catchments of the Gulf
12 Chapter 1: Introduction
comprises all parts of the bed, shore or Box 1–2 banks of the sea and rivers that are covered and uncovered by the fl ow and ebb of the Maori and the Gulf tide at mean spring tides. It includes the The Hauraki Gulf, known to Maori as Tikapa Moana, or Te Moana Nui beaches, harbours, estuaries and the tidal a Toi, is integrally linked by whakapapa in a long chain of being back to the beginning of time: to Papatuanuku (Earth); to Ranginui (Sky); to parts of rivers and creeks of the east coast of Tangaroa (Sea); and to Te Kore (Nothingness). North Island, extending from Mangawhai The word Hauraki relates to the arid north winds that were said to in the north, to Waihi Beach in the south. frequent the geographic area. Tangata whenua traditions do not, The Gulf covers approximately 13,900 km2 however, refer to the Gulf as Hauraki. Although all the islands on the and has a coastline of approximately 2550 Gulf have their own stories and meaning to tangata whenua, the chain of islands across the outer end of the Gulf tend to be known to as Nga kilometres. Poito-o-te Kupenga – a – Taramainuku – the floats of Taramainuku’s The Hauraki Gulf Marine Park includes fishing net. the Gulf and all public reserve lands located To the Hauraki iwi, Polynesian hero Taramainuku stood astride on islands and coastal areas within the far-off Hawaiki and cast his fishing net over the entire Pacific basin. Gulf, including Little Barrier Island, Cuvier The floats of his nets surfaced to form the islands of the oceanic archipelago of which the Hauraki offshore islands are a part. Island, Tiritiri-Matangi Island, Rangitoto, Motutapu, and the Mokohinau Islands, To the Hauraki iwi of Tainui, Te Arawa and Tohora tradition the Gulf itself is known as Tikapa Moana. Other names are given to the and signifi cant portions of Great Barrier eastern Coromandel Peninsula including Te Tai Tamawahine and Nga and Kawau Islands and the Aldermen and Whakarewa Kauri, the latter referring to the kauri bearing tides of the Mercury Island groups. It also includes the Mercury Bay area. public reserves located on the mainland at In one Hauraki tradition the term Tikapa Moana takes its name from North Head, and at Mount Moehau and Tikapa (Gannet Rock) off the northeast of Waiheke Island. Tikapa means “sound of mournful sobbing” and refers to the sound made various other points on the Coromandel by the tidal action entering and emerging from a particular rock Peninsula. structure. It was on these islets that early Maori preformed specific The Catchment of the Gulf comprises rites – Uruuruwhenua – to claim lands. It is said that the Tainui and Te all those areas of hinterland that drain to Arawa canoes performed ceremonies here when they first landed in Aotearoa. In another tradition the term Tikapa Moana refers to the the Gulf. way in which the inland sea gleams when sunlight is reflected off its The Act requires that a state of the surface. environment report be prepared for the To the Ngatiwai iwi of the northern Gulf it is known as Te Moananui a Hauraki Gulf. However, the Gulf is part Toi. Ngatiwai tradition refers to Toitehuatahi’s net being thrown from of a wider environmental, social and the southern Bay of Islands, and where it snagged on the shore defines the tribal rohe area of Ngatiwai. Ngatiwai refer to islands such as economic fabric and it is necessary, in Hauturu as being poito of Toi’s net. fulfi lling the statutory requirement, to look Tangata whenua often refer to the Gulf as a “pataka kai” a food-basket at this broader context. For that reason, in the literal and metaphysical sense; a place from which spiritual and this report addresses relevant aspects of physical sustenance is gained. The area was probably the earliest the Marine Park, Gulf Catchment and the point of arrival for Polynesian visitors and retains important reminders of Maori association. The map adjacent provides a Maori perspective immediate mainland coastal fringe. of the Gulf. In accordance with custom, the Gulf is viewed from the The Gulf, Marine Park and Gulf tail of Ika a Maui’s (Maui’s fish - the North Island) looking towards the Catchment are illustrated in Figure 1.1. head of the fish. Tangata whenua identification with the Gulf remains strong today. In 1.3 How this Report is acknowledgement, representatives of the tangata whenua are involved Structured in its management (see Chapter 4).
This report is based around 6 key chapters included in Part 2 of the Report. Each chapter focuses on a dimension of the environment of keen interest to those who use, value and enjoy the Gulf. These are: • Water Quality (Chapter 5) • Natural Heritage and Biological Diversity (Chapter 6) • Natural Character and Landscape (Chapter 7) 13 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004
Box 1–3 narrowly – such as the direct impact of vehicle emissions on water quality. There Strategic Issues are, in other words, pressures on pressures. The subject matter of the 6 key chapters is derived from the Strategic Similarly, some pressures arise from a Issues identified by the Forum. specifi c activity but affect more than one The Act (section 17 (1) (a)) requires the Forum to prepare, prioritise dimension of the environment. and review a list of strategic issues that are faced by the Gulf. This list To deal with this problem this report was prepared in 2002. It includes that following matters. defi nes, in Chapter 3, many of the • Water quality underlying pressures faced by the Gulf. • Natural heritage and biodiversity How those pressures manifest in specifi c • Natural character and landscape terms is discussed in Part 2 of the report. • Cultural heritage The report also uses cross referencing liberally to draw readers’ attention to • Recreation, tourism and access relevant pressures discussed elsewhere in • Coastal hazards the report. An attempt is made to locate • Soil erosion and sedimentation information where it is most relevant but, • Biosecurity inevitably, the conscientious reader will • Fisheries and aquaculture need to refer to various parts of the report to gain a comprehensive understanding of • Relationships with tangata whenua and community any particular issue. • Knowledge and monitoring As they stand the issues do not all fit neatly into a pressure – state 1.4 Quality and Reliability of – response framework. This report takes the first six issues as organising themes, while the other five are variously described in Information Contained this report as either pressures or responses to those issues, and in this Report are reported on in that context (throughout the chapters that form Part 2). The challenges associated with presenting a picture of the Gulf are considerable. No primary research was commissioned to • Cultural Heritage (Chapter 8) assist in the preparation of this report. • Access to the Gulf (Chapter 9) Monitoring of aspects of the environment • Coastal Hazards (Chapter 10) in the Gulf is carried out by multiple The origin of the chapters is described in agencies, for a whole host of purposes. Box 1–3. Each of these chapters discusses: Therefore, this report uses existing data, • The state of that dimension of the Gulf including, in particular those collected by: and islands environment, including the • Local authorities, in meeting their own Gulf’s immediate coastal margin. obligations to report on the state of • The pressures being experienced on environments that are defi ned by their that state from within the Gulf and its own jurisdictions. catchment. • The Department of Conservation, • The responses that the various agencies to assist in meeting its obligations to are making to those pressures. protect threatened species and manage In doing so, the report follows a pressure the conservation estate. – state – response model. Although this is a • The Ministry of Fisheries, in meeting widely accepted and recommended way for its obligations to manage the fi sheries reporting environmental information, it is resource. not without problems. • Traditional environmental knowledge Environmental issues seldom fi t into of tangata whenua. discrete boxes that can be discussed and • Research into specifi c aspects of understood in isolation from other issues. the environment by crown research The environment and the pressures placed institutes and tertiary institutions. upon it are inevitably interconnected and Such issue, site and purpose specifi c interrelated. In particular, pressures on information may not lend itself to collation the environment can be identifi ed broadly into a state of the environment report for – such as increasing vehicle use, or more a particular environment, such as the Gulf. 14 Chapter 1: Introduction
Even in situations where neighbouring Box 1–4 agencies do monitor similar aspects of the environment, data may not be collected in What are Indicators? accordance with the same methodological, The environment is a very complex system. It is not possible to spatial or temporal parameters. measure every aspect of it. There is only so much that can be monitored with resources available. The Forum has used the best available information in preparing this report. We need to pick certain things that give us a good indication of the state of the environment – we call these things indicators. Although that information may be patchy, taken together it does form a Indicators can take many forms. They can be something very specific like the amount of a particular contaminant in a sediment sample or reasonable picture of the state of the Gulf’s something more general like the amount of fuel consumed. environment. It also serves to highlight Good indicators can be difficult to identify and develop but once they those areas where better information are agreed upon, and monitored consistently over time, they can give would help to bring that picture into an important measure of whether action is required or, if action has sharper focus. been taken, how successful that action has been. The report uses both indicators and case studies to convey information about the environment. Box 1–3 describes what indicators are. As a general rule, 1.6 Matauraunga Maori the indicators of environmental health customarily used by tangata whenua 1.6.1 Scale of indicators relevant to have not yet been integrated into the Gulf mainstream monitoring programmes. The The defi nition of “environment” in the opportunities for doing so are discussed in Resource Management Act (RMA) includes Chapter 1.6. “ecosystems and their constituent parts, While every attempt has been made including people and their communities to ensure the accuracy of the data and … and the social, economic, aesthetic and information presented in this report, there cultural conditions …”. In determining may well be omissions or inaccuracies as environmental indicators for the Gulf, a result of the diffi culties in gathering all these factors need to be represented. information. It is the responsibility of the The tangata whenua membership in the user to ensure the appropriate use of the Forum, and recent decisions of the Forum, data or information from the text, tables make the wider range of indicators more or fi gures. relevant and important. Unfortunately, because we are largely reliant on existing 1.5 What this Report Does data, there are real constraints. Not Address and Why Work done by the Ministry for the Environment on national indicators does Those activities that occur within the Gulf’s refer to the social dimension e.g., the catchment are covered in this report, but “human uses and values”. But the actual only where they affect the Gulf. The effects indicators used are defi ned in terms of biota of activities that happen to be located in and the physical details, such as degree of the Gulf, but that do not impact on the sedimentation. In other words, there are waters, seabed, foreshore and islands of few tools available for anyone to apply to the Gulf, are not dealt with in this report. cultural and social dimensions necessary to Environmental issues, such as air quality, represent many tangata whenua concerns. that have not been identifi ed as strategic issues, are not discussed here. Information 1.6.2 The nature of matauranga Maori on these issues can be found in the state Matauranga Maori is knowledge, 2 For example, the of the environment reports produced by understanding and interpretation of the Waikato State of the individual members of the Forum2. creation and all that exists within it. It is Environment Report knowledge based on fundamental truths, 1998, Environment Waikato; State of the and the belief that everything in the Auckland Region Report universe is interconnected. 1999, ARC
15 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004
The spiritual link is embedded in the the Maori social, cultural, and economic connections between the waters of the systems a supernatural authority. Gulf, the plants and animals within the Maori believe that, since colonisation, Gulf, and the tangata whenua of the Gulf. in the drive to commercialise natural In whakapapa terms, the earth, the sea, and resources their institutions have not been the plants and animals of the earth and sea, respected and that this has led to today’s are tuakana and hence have senior status environmental degradation. to people. Kaitiakitanga therefore includes Attempts to institutionalise rahui the respect and duties due to that seniority. tapu today often fail because the whole Rahui tapu, by restricting use of resources, community is not involved. In the case of assures the interconnection between fi sheries resources, the responsibility now natural resources, people and nga atua. lies with the Ministry of Fisheries, and lacks Knowing these truths sets the guidelines the essential statutory degree of authority. on interaction with the natural and physical worlds. This is the very foundation on 1.6.4 Matauranga Maori and Western which tikanga Maori pivots. Tikanga science Maori ensures that the truth manifests There are some deep-seated aspects of itself in exercising kaitiakitanga in the European culture that pervade all its natural world. institutions and understandings. Two Matauranga Maori contains information critical differences with Maori society and relating to methods of utilising and its conceptual frameworks are the Western conserving natural resources (for example emphasis on the individual, rather than the use of medicinal plants, and the giving the collective; and the separation rather back to Tangaroa of the fi rst fi rst caught). than the synthesis of the physical and the Much of this knowledge has been lost, metaphysical. In science, and specifi cally and there have been deliberate efforts to in environmental management, these undermine its value. differences have major impacts. Problems of cross cultural understanding, and 1.6.3 Kaitiakitanga and rahui hence the near impossibility of genuine Environmental integrity was maintained partnerships in practice, are the common through the highly complex institution result. of tapu, which originated from the “Matauranga Maori in a traditional understanding that atua (gods) created context means the knowledge, all things in the universe, and all things comprehension or understanding of were connected. Tapu then involved using everything visible or invisible that exists natural resources in ways that ensured across the universe ... This meaning the connection between nga atua, the is related to the modern context as resource being exploited, and humankind Maori research, science and technology remained intact. This was not only for principles and practices. human survival, but because all things in Accurate remembrance of large the universe have a purpose, and therefore quantities of data required the use of a right to exist. Placating the atua was sophisticated memory management therefore paramount in assuring one’s techniques. The methodology used by survival within a robust environment. Maori to achieve this end was to embed Rahui tapu involved imposing a ban on the knowledge base in a philosophical a resource when it was evident that the vital framework (or knowledge paradigm). life force (mauri) was devitalised. Rahui Matauranga Maori not only contains tapu was systematically imposed for periods potentially useful knowledge, but adequate to preserve or restore the mauri. it also forms the basis of the Maori Rahui tapu challenged individuals and cultural paradigm ... The knowledge groups integrity. To avoid violating tapu base underpinning the Maori cultural children were socialised in the principles paradigm arises from an experience by and practice of rahui tapu. Tapu gave Maori in the New Zealand environment. As such it contains jewels of information 16 Chapter 1: Introduction
pointing towards methods of utilising Some direct empirical studies have been and preserving the environment (for completed. These provide some useful example, the traditional Maori medicinal information, but they are not able to be use of plants). Such useful knowledge is easily generalised to other iwi and other expensive to create de novo. It is being environmental studies. rapidly lost for want of a strategy to Of more potential use in the context preserve it.” of our State of the Environment Report is “Both science and matauranga seek to the Hauraki Customary Indicators Report codify knowledge in a useful manner. Both (Ministry for the Environment, June 1999). result in useful and unuseful concepts. This report contains detail of traditional Both rely on empirical observation and practices and indicators used historically, codifying that knowledge in a theoretical and to some extent into the present time, framework. The perspectives, however, that guided customary fi sheries and are different. Science seeks to isolate other activities. The focus for the report the study matter from the real world geographically is the Firth of Thames, the under a set of very specific conditions, Waihou River, and Manaia Harbour. understand the topic in its isolation, and from there drawing observations about 1.6.6 Implications for the State of the its place in the real world. Matauranga Environment Report for the Gulf studies a topic in the real world, and In producing this fi rst Hauraki Gulf State from its interactions in the real world of the Environment Report the Forum is seeks to build a conceptual framework not able to solve the problems encountered in which to codify that knowledge.”3 by MfE and others in identifying and applying tangata whenua indicators. Nor 1.6.5 Work on tangata whenua can it achieve a comprehensive tangata indicators whenua based investigation into the At a national level, the Ministry for the biodiversity values on the Gulf. Similarly, Environment attempted to determine it will not fi nd a satisfactory methodology a set of tangata whenua indicators, but for collection of social data. This report can has to date not managed to complete the merely recognise and record the current task. While some useful information was state of development towards tangata collated, the underlying clash of paradigms whenua indicators, and acknowledge the – Western science, and matauranga Maori need for future work. – was not suffi ciently addressed.
3 The Interface Between Matauranga Maori and Mainstream Science 1995 MoRST
17 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004
18 Chapter 2: The Gulf and its Catchment 2 The Gulf and its Catchment
2.1 How the Gulf was Made4 coastline and harbours. The meandering and branching shape of these former river Basement rocks in the Gulf area were laid valleys is still recognisable in the extensive down some 140 to 250 million years ago. headwaters of places like the Mahurangi Much of the land was raised from the sea and Waitemata Harbours, and Tamaki some 15 million years ago. Uplifted ocean Estuary. sediments and ancient volcanoes form the Most of the cliffs around our modern backbone of the Waitakere, Hunua and coast are very young and have been eroded Coromandel Ranges. out of the sloping hillsides in the past Around 3-16 million years ago, dry land 6,500 years. The Waitemata Sandstone extended from Auckland right across to the cliffs around Auckland are eroding back at Coromandel Peninsula and Great Barrier rates of 1 to 5 cm per year. The intertidal Island. Around 3-5 million years ago, the reefs in front of them, extending up to 100 Gulf area was forced upwards again, tilting metres out to sea, are an indication of the the Coromandel region to the east and the amount of cliff retreat since sea level rose. Auckland region to the west. Following this Today our youthful coast is still changing, up-doming of the Gulf area, it dramatically in places eroding and elsewhere growing subsided about 2-3 million years ago to as nature continues to respond to the post form the elongate, fault bounded Gulf, ice age rise in sea level and to the variable Firth of Thames and Hauraki Plains. patterns of winds, waves and currents. During the last ice age when sea levels were 110-120 metres lower than today, 2.2 The Gulf Today most of the Gulf was a broad, forested coastal plain intersected by meandering 2.2.1 Coastal Currents and Water rivers, extending right out beyond the Movements Coromandel Peninsula and Great Barrier The Gulf is a semi-enclosed coastal sea Island. within a warm temperate region, infl uenced At the end of the last ice age, the rising by the subtropical East Auckland Current, sea encroached over the land, and sand that particularly around the island groups. had built up along the coast during the ice The East Auckland Current fl ows towards age was swept shoreward. Shallow valleys the south east somewhat offshore of the that had fl owed out across the former continental shelf. The inner Gulf south of a 4 Much of the physical coastal plain were drowned and rapidly line from Cape Rodney through Little and description of the Gulf in this section is fi lled with sediment. For several thousand Great Barrier Islands exchanges water drawn from A Field years after the sea reached its present level with the more open shelf regions via Guide to Auckland: about 6,500 years ago, vast quantities of entrances to the north and south of Great Exploring the Region’s sand were thrown up against the land to Barrier Island. Water turn-over time is Natural and Historic Heritage, Cameron, 5 form beaches, barriers and dunes. Where estimated at 60 to 80 days . E., Hayward, B. there was a plentiful supply, whole valleys Whilst circulation on the open shelf, Murdoch, G., Godwit were fi lled or large sand barriers created, and to a lesser extent, the outer Gulf, are Publishing, 1997 enclosing estuaries and shallow harbours, as infl uenced by the East Auckland Current, at Mangawhai Heads, Omaha, Wenderholm circulation patterns within the Gulf are 5 N. Broekhuizen and Orewa sand spits. Where there was dominated by the infl uence of wind (NIWA) pers comm., (citing Zeldis et al. in less sand available, the river valleys were direction and strength upon surface water review; Zeldis and drowned to become our modern embayed movements (see Figure 2.2). Surface Smith 1999). 19 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004
Figure 2.1 The Hauraki Gulf and its Catchment
20 Chapter 2: The Gulf and its Catchment
waters tend to fl ow in the direction of the from the ocean. In contrast, the system is a local wind and take some 12 to 24 hours net sink for dissolved inorganic nitrogen. to readjust themselves following a change During the summer months, in wind direction (N. Broekhuizen, pers concentrations of dissolved inorganic comm.) nitrogen at the surface limit phytoplankton growth and if the nutrient-rich oceanic 2.2.2 Nutrient Upwellings and Marine water becomes mixed to the surface it can Productivity have profound implications for plankton Winds along the shore (those from north production and abundance. Phytoplankton west or south east) have particularly strong are central to the productivity of any infl uences upon circulation patterns marine environment, as they are the (Proctor and Greig 1989). Winds blowing primary prey of shellfi sh and also directly from the north-west elicit upwelling or indirectly of most other animals living along the open north east coast, whilst in marine environments. Zooplankton those blowing from the south-east induce transfer phytoplankton production to downwelling along this coastline. During higher trophic levels such as fi sh and sea upwelling, the surface water tends to birds (Broekhuizen et al 2002). fl ow offshoreward, inducing a shoreward Like the rest of north-east New transport of deep, cold, saline, nutrient- Zealand, the Gulf has strongly seasonal rich water onto the shelf. Conversely, hydrodynamic characteristics. In late south-east winds cause onshore surface winter and spring, westerly winds prevail fl ow and offshore movement of water near in north-east New Zealand. Northwesterly the sea bed. winds favour upwelling of nutrient rich Overall, winds blow from the north- waters. This upwelling leads to high levels west sector for approximately 16% of of nutrient availability and results in some the time, and from the south-east sector of the highest spring chlorophyll a standing for approximately 12% of the time (N. stocks on the New Zealand continental Broekhuizen pers comm.). Upwelling shelf (Chang et al 2003). In summer, introduces deep oceanic water from predominant winds shift to easterlies, beyond the shelf-break into the coastal- leading to downwelling and movement of shelf region near the sea-bed. This water warm, nutrient poor waters towards the is rich in nutrients, but has only a small coast resident plankton community. It is also cold (dense) and therefore tends to stay 2.2.3 Coastal Dynamics near the sea-fl oor. Light-intensities are The Gulf is characterised by warm lower near the sea-fl oor than they are close water fl owing south, low to moderate to the sea-surface and unless the water is wave conditions with occasional storm mixed to the surface, the newly introduced events, and displays a spectrum of coastal nutrients are of little value to the local environments from sheltered harbours phytoplankton (plant) population. and estuaries to exposed rocky islands and The extent to which nutrient-rich beaches. Variations in physical coastal oceanic water mixes with surface water processes occur due to changes in exposure, and contributes to the nutrient pool in the from the moderate energy beaches such Gulf depends on both extent of upwelling as Pakiri, Tawharanui, Whangamata and and strength of winds mixing the surface Whiritoa to the sheltered estuaries in waters. The Gulf also receives nutrients inner harbours such as Tamaki Estuary, from land based sources fl owing into the Upper Waitemata Harbour, Whitianga, Gulf from rivers and from discharges such Whangapoua and Tairua Harbours. In as sewage. terms of physical coastal processes, this In general terms the Gulf is a net source leads to great diversity in the levels of wave, of dissolved inorganic phosphorus as more tidal and current energies that shape and inorganic phosphorus is exported from the affect the coast and the rates of coastal Gulf to the open shelf than is imported erosion and accretion.
21 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004
<_]kh[*$ Kff[hfWd[bi0J^_il_[mkfj^[YeWijjej^[dehj^e\j^[>WkhWa_=kb\i^emijmea[o m_dZZh_l[dYkhh[djfWjj[hdiÅkfm[bb_d]WdZZemdm[bb_d]$M_dZiWh[i^emdWi \[Wj^[h[ZWhhemi"ikh\WY[mWj[h_ii^WZ[Zb_]^jXbk["WdZZ[[fmWj[h_ii^WZ[ZZWha Xbk[$J^[Xbk[WhhemiZ[f_YjmWj[hY_hYkbWj_ed$J^[ehWd][iocXebii^emj^[ceeh_d] i_j[id[Whj^[FeehAd_]^ji?ibWdZiWdZ_dj^[<_hj^e\J^Wc[i$Bem[hfWd[bi0J^[i[ iWj[bb_j[_cW][ie\i[Wikh\WY[j[cf[hWjkh[i^emj^Wjj^[Yeeb_d][\\[Yjie\kfm[bb_d] Yebekh[Z]h[[d _difh_d]'//.Z_ZdejeYYkh_difh_d]'///$
Upwelling Downwelling (Spring 1998) (Spring 1999)
Figure 2.2 Wind, Current and Circulation Patterns in the Gulf Source: Environment Waikato Technical report 02/09, ARC Technical Publication 182
22 Chapter 2: The Gulf and its Catchment
Coastal landforms exist because sand between the embayments and they hydrodynamic (waves, currents, tides) and essentially operate as closed systems. aeolian (wind) processes erode, transport Much of this sand originates from sand and deposit particles of sediment. The force that was swept shoreward with rising sea of these processes wears down the coast levels at the end of the last ice age and in some places and builds it up in others, built up along the coast to form beaches transports sand and shell, and shapes spits and dune systems. The Waikato River and bays. Waves, tides and currents that that once fl owed out through the Firth shape the coast are key components of the of Thames and into the Gulf, was also an natural character of the Gulf.. important source of sediment. Flood and ebb tidal currents in the Twenty thousand years ago the Waikato Gulf are generally masked by wave energy, River was diverted to the west coast, cutting except in harbours and estuaries where off the coastal systems of the eastern coast tidal currents are generally more noticeable of Auckland and the western coast of as large volumes of water are forced into Coromandel from their original supply and out of a narrow constriction during a of sand. While there are small inputs of tidal cycle. sand from streams, cliff erosion and bio- Waves are the driving force behind all production, the embayed beaches of the changes we see from day to day along the Gulf essentially have as much sand as they Gulf’s coastline. Ocean and coastal waves are ever going to get. are primarily the result of wind stresses As noted above, the Gulf’s estuaries upon the surface of the ocean. Open were created by the fl ooding of existing water swell waves, generated by winds river valleys at the end of the last ice age. blowing over very large distances or “fetch”, Since the sea level stabilised around 6500 affect much of the coast of the Gulf, but years ago, the Gulf’s estuaries have been especially the more exposed east coast in-fi lling with sediments (at various rates) areas. Occasionally easterly storms, which to form the features we see today. Over can produce storm waves over 10 metres time, estuaries naturally in-fi ll, both from high in the outer Gulf, affect the east coast. sediments eroded from the land and sand When these waves reach the shore they driven in from the coast (see Box 2–1). can lead to signifi cant coastal erosion and fl ooding6. 2.2.5 Freshwater Inputs Much of the Gulf’s coastline is a lee- The Gulf is the receiving environment for energy environment, which means it is freshwater inputs from a large catchment. generally sheltered from the predominant This includes the watershed and west to south-west winds. Wave heights tributaries of the Waiwera, Puhoi, Weiti, are therefore generally low to moderate in Whau, Tamaki and Wairoa Rivers located the middle to outer Gulf and east coast of in the Auckland area; the Piako, Waitoa, the Coromandel Peninsula, and low to very Waihou, Oraka Rivers of the Hauraki low in the inner Gulf, particularly in more Plains, and the Tairua, Waiwawa, Kapowai, sheltered situations such as estuaries and and Kauaeranga Rivers of the Coromandel harbours where there is less fetch available Peninsula. for the development of swell. The combined catchment of all areas Figure 2.3 illustrates the various wave draining to the Gulf totals approximately environments that exist in the Gulf. 8078 square kilometres. The catchment drains the Waitakere 2.2.4 Sand and Sediment Transport and Hunua Ranges, the Auckland and Deposition Isthmus volcanoes, the eastern side of the The beaches of the Gulf are characterised Hapuakohe Range and the Pakaroa Hills, by embayments that trap sand between the western side of the Kaimai Range, and headlands. Sand recirculates within the most of the Coromandel Range. embayments mostly during large storm 6 ARC, 1999, State of events, however there is little exchange of the Auckland Region Report 1999.
23 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004
Figure 2.3 Wave Environments in the Hauraki Gulf
24 Chapter 2: The Gulf and its Catchment
2.2.6 Climatic Features Box 2–1 The Gulf and its catchment is exposed to prevailing west and southwest winds Sedimentation from the Tasman Sea. Rainfall patterns An estuary is a dynamic environment in which many processes and and temperature are determined by sediment sources combine to influence the estuary’s characteristics. The principal source of fine sediment entering an estuary system is those prevailing winds, the catchment’s from eroded soils transported into the estuary by rivers and streams topography, its marine setting, and its from within the estuary catchment. These fine sediments then northerly latitude (relative to the rest of accumulate in the estuary. Current and wave action can remobilise sediments from the estuary bed and shunt them around and/or out New Zealand). This combination of factors of the estuary. An estuary may also fill with sand driven in from the gives rise to warm, humid summers and coast to form ebb and flood tide shoals at the mouth, and within the mild winters and, as a consequence, high middle reaches where fine sediment is winnowed from catchment- biotic growth rates. Rainfall is higher in derived sediment to leave coarser sand-sized particles. This is particularly chacrateristic of the tidal lagoons which are common the rain shadow of the Waitakere and around the Gulf. Coromandel Ranges. Coastal areas exhibit The ability of an estuary to mobilise sediment is determined by tidal, relatively small variations in temperature. current and wave conditions. These conditions are dependent largely on the physical characteristics of the estuary. 2.3 Marine Environments The rate of in-filling is dependent on the balance of sediment entering and exiting the system. An estuary will start to in-fill if the balance The combined affect of different physical, of sediment entering and exiting the estuary changes. For instance, an increase in soil erosion within a catchment due to de-vegetation climatic and biotic characteristics of the could cause in increase in sediment entering the estuary. Also, a Gulf serves to create various “types” of decrease in current velocity or wave energy caused by a breakwater environment within the Gulf. or causeway, which limits the amount of sediment mobilisation, could cause a decrease in sediment exiting the estuary. Both instances could Until recently there was no way of cause a higher sedimentation rate and a part or whole of an estuary classifying and mapping different types of could start to in-fill. As an estuary becomes more in-filled, catchment- environment within the marine area. derived sediment entering the estuary will be exported to adjacent coastal waters. However, the Ministry for the Environment has recently sponsored the The underlying physical type of an estuary plays an important role in determining how quickly it will be affected by in-filling. More development of a system known as Marine enclosed estuaries (e.g. Whangamata and Whangapoua on the Environments Classifi cation (MEC) (See Coromandel Paninsula) are more susceptible to in-filling, which can Box 2–2). result in channel filling and expansion of tidal flats. By comparison, MEC has been developed at a 1 km tidal or ‘fault-defined’ embayments such as Te Kouma Harbour are less susceptible to in-filling. resolution for New Zealand’s exclusive Although sedimentation is a natural event, it can be rapidly economic zone and adjacent waters. accelerated by changes in land use and vegetation cover. The actual However, the system has been piloted and potential effects of accelerated erosion and sediment deposition at a much more precise scale (a 250 m2 on the water quality, biodiversity, and natural character of the Gulf resolution) for the Gulf. make sedimentation a Strategic Issue for the Gulf. Accelerated sedimentation is discussed in more detail in Chapter 5. MEC has a number of applications. It is being developed primarily for its potential use in coastal and marine planning and reports will be able to make better use of conservation. However, MEC also has this tool. potential application for state of the Figure 2.4 maps 11 environment types environment reporting. It provides a (or “classes”) within the Gulf. MEC can be framework within which information can used to make much fi ner grain distinctions be organised and reported. and identify up to 290 different environment Unfortunately, the way information is types. Although the MEC classes are not currently collected, collated and referenced used to order the information that follows, within the Gulf has not permitted MEC to the eleven classes and their descriptions do be used in this way in this report. It is hoped provide a useful introduction to biophysical that subsequent state of the environment characteristics of the Gulf.
25 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004
Figure 2.4 Marine Environments Classification for the Gulf
26 Chapter 2: The Gulf and its Catchment
Description of Classes Box 2–2
Class 1 – Deeper water of the inner Gulf Marine Environments Classification Locations in this class have average depths of 22 Marine Environments Classification (MEC) is an ecosystem-based metres with moderate tidal fl ows, and low orbital spatial framework. This means that it is a system of classifying and mapping the marine environment in a way that subdivides the marine velocities. Freshwater fraction (a measure of the environment into units that have similar biological and environmental average freshwater infl uence) is only slightly elevated, characteristics. indicating that the class is not strongly infl uenced by It uses physical variables such as depth, slope, tidal current, freshwater freshwater inputs. The SST variables indicate that this concentration and temperature to classify areas in the belief that class is ‘inshore’ rather than oceanic in nature. ecosystem properties are broadly determined by biophysical processes and physical factors in the marine environment. Biologically Class 1 is highly heterogeneous. It is characterised by a range of benthic communities The application of MEC enables division of the marine environment into areas where ecosystem properties are different and where effects including biogenic reef patches, dominated by large of resource uses can be expected to differ. Conversely, it identifies suspension feeding bivalues, scallops, sponges, areas that are considered to be physically similar, and where the biotic byrozoans and red algae. It includes areas of important communities and effects of resource use could be expected to be similar. scallop habitat. At the southern tip of the class’s extent (the Firth of Thames) the sediments are predominantly In this way, MEC can act as a predictor of potential impacts of events and resource uses based on ecosystem characteristics and muddy sand/sandy mud. There are remnant green susceptibility. lipped mussel beds and highly productive sediments with burrowing crustacea and echinoderms. In the northern part of class 1’s extent (Pakiri Beach) the substrates are coarser, being strongly infl uenced by not strongly infl uenced by freshwater inputs despite extreme storm events, nevertheless biogenic reefs have its proximity to the shore. The character of Class 3 been observed in this area. This variation within Class comprises distinctively steep areas, which means that 1 is not captured at this level of the classifi cation. patchy reef rocky substrate is a dominant habitat, as well as relatively deep unconsolidated sand fl at and Class 2 – Shallow coastal water of the shell hash habitat. Because sediments in fl atter areas outer Gulf are unconsolidated and mobile, they are moved along Locations in Class 2 have average depths of eight by currents producing mega ripples, particularly metres with low tidal fl ows, but high orbital velocities. around headlands. The SST variables indicate that this Freshwater Fraction is only slightly elevated indicating class is strongly infl uenced by oceanic conditions. that the class is not strongly infl uenced by freshwater Local quantitative information on the communities inputs despite its proximity to the shore. The SST that occupy these habitats is rare. The rocky reef variables indicate that this class is strongly infl uenced communities are likely to be dominated by fi lter by the oceanic conditions of the outer gulf. feeding animals such as soft corals and sponges. These Biologically Class 2 has distinctive rocky reef sediments can be highly diverse, while the sand fl at habitats characterised by a mix of urchin barrens areas on the south and western side of Little Barrier or Ecklonia kelp forest. In areas with sedimentary comprise a major scallop fi shery. substrates, such as exposed beaches, substrates consist of well-sorted sand populated by a mosaic of shellfi sh Class 4 – Shallower offshore water of the outer Gulf beds that including different types of surf clam. There are signifi cant biological differences of assemblages Locations in Class 4 have average depths of 45 metres between locations within the class, for example with moderate tidal fl ows, very low orbital velocities between the east and west side of Great Barrier Island. and low freshwater fraction. Class 4 is characterised by Variation with respect to wave climate (note that the very low slopes that are generally covered by muddy standard deviation of the orbital velocity variable sediments. The class is relatively homogeneous with in this class is large) may contribute to signifi cant respect to slope, depth and orbital velocity. However, physical and biological variation within the class. tidal currents are more variable refl ecting some constrained tidal fl ows such as the Colville channel. Class 3 – Deeper coastal water of the The SST variables, and low freshwater fraction indicate outer Gulf that this class is dominated by oceanic conditions. Locations in Class 3 have average depths of 34 metres This class is a major snapper fi shing area, despite with moderate tidal fl ows and orbital velocities. this little is known of the seafl oor ecology. It is however Freshwater Fraction is low, indicating that the class is likely to have changes associated with trawling. Much 27 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004
of the class represents deep deposit feeder dominated characterised by some degradation of ecological soft-sediment communities dominated by heart values due to moderate turbidity and siltation. Areas urchins, burrowing crustaceans and brittle stars. of reef are common providing habitat for Ecklonia and In shallower and higher fl ow regions horse mussel shallow and sheltered water seaweeds. The class marks beds may have been common in the past. The south, a transition zone between the outer and inner Gulf, part of outer Firth is a major snapper spawning area with seaweeds such as Carpophyllum being replaced by supplying recruits to nursery areas closer to shore. increasing amounts of Ecklonia as conditions become more oceanic. There is some diversity of substrates in Class 5 – Deepest water of the outer Gulf fl atter areas due to large variation in orbital velocities. Class 5 is characterised by average depths of 85 metres The class includes locations representing a very wide with relatively homogeneous and very low tidal fl ows, range of sediment types, from fi ne muds to medium orbital velocities, slopes and freshwater fraction. The sands and thus contains a diverse and heterogeneous SST variables, and low freshwater fraction indicate array of benthic communities. In some locations that this class is dominated by oceanic conditions. orbital velocities are high and substrates are likely to There is little available biological information comprise 80% sand and exposed shell material. These other than fi sheries trawls (see Snelder et al. 2004 for locations are good habitat for biogenic reefs and are information on demersal fi sh assemblages). However, likely to be dominated by horse mussel and scallop these deep habitats include those at the shelf break beds, as well as sponges, ascidians and soft-corals. which, given the upwelling along the shelf break, are Rocks, cobbles and exposed shell from living and dead likely to be highly diverse. Soft-sediment habitats sedentary molluscs provides an important primary are probably dominated by fi ne sediments and deep settlement surface for encrusting organisms in these burrowing organisms as well as emergent epifauna sedimentary environments and good fl ow provides such as seawhips and seapens. These habitats have good feeding conditions for suspension feeders. probably been modifi ed by fi shing (see Cryer et al. 2002). Where rocky reefs are present, benthic Class 14 – Steep slopes in deep water of the outer Gulf islands communities are likely to comprise black corals, glass sponges, and diverse encrusting assemblages. Areas in Class 14 have average depths of 52 metres The class has good water quality, which is and slopes of 2.2 0.01m-1. Orbital velocities and tidal dominated by oceanic conditions. Pressure in this class fl ows are low. Freshwater inputs are low and the class is limited to fi shing (commercial and recreational). is oceanic in nature. There is intensive fi shing in this class (snapper, The class is characterised by rock substrates and trevally) and scampi in deeper waters as well as game pinnacles, which provides a varied habitat with high fi shing (marlin, kingfi sh). Sensitivities include the biodiversity. Black coral dominates deeper areas. A effects of drop line fi shing around deep reefs. key resource in this class is crayfi sh.
Class 11 – Shallow water of the inner Gulf Class 130 – Water of southern tip of Great Barrier Areas in Class 11 have average depths of 6.5 metres but the class covers areas from the shoreline to up There is not much known about this class, other than to 12 metres deep. Orbital velocities are high but that the area is likely to be distinctive due to very strong tidal fl ows are low. Freshwater inputs are moderate tidal currents (the highest tidal velocities in the Gulf). for the Gulf and tend be episodic although the class The biota is likely to be characterised by Ecklonia includes some relatively signifi cant rivers (e.g. Orewa, forests and fi lter feeding animal such as feather stars, Puhoi). The class is also characterised by relatively jewel anemones. Sediments are likely dominated by steep seabed slopes and includes rocky headlands megaripples. The pressures and sensitivities of this such as Whangaparaoa Peninsula. The class has high class are not well known. variability with respect to orbital velocities, slopes and freshwater fraction (see appended Table 1). The SST Class 205 - Sheltered shallow south-east bays of the inner Gulf variables indicate that this class is ‘inshore’ rather than oceanic in nature and the freshwater fraction indicates Locations in Class 205 have average depths of that freshwater inputs will signifi cantly infl uence fi ve metres with moderate tidal fl ows and low water quality. orbital velocities (although variability is high) The class is highly heterogeneous due in part to due to sheltered conditions. Freshwater fraction variation in substrates, and contains some diverse is moderate, indicating that the class is infl uenced and productive habitats. However, the class is also by freshwater inputs. The seabed within Class 3 is 28 Chapter 2: The Gulf and its Catchment
characteristically fl at and comprises heterogeneous be turbid as a result of fi ne sediment resuspension substrates, with patchy rocky reefs and areas with (moderate orbital velocities and shallow depth) and muddy sand substrates (except Firth of Thames fresh water infl ows. The seabed within Class 254 is where mud predominates). In areas with stronger characteristically fl at and comprises substrates that currents (e.g., Rangitoto and Waiheke channels) the transition from shelly to muddy moving higher up substrates are scoured with a predominance of surface the Firth. shell. The proximity of the class to urban area and Benthic assemblages are typical of soft bottom moderate freshwater infl uence means it is subject to communities and include small amphipods, mud sedimentation and contamination. A gradient in these crabs, polychaetes, cockles and wedge shells. The pressures exists from the coast where effects are often class provides nursery habitat for shark and snapper high to more open areas where sediment and water and habitat for rays and fl atfi sh. Benthic assemblages quality are high. provide important food resources for shorebirds and The class has a complex and heterogeneous array fl atfi sh. of habitats. The shallow reefs are characterised by Class 278 – Estuarine headwaters of the fringing seaweeds. In deeper soft-sediment areas Firth of Thames with exposed shell, soft corals are found growing on fragments. Death assemblages in some locations have Locations in Class 278 have average depths of scallop shells and green lip mussels possibly indicating 1.8 metres with moderate tidal fl ows and orbital these areas may have been subject to change from velocities. Freshwater fraction is very high (and siltation. In more sheltered areas mud communities higher than Class 254), indicating that the class dominate with intertidal fl ats providing important is dominated by freshwater inputs. Water in this food resources and roosting sites for shorebirds. class tends to be turbid as a result of bed stirring The class provides a signifi cant recreational snapper (moderate orbital velocities) and fresh water infl ows. fi shery. The seabed within Class 278 is characteristically fl at and comprises muddy substrates with some shell on Class 254 – Sheltered upper reaches of eastern beaches. the Firth of Thames The class is characterised by large areas of Locations in Class 254 have average depths of fi ve mangroves in the coastal fringes. Benthic assemblages metres with moderate tidal fl ows and orbital velocities. are typical soft bottom and similar but less diverse Freshwater fraction is high, indicating that the class than that represented by class 254. The class is a is highly infl uenced by freshwater inputs from the productive habitat for fl atfi sh (rays, fl ounder). agricultural hinterland. Water in this class tends to
29 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004
30 Chapter 3: Underlying Pressures on the Gulf Environment
Underlying Pressures on the 3Gulf Environment
As will be discussed in the following of population are also located in the chapters, the environment of the Gulf faces catchment, including Leigh, Warkworth, a variety of pressures. It is important that Snells Beach, Orewa, the Whangapararoa these pressures be identifi ed specifi cally Peninsula, Beachlands/Maraetai, Kaiaua, so that proper, targeted and effective Miranda, Thames, Paeroa, Waihi, Te Aroha, responses can be developed. Morrinsville, Waharoa, Matamata, Tirau, However, under-pinning many of these Coromandel, Colville, Whitianga, Tairua, specifi c pressures are changes in the nature Pauanui, Whangamata, part of Putaruru and shape of the society and economy that and the communities located on Waiheke surrounds, uses and relies upon the Gulf. and Great Barrier Islands. This chapter seeks to identify, at a broad level, some of those underlying changes. 3.2 Settlement and It does so, principally, to provide the Population Growth context within which the more specifi c pressures on the Gulf can be understood. The population of the Auckland and Waikato regions increased by 22.7% 3.1 Land Use and Land between 1991 and 2001. Population growth Use Change within the in the Waikato region was signifi cantly less Catchment than in Auckland (8.8% as opposed to 27.5%). The 2001 combined population Land use in the Gulf Catchment is very of these two regions was 1,574,626. diverse, and ranges from the intense urban The population of that part of development associated with the cities and the Auckland region within the Gulf ports of the Auckland Region, through Catchment increased 24% between 1991 small rural settlements and scattered coastal and 2001. The population growth in the development, to horticulture, dairying and Waikato part of the Gulf Catchment was cropping, plantation forests, and natural 2.5% over the same period. However, it is wetlands, sand dune, harbour and rocky notable that population change within the coastal habitats, and old-growth and Waikato portion of the Gulf Catchment regenerating coastal, kauri, and broadleaf- is variable. Population growth within the podocarp forest (refer Figure 3.1). Thames-Coromandel District increased by Much land use change within the past some 15.5% over the same 10 year period. 150 years can be ascribed to agricultural Whereas, the inland areas of Hauraki and urban development. Wetlands have Matamata-Piako recorded population been drained and forests cleared and decline. The net effect of all this is that converted to pasture. The continued rapid by 2001, the total population living in the urbanisation of Auckland’s catchments has Gulf Catchment was 955,250, up from been well documented elsewhere. 782,557 in 1991. Located in the catchment are North Even taking into account population Shore City, almost all of Auckland City decline in inland areas of Waikato, the (excluding only those southern areas overall population growth rate (1991- such as Blockhouse Bay and Onehunga, 2001) for the catchment was 18% – well that drain to Manukau Harbour), and above the national average for the period the eastern suburbs of Waitakere and of around 11%. Strong growth is forecast Manukau Cities. Many other small centres to continue. 31 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004
Figure 3.1 Land Use in the Gulf Catchment
32 Chapter 3: Underlying Pressures on the Gulf Environment
The combined population of the
Auckland and Waikato regions is forecast 2,500,000 to grow by 474,700 people (33%) to more 2,000,000 than 2 million people between 2001-2021. 1,500,000 The population decline in inland areas of 1,000,000
Hauraki and Matamata-Piako is forecast Population 500,000 to continue (-12 and -9% respectively). 0 Offsetting this, the population in those 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 parts of the Auckland region within Year the Gulf Catchment, is forecast to grow Gulf Catchment between 2006 and 2010 marginally faster Parts of Auckland and Waikato Regions outside of Gulf Catchment than for the region as a whole (15% as opposed to 14%)7. Growth in the Thames- Figure 3.2 Population Growth Coromandel District is also expected to exceed the regional average. This pattern refl ects a growing trend for urban and not only are there a lot more households coastal intensifi cation. around the Gulf and its hinterland, but Settlement of the Gulf Catchment is those households typically have more cars dominated by the Auckland metropolitan than was the norm in 1991. Although the area but there are many other coastal trend towards more vehicles per household settlements (see Figure 3.3). Several of is national, it is more pronounced in the these have expanded rapidly in recent years, Gulf and surrounding districts than it is notably the commuter and retirement for the nation as a whole. settlements of Orewa and Gulf Harbour Increasing wealth is manifest in many north of Auckland and the holiday towns other ways (including, notably, the demand of Whangamata and Whitianga on the for second or holiday homes). As will be Coromandel Penninsula. shown in the following chapters, this exerts pressure on the Gulf’s resources in a variety 3.3 Increasing Affluence and of ways. Consumption 3.4 Increasing Development Mean household incomes in the Gulf and Intensification Catchment have increased at a rate well above that of infl ation during the period Traditionally, the growth of New Zealand’s 1991 to 2001. During this period median urban centres in the post-war period incomes in the Waikato region genenerally has been characterised by low-intensity kept pace with national increases, posting a residential, commercial and industrial gain of around 30%. In Auckland, however, areas on the outskirts of cities. In more median incomes increased considerably recent years, the increasing cost of land more than the national average, growing and transport fuels, and the controls 34% between 1991 and 2001. Moreover, placed on peripheral urban development median incomes in Auckland increased by local authorities, has led to an increasing from just over 11% more than the national density of population and dwellings within median incomes in 1991, to 14% more existing urban centres, characterised by the than above the national median income by high rise apartments, terraced dwellings, 2001. and infi ll housing of Auckland City and Increasing affl uence has led to, amongst elsewhere. Nevertheless, peripheral urban other things, more and greater use of development (and associated earthworks motor vehicles. Between 1991 and 2001 and the creation of large expanses of hard the number of households in New Zealand surfacing) remains a strong characteristic with 2 or more cars rose 34.8%. In the of urban areas (particularly in Albany and Waikato region the growth was 36.2% over East Tamaki). 7 Note, all forecasts the same period and in the Auckland region Intensifi cation of population and land assume a medium the growth was almost 42%. Therefore, development is not confi ned to Auckland. growth scenario. 33 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004
Figure 3.3 Centres of Population in the Hauraki Gulf Catchment
34 Chapter 3: Underlying Pressures on the Gulf Environment
Figure 3.4a Percentage change in occupied dwellings 1991-2001
35 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004
Figure 3.4b Percentage change for occupied dwellings 1991-2001 for the Auckland Metropolitan area
36 Chapter 3: Underlying Pressures on the Gulf Environment
Residential Property Prices
350000
300000 Auckand Region and 250000 Coromandel Median Sale Pr ic e
200000 National Median Sale Price
150000
Median Value 100000 Linear (Auckand Region and Coromandel Median Sale Pr ic e) 50000 Linear (National Median Sale Pr ic e) 0 1 2 3 00 0 0 03 e c ne e u une 04 Dec 99 Jun Dec 00 J Dec 01 June 02 D June Dec 0 J
Half Year Ending
Figure 3.5 Land Values within the Auckland Region and Thames Coromandel District Source: Real Estate Institute of New Zealand (REINZ). Note: Residential property sales information is not collected in a way that allows the relevant Waikato sales data to be reported.
The Coromandel Peninsula has also Coromandel District. The growth in experienced signifi cant development as an residential property values in and around increasingly affl uent population demands the Gulf refl ects a well reported national second, holiday or retirement homes. trend. Intensifi cation also occurs in the rural Residential property prices in Auckland/ environment, as extensive land use gives Coromandel areas have increased from way to value added production systems. a median of $234,500 to $322,800 in just Demand for subdivision for rural lifestyle 5 years (a 37.6% gain from mid-1999 to development continues. mid-2004). In absolute terms, that is a This pattern of social and economic gain of $88,300 per residential property. change around the Gulf’s margin and in its Although the national median sale price hinterland is not new, but it as shown in has increased more in proportional terms Figures 3.4a and 3.4b, it continues to result (41%) over the same period, the absolute in signifi cant change in many parts of the gain outside of Auckland/Coromandel has
Gulf’s catchment and is particularly acute been just $69,375. 8 Witness the series of in sought after coastal areas. This means that, while in mid-1999 the articles on increasing median sale price in Auckland/Coromandel subdivision and development, section 3.5 Increasing Land Value was $65,000 more than the national prices, the loss of the median sale price, by 2004 that had risen ‘traditional bach’, and As indicated above, increasing affl uence to $84,000 above the national median. This capacity problems has been a driver of coastal development is refl ected in the trend lines indicated in associated with state highways and in the catchment. The demand for coastal Figure 3.5. wastewater treatment land is directly refl ected in the value This trend has placed considerable plants, in the New people pay for it. Figure 3.5 shows the pressure on housing affordability, lifestyle Zealand Herald during July 2004, under the signifi cant growth in median sale prices choices and the demand for further land byline Coromandel in the Auckland Region and the Thames development (and associated impacts)8. – The Big Squeeze
37 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004
38 Chapter 4: Environmental Management in the Gulf
Environmental Management 4in the Gulf
4.1 The Gulf and Integrated The Forum is tasked with preparing a Management list of strategic issues and priority actions, and with regularly reviewing both. It Many improvements have been made in is required to work with its constituent resource and environmental management parties to: in New Zealand over the past 20 years which • facilitate and encourage co-ordinated have a bearing on the Gulf. These include fi nancial planning the establishment of the Department of • obtain, share and monitor information Conservation, a major reform of local on the state of the environment government, the enactment of the RMA and • promote and advocate integrated the development of a quota management management system for fi sheries administered by the • encourage, share, and co-ordinate Ministry of Fisheries. and disseminate educational and Although improvements were made, promotional material. there are still enormous challenges in getting management integrated – to get 4.3 Administrative different agencies to work together and Boundaries of Local the environment managed as a whole Authority Members rather than in individual parts. These challenges are particularly important in The various constituent members of areas like the Gulf that are affected by a the Forum have different functions and variety of activities in a variety of locations different jurisdictional and administrative – spanning many different jurisdictions. boundaries. These boundaries bear little The Forum was established in 2000 relationship to the Gulf and its catchment to help promote integration in the way as a whole. This is one of the main the Gulf’s resources are managed by justifi cations for having a forum where all the agencies (and tangata whenua), to those whose actions affect the Gulf, can facilitate communication, co-operation, communicate and be encouraged to co- and co-ordination, and to recognise the ordinate and co-operate. relationship of tangata whenua with the Gulf.
4.2 The Hauraki Gulf Forum Box 4–1
As indicated in Chapter 2, the Forum Local Authority Members of the Forum draws on representation from three The following local authorities are members of the Forum: government departments (the Department • Auckland Regional Council (“ARC”) and Waikato Regional Council of Conservation, Ministry of Fisheries (“Environment Waikato”) and Ministry of Maori Affairs), six • Auckland, Manukau, North Shore and Waitakere City Councils representatives of the tangata whenua of • Franklin, Hauraki, Matamata-Piako, Rodney, Thames-Coromandel the Gulf (appointed by the Minister of and Waikato District Councils Conservation after consultation with the tangata whenua and the Minister of Maori Affairs), and twelve local authorities (see Box 4–1). 39 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004
Box 4–2 sustain the life-supporting capacity of the environment of the Gulf and its islands. Main environmental management statutes The Act recognises that the Gulf’s ability implemented by constituent parties to support life extends beyond soil, air, • The Resource Management Act 1991 (the RMA) requires local water and ecosystems to the needs and authorities to plan for and address the environmental effects of land use, subdivision and development, and to monitor the state well-being of people and communities, of the environment, and the effects of their management actions. including tangata whenua. It allocates a management role to the Minister of Conservation, in The Act provides for integrated conjunction with regional councils, where the coastal marine area is concerned. The effects of aquaculture are addressed under the management to occur in a number of ways. provisions of both the RMA and the Marine Farming Act 1971. First, through its effect on the application • The Fisheries Acts 1983 and 1996 allocate responsibility for the of other statutes. Second on the creation management of New Zealand’s marine fisheries to the Minister (and of the Marine Park. Third in Deeds of hence Ministry) for Fisheries. Recognition. • The Conservation Act 1987 gives powers to the Minister (and hence Department) of Conservation to create and manage 4.3.1 Relationship to Other Statutes conservation estate, including forest parks, and advocate for conservation. The Department also administers the Marine The Hauraki Gulf Marine Park Act Mammals Protection Act 1978 and the Wildlife Act 1953, among applies across 21 statutes. It requires other conservation-oriented statutes. local authorities to ensure that the policy • The Reserves Act 1977 gives local authorities and the Department statements and plans they prepare under of Conservation the power to create and manage publicly owned the RMA do not confl ict with its purpose reserves for the benefit of their communities. and management principles. The Act’s • The Marine Reserves Act 1971 gives public agencies the power to purpose and management principles initiate and manage marine reserves in New Zealand’s territorial waters. must also be given regard to by consent authorities, i.e., the local authorities and • Both the Historic Places Trust and local authorities have responsibilities under the Historic Places Act 1993, relating to the the Minister of Conservation acting in protection of archaeological sites and heritage buildings. consideration of applications for resource • The Biosecurity Act 1993 devolves responsibility for the consent under the RMA. management of pests and weeds to the Department of The Act gives its purpose and Conservation, local authorities, and private landowners management principles the status of a New Zealand coastal policy statement under the RMA. Finally, it requires that the conservation management strategies The jurisdictional boundaries of and plans prepared by the Department constituent members are shown in Figure of Conservation do not derogate from its 4.1 purpose and management principles. All the public agencies who are members of the Forum have specifi c statutory 4.3.2 Marine Park responsibilities under other legislation. The Marine Park protects important areas Tangata whenua exercise kaitiakitanga. with a lived-in, worked-in environment. The Forum itself has no specifi c authority Among other things, the purpose of the to manage the Gulf through regulatory or Marine Park is to protect in perpetuity other means. the Park’s natural and historic resources, The environmental management of including scenery, ecological systems and the Gulf is undertaken by the individual natural systems, for their intrinsic worth Forum members under a raft of different and for the benefi t, use, and enjoyment of statutes. The key environmental statutes the people and communities of the Gulf (and commensurate responsibilities) are and New Zealand. set out in Box 4–2. The Act provides for additional public However, the Hauraki Gulf Marine and private land to be included in the Park Act identifi es, as a matter of national Marine Park at any time (the latter with the importance, both the interrelationship consent of the owner, and where the land between the Gulf, its islands, and catchments, concerned is covenanted for protection). and the ability of that interrelationship to One area of private land on Waiheke Island
40 Chapter 4: Environmental Management in the Gulf
Legend Auckland Regional Council/ Environment Waikato Boundary Hauraki Gulf Catchment
Auckland City
Rodney District
North Shore City Auckland City Waitakere City Manukau City Thames-Coromandel District
Papakura District
Franklin District
Hauraki District
Waikato District
Matamata-Piako District
Waipa District
South Waikato District 0255012.5 Kilometers Rotorua 2 District "Cadastral information derived from Land Information New Zealand's Landonline Cadastral Database". CROWN COPYRIGHT RESERVED.
"Digital Elevation Model features derived by Environment Waikato. COPYRIGHT RESERVED."
Figure 4.1 Jurisdictional boundaries of constituent parties
41 The Hauraki Gulf State of the Environment Report 2004
has been included within the Marine Park since enactment. The Act also provides for taiapure-local fi sheries and mataitai reserves to be included in the Marine Park, with the consent of the tangata whenua.
4.3.3 Deeds of Recognition The Act provides for the Crown or local authorities to enter into deeds of recognition with tangata whenua, for the purpose of acknowledging any aspect of a relationship that tangata whenua may have with any land, foreshore or seabed in the Marine Park. The purpose of such deeds is to identify opportunities for contributions by tangata whenua to the management of a particular area by the Crown or local authorities.
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