first word(s)
African Arts at 50: Celebrating African Arts at 50 and Its Place in Africa Teaching African Art in the Face of Apartheid by Tobenna Okwuosa by Anitra Nettleton e rst copies of African Arts I saw were in Jean Borgatti’s o ce at In the rst issue of African Arts was published. In I rst University of Benin, Nigeria, during her – Fulbright tenure. enrolled at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg (Wits), en I was a graduate student in Painting. I was impressed by the sharp for a BA degree, majoring in English Literature, History of Art, and color and black-and-white photographs that give more life to the essays. Fine Art, in a class entirely of white students. is was eight years I got my rst two copies of African Arts (vol. , no. , July , and aer the English medium universities in South Africa had been closed vol. , no. , Winter ) as gis when I came to the Fowler Museum, to black students under the system of apartheid. Nationalist party UCLA, to give a talk on my artistic project at Worcester State College rule had, in , legislated this nal educational discrimination in (now Worcester State University), in Worcester, MA. I was at WSC for which black, white, “coloured,” and Indian people were separated three months as the rst recipient of the Philip L. Ravenhill Fellowship, into their own highly unequal educational systems. e mid-s administered by the Fowler Museum. In one of the two copies I got, nevertheless saw a generation of accomplished black artists (Sidney Philip Ravenhill wrote the First Word titled “ e Challenge of History.” Kumalo, Ezrom Legae, Dumile Feni, among many others) emerge Ravenhill, in this introductory essay, mourned the practice of exhibiting as powerful presences on the contemporary art scene. Despite the African arts without history, which according to him entrenched the lack of access to tertiary education for these black artists, they had notion of “otherness.” His conclusion was that “failing to deal with the acquired formal art training at the men’s recreation centre in Polly history of Africa, all too oen we fail to deal with its present” (Ravenhill Street (Johannesburg) (Miles ), as others such as Azaria Mbatha :). and Cyprian Shilakoe had done at the Evangelical Lutheran Church African Arts has the reputation of being “synonymous with the art school at Rorke’s Dri (Natal) (Hobbs and Rankin ). In study of African art” (Roberts :). I, more artist and critic than this environment, the appearance of the rst issues of African Arts historian, am greatly honored to have been asked to join the illustrious probably did not have a wide impact in South Africa, although, by the scholars who have written First Words or op-ed pieces for African early s, the journal’s art competition was a space through which Arts. Since , African Arts has presented , articles of various Louis Maqhubela, Tito Zungu, Dumile Feni, and Cyprian Shilakoe types and lengths, book reviews, and exhibition reviews. e were introduced to a wider international market (Anon. , ). journal itself came into existence about ten years aer the rst PhD Inclusion in these issues of short pieces on the winners provided in African art history was awarded to Roy Sieber, and the second to a beacon of recognition for those attempting to work against the Robert Farris ompson (Ross :). With the journal’s objective to overwhelming negation of African cultural achievement inherent in cover traditional and modern art and expressive culture of Africa and apartheid’s separatism. its diasporas, most Africanists have found it to be an important journal Under apartheid, objects made by African peoples were all placed in which to be published. Indeed, it was the rst journal devoted to in ethnographic museums, reecting the Euro-American hierarchies African expressive culture distinguished by full-color illustrations. Over of culture which apartheid strove to maintain. But while in Europe its years of existence, the journal has made available well-researched and the US the acknowledgement of the aesthetic value of African studies as well as insightful reviews of exhibitions and publications. objects allowed them to be appropriated into the category of “art,” Equally important, it provided dramatic illustrations covering a broad under apartheid ideology no such appropriation was possible in the spectrum of the arts and their context—singularly important in the pre- public domain. When contemporary black artists made paintings Internet age. or sculptures, they were classi ed in Afrikaans and at o cial Herbert Cole ( :) reveals that the initial idea that led to the institutions as “Bantoekuns” (Bantu-art) and thus placed on the same founding of African Arts by Paul Proehl came from Proehl’s “discussion footing as the supposedly “primitive” forms of historical African art. with the artist El Salahi on an airplane in or ‘.” Cole further e art-history syllabi of all the Fine Arts Departments in South states that “Both Proehl and John Povey, the rst editor, felt all arts African “white” universities were, at that time, entirely Eurocentric, and especially modern/contemporary ones deserve real play in their with some attention paid to white South African artists working new venture, so from the rst issue until , more than y recent within accepted European modernist modes (Nettleton ). In artists were featured, if only in fairly short articles” (Cole :). If the three years of my undergraduate degree and the subsequent two African Arts gave more attention to “traditional” African art aer the of Honors courses, I, like most other students in these privileged mid-s, it has evolved with the eld, rediscovering contemporary and exclusively white spaces, had absolutely no formal exposure to African art. Although initially adjudged “inauthentic” and “derivative,” any form of indigenous African art. Yet, in that predigital age, there contemporary African art has continued to increase in its production lurked in the periodicals section of the art and architecture library and attracts research interest, compelling John Povey to ask, aer the at Wits two issues of African Arts, at which hardly anyone ever Triennial, “What are we going to do about contemporary African
A N is Professor Emeritus, University of the Witwa- T O is a lecturer in the Department of Fine and Applied tersrand and Professor, University of Johannesburg. Anitra.Nettleton@ Arts at the Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa, Nigeria. wits.ac.za [email protected]
VOL. 50, NO. 1 SPRING 2017 african arts Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/AFAR_a_00324 by guest on 28 September 2021 | looked. ese, the issues of and , were to be my introduction art? ... [T]he issue ... will not go away. Why does the subject appear so to a world of images, aesthetics and knowledge unavailable elsewhere resistant, or equally accurate, why are we so resistant to the subject?” in Johannesburg, except, surprisingly, the Michaelis Art Library in He goes on: “We don’t like modern African art because it doesn’t t Johannesburg’s Public Library, which had a complete run of volumes within our comfortable disciplinary boundaries—in fact it challenges from onwards. Starting an MA (by dissertation) on African art, them at the profoundest levels” (Povey , quoted in Stanley I took out a personal subscription in , but the Wits library only :). In Janet Stanley’s opinion, “Nineteen Eighty-Nine marked a started subscribing from . Prior to , there were no academics watershed year for modern African art studies” (Stanley :). in South Africa who had specialized in this area, so African Arts was to In its years of existence, African Arts has shown su cient be a fundamental resource for me. at I was in a position of enormous dynamism and growth and has focused on dierent subjects such as advantage within the wider educational landscape of South Africa, the traditional masks, sculptures, ceramics, textiles, architectures, having access to libraries in which these journals were housed and body arts, festivals, ephemeral arts, contemporary arts, authorship, the means to buy my own subscription, was something of which I was and authenticity. African Arts appeals to a wide spectrum of constantly aware. readers due to its dual nature as journal and magazine with content I introduced African art courses at Wits in , rst at postgraduate including scholarly articles, popular arts, exhibition reviews, and level, but then increasingly as part of the undergraduate curriculum. advertisements. e periodic self-evaluation and sending out of For many years, Wits was the only South African university with an questionnaires are strategies the editors have used in improving the Art History syllabus that included African art. While we were able journal. Dialogue and First Word have been used to bring diverse to import books for the library, the availability of the many articles views to the publication. In today’s supposedly globalized world, in based in deep and sustained eld-research in the pages of African Arts which the “politics of exclusion” that privileges artists and scholars was to be key to our ability to teach. Some black artists and scholars who live in the West over those who live in Africa continues to excluded from our libraries had access to African Arts through the exist, giving someone who is based on the continent of Africa an United States Information Service in Johannesburg or through private opportunity to write the First Word shows a commitment towards individuals’ libraries. e journal’s articles provided not only images a greater representation. As an artist and scholar based in Nigeria, and information, but also models for methodological approaches for I’m happy to have been asked to write the First Word of the th use in our own research. But the focus of the journal also endorsed the anniversary issue, to show the relevance of the journal in Africa. view that African art was largely con ned to sculpture of one kind or Returning to Ravenhill’s First Word: rough his essay, I began another, from west or central Africa, both of which views we quickly to understand some issues concerning African arts in the West and came to dispute. the importance of history. Ravenhill’s First Word is in a special issue e many African Arts articles that dealt with museum collections on Portraiture in Africa (Part I), guest edited by Jean Borgatti and were also important in this history. Prior to there were no in which Marla Berns published an article. ese two individuals collections of artworks from Africa easily available for public viewing played dierent roles in my coming to the US: Jean gave me the call in South Africa. rough the s and s, one or two collectors for the Ravenhill Fellowship application, and Marla was and is still acquired canonical pieces of historical African art and organized the director of the Fowler Museum that administered the fellowship. some exhibitions, many of which were staged at public museums not Aer returning to Nigeria in , I received a teaching appointment accessible to black viewers. Collections of South African historical in a university, and these two issues of African Arts served as my African art were con ned to ethnological museums across the country guide in writing academic articles. I once used Dana Rush’s article and were never displayed as “art,” because “art” in o cial apartheid “Contemporary Vodun Arts of Ouidah, Benin” (vol. , no. , winter thinking was something made by Europeans (Nettleton ). One of ), to prove to a senior colleague who said that it is wrong to use these museums was housed in the Anthropology Department of Wits the rst person singular in an academic essay, that it is allowed. But and in its vitrines and stores was hidden William Burton’s collection for the authoritative nature of African Arts, the disagreement would of Luba and Songye materials from the s, alongside many other have continued. treasures (Leibhammer and Rankin-Smith ). As the “authentic” In , I was one of the scholars, writers, and artists based in pieces advertised for sale in African Arts were from west and central Africa who received a Getty Foundation/ACASA Travel Grant for the Africa, the Burton collection was to provide us with an “authentic” Fieenth Triennial Symposium held at the University of California, base. But this categorical exclusivity also prompted us to value, collect, Los Angeles. During the Triennial, the James S. Coleman African and display objects made by South African makers in the same space Studies Center, publisher of African Arts, gave away back issues to and to the same degree as contemporary works classed as “art” within those who came from Africa, and I bene tted from that generosity. the western episteme. e Wits Art Museum, funded by the Standard With issues of African Arts now on my bookshelf, I have more art Bank of South Africa, not only established a collection of historical journals than my university library and many other university/college African art, but also expanded an understanding of what of “African libraries in Nigeria. is is a disturbing reality, even though African art” comprised through the inclusion of beadwork, cloth, ceramics, and Arts is available on JSTOR digital archive, and scholars, researchers, contemporary arts (Nettleton , ). and students in Africa are happier for it—should they actually be Yet there were some problematic issues that threaded through our able to access the journal. is is more easily said than done in many endeavors to put African art on the academic map as a legitimate area parts of sub-Saharan Africa, and certainly Nigeria, where Internet of study, and many of these are still unresolved today. Our students connections are unreliable and one cannot remotely access digital were, until the mid-s, all white, and they were reading in the pages data bases, but must physically visit the library during the hours when of African Arts and books acquired over the years a view of African art/ it is open. Professor Borgatti has commented that at the University material culture that was researched and told almost exclusively by of Benin’s Ekenwan Campus, the location of the Fine and Applied white researchers. It was a view that also largely excluded South Africa, Arts Department, the university-provided Internet connection has unwittingly playing into apartheid ideology. We all know the reasons for been sporadic at best, and the data bases are accessible only at the this; some of us will acknowledge the degree to which it reected power main campus library. She frequently resorted to accessing JSTOR via relations in the supposedly postcolonial period, but it is something which, American universities with which she was a liated, using a personal as I look back on the forty- ve years I have spent researching African art modem, and downloading articles needed by students. It should be in South Africa, has been increasingly troubling. noted that one of the few remote access possibilities is through the In the rst seven years of my teaching of African art at Wits, from American Embassy’s e-Library. (To register for an e-Library account
african arts SPRING 2017 VOL. 50, NO. 1 Downloaded from| http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/AFAR_a_00324 by guest on 28 September 2021 to , there were no formal classes in which black students could that gives you access to JSTOR, US lms, and other resources, go to engage in this area. rough the s to the mid-s I conducted tinyurl.com/ircregistration and follow the directions.) Anyone with a informal, invited classes on African sculptural traditions at centers tertiary degree or studying for one can register. We should lobby for a like FUBA, FUNDA, the Open School, the Africa Centre, and the full run of African Arts in the license they maintain! Johannesburg Art Foundation where black students were able to enroll. Going through private, public and institutional libraries in Africa, Until , few of the students at these classes would ever have access to a signi cant number of issues of African Arts can be found, thanks the libraries that housed African Arts, and their only encounters with to the generosity of mostly American individuals and institutions. the journal might have been at the workshops to which I took copies In her evaluation of the journal, Peju Layiwola, a scholar and artist for them to look through. e extraordinary images in the journal who lives and works in Nigeria, who also bene tted from the James were oen inspirational for most black students, especially those S. Coleman African Studies Center’s giveaway of back issues at the who were admitted to Wits in the late s, as was the experience Fieenth Triennial, said: “I have found the African Arts journal a of seeing African art being taken seriously and accorded respect. Yet great resource: rst as a graduate student between – and there was always a sense of discomfort in these situations, prompted much later, cited it as a reference material for my students of art by ambivalence. Some students challenged the right of white scholars history. However, I nd there is a near absence of writings of scholars to present this material at all; their concern was not only that much of based on the African continent in the journal. In y years, I would the art under discussion was originally part of rituals, but that people say that the journal has fared well but more needs to be done to from outside the culture could not fully understand their signi cance. correct this imbalance.” en the pertinent question is: Could the Others, however, found the material and the ways in which it was “near absence of writings of scholars based on the African continent presented a rmative of African cultural concepts and inspirational for in the journal” be a conscious act of exclusion? I don’t think so. their own artistic production. Rather, I have reasons to believe that the “imbalance”—dominance of In recent months the stakes relating to who has the right to speak articles by Western scholars and a handful of African scholars in the about African art have been raised exponentially by a vociferous group diaspora—is a reection of the ratio of submissions made (more from of young black scholars. eir view is that African heritage has been scholars in America and Europe, and a few from scholars in Africa). misappropriated by white academics under a system of colonial control. e strong peer-review is also another factor that whittles down the Alongside their demands that the visible monuments of colonial and few submissions from Africa. In spite of that, African Arts readers apartheid domination be removed, they want their voices to be heard desire “to see more articles and discussions by native Africans, not in producing the knowledge that de nes African histories and art. outsiders” (Futa : ). African Arts has, since its inception during the dark days of apartheid, As the journal enters its ieth year, the editors have to nd through the dawn of our democracy, to the postcolonial and global ways to get more African scholars based on the continent to make present, shied in its focus and its scope, and now hopefully it will submissions; and I believe that with more submissions from Africa, provide a platform for many more African voices to be heard. more will be published. And by publishing more articles by African scholars on the continent, people will see that African Arts is not Notes just a journal about African art by “outsiders” but a journal in which “insiders” have a strong voice. Nomusa Makhubu, a scholar and artist
African Arts (ISSN 0001-9933 print, 1937-2108 online) is african arts consortium published quarterly by the University of California, Los Ange- D E les, CA 90095-1310, in spring, summer, autumn, and winter. • UCLA Sidney Littlefield Kasfir For editorial information and advertising rates, write African Arts, The J.S. Coleman African Studies Center, University • Rhodes University B R E of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1310. Phone: 310-825- Shannen Hill 1218. Fax: 310-206-4746. Email: afriartsedit@international. • University of Florida E R E, N A ucla.edu (editorial); [email protected] Elizabeth Perrill (operations). The opinions of contributors and advertisers are not necessarily those of African Arts. • University of North Carolina E R E, G Subscription information: African Arts is distributed by The at Chapel Hill Dunja Hersak MIT Press, Cambridge, MA 02142. Subscription and address F /V E changes should be addressed to MIT Press Journals, One Robert Cancel Rogers Street, Cambridge, MA 02142-1209. Phone: 617- 253-2889, US and Canada 800-207-8354. Fax: 617-577-1315. P E E Email: [email protected]. For fastest service and Christraud M. Geary more information, subscribe online using our secure server at http://mitpressjournals.org/aa. Subscription rates: print and electronic, Individuals $94.00, Students/retirees $54.00, Institutions $216.00; electronic only, Individuals $87.00, Students/retirees $43, Institutions $187.00. Canadi- Rowland Abiodun ans add 5% GST. Outside the U.S. and Canada add $23.00 UCLA Mary Jo Arnoldi for postage and handling for print edition. Individual JSTOR Kathleen Bickford Berzock Access Fee: $25 for Volumes 1 – 43 online from JSTOR Marla C. Berns Suzanne Preston Blier Prices subject to change without notice. Patrick A. Polk Elisabeth L. Cameron Single issues: Individuals $23.00; institutions $51.00. Allen F. Roberts Canadians add 5% GST. Outside the U.S. and Canada add Christa Clarke Mary Nooter Roberts $6.00 per issue for postage and handling. Prices subject to Henry John Drewal change without notice. William Hart POSTMASTER: Send address changes to African Arts, RHODES UNIVERSITY Bennetta Jules-Rosette MIT Press Journals, One Rogers Street, Cambridge, MA Ruth Simbao 02142-1209. Periodicals postage paid at Boston, MA and at Christine Mullen Kreamer additional post offices. Alisa LaGamma Permission to photocopy articles for internal or personal UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA Constantine Petridis use is granted by the copyright owner for users registered John Picton with the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC), Transactional Susan Cooksey Reporting Service, provided that the per copy fee of $10 Rebecca M. Nagy Doran H. Ross per article is paid directly to the CCC, 222 Rosewood Drive, Fiona Mc Laughlin Dana Rush Danvers, MA 02193 (fee code: ISSN 0001-9933). Address Raymond A. Silverman all other inquiries to the Subsidiary Rights Manager, Robin Poynor MIT Press Journals, One Rogers Street, Cambridge, MA MacKenzie Moon Ryan Robert Farris Thompson 02142-1209. Phone: 617-253-2864. Fax: 617-259-5028. Email: Kenji Yoshida [email protected]. UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA CHAPEL HILL African Arts is abstracted and/or indexed in IBZ: Interna- Carol Magee tional Bibliography of Periodical Literature; SCOPUS; MLA David G. Pier Leslie Ellen Jones International Bibliography Victoria L. Rovine © 2017 by the Regents of the University of California. Lisa Homann African Arts Journal Consortium Eva P. Howard Printed in Hong Kong.
african arts SPRING 2017 VOL. 50, NO. 1 Downloaded from| http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/AFAR_a_00324 by guest on 28 September 2021 See Nettleton ( ) for a discussion of how this impacted on art education who lives and works in South Africa, is one of the few “insiders” whose in universities in South Africa. articles have been published in the journal. She said: “African Arts has e term “coloured” was, and still is, used in o cial South African parlance been bene cial for both my research and teaching. It has been a useful to denote persons of mixed race. See the essays in Carman ( ) and Van Robbroeck ( ) for a history of resource. Classic articles by scholars such as Robert Farris ompson, some of these artists. Rowland Abiodun, Herbert M. Cole, Sidney Kas r, Henry John Drewal, Coincidentally was also the year in which Walter Battiss published an Donald Cosentino, Chika Okeke-Agulu, Ikem Stanley Okoye, and many article in African Arts on the Rorke’s Dri Centre (Battiss ). others have informed my teaching and research. ere are very few For example, the collector and dealer Vittorino Meneghelli had a library of journals like it. I recommend it to my students oen.” In conclusion, African art books and a subscription to the journal, and he allowed artists like African Arts is an authoritative journal and its relevance to scholars Lucky Sibiya to use this library. In the period in question Elizabeth Schneider, Sandra Klopper, and I all and students in Africa cannot be overemphasized. e journal surely completed PhD degrees on historical/modern arts among siNdebele-, isiZulu-, occupies a place of pride in Africa. and tshiVenda-speaking peoples respectively. Catherine Vogel, Hazel Friedman, and Dian Levy completed MA dissertations on sePedi-, seTswana- (Ntwane), and Notes siNdebele- speaking peoples’ arts. Jane Duncan obtained an MA on contemporary Sylvester Okwunodu Ogbechie ( ) queries Okwui Enwezor’s practice of artists working in Limpopo. All graduated from Wits. using mostly African Diaspora artists in his de nition of contemporary African arts Some South African museums, like Iziko’s South African National Gallery, through the mega-exhibitions he has curated. e same issue of exclusion that aects the Natal Museum in Pietermaritzburg, or the National Culture History Museum artists living and working on the African continent is raised by Rikki Wemega- in Pretoria, had holdings of west and central African objects, but these were never Kwawu ( ). e practice or politics of exclusion is implied in Peju Layiwola’s displayed. In the Wits Art Galleries started a collection of African “art” as statement: “I nd there is a near absence of writings of scholars based on the African de ned in places such as the pages of African Arts. As Wits was open to black continent in the journal” (personal communication, June , ). visitors, anyone could access displays of this collection. See Klopper ( ) for a Jean Borgatti, personal communication, July , . critical account of collecting African Art in South Africa. Peju Layiwola, personal communication, June , . Among these were e Pretoria Art Museum and the Art Museum at the Nomusa Makhubu, personal communication, June , . University of Stellenbosch (Nettleton ). at this was still the case in the mid s is reected in Oguibe’s () References cited review of the book Africa; Art of a Continent that accompanied the Africa Cole, Herbert M. . “Forty Years of African Arts.” African Arts ():, , . ‘ Festival in London. It is also borne out by the overwhelming whiteness of Futa, Amy E. . “First Word.” African Arts ():, , , , , . presenters at ACASA triennial symposia over the years. omas Matthews (, ) published two articles in African Arts on Ogbechie, Sylvester Okwunodu. . “ e Curator as Culture Broker: A Critique of mural painting in South Africa. ese were, signi cantly, the only articles on the Curatorial Regime of Okwui Enwezor in the Discourse of Contemporary African South African traditional arts in the journal prior to , when a special issue Art.” http://aachronym.blogspot.com.ng/ //curator-as-culture-broker-critique- with South African arts as a central focus was published (Nettleton and Vogel of.html, accessed June , . ). Here the emphasis was still largely on two-dimensional forms. e idea Stanley, Janet L. . “Capturing the Spirit: e Electronic Library of Nigerian that South Africa lacked a sculptural tradition was embedded in almost every Art.” In Ezumeezu: Essays on Nigerian Art and Architecture: A Festschri in Honour general book on African art published between and , because much of the of Demas Nwoko, ed. Obiora Udechukwu and Chika Okeke-Agulu, pp. –. sculpture produced in the region was primarily functional (Nettleton ). Glassboro, NJ: Goldline & Jacobs. ese are oen students aligned with the Rhodesmustfall and feesmustfall movements, but also include young academics who have formed associations like Ravenhill, Philip L. . “First Word: e Challenge of History.” African Arts the Black Mark Collective (https://blackmarkcollective.wordpress.com). I have ():,, . been a direct target of the latter’s critique. Roberts, Mary (Polly) Nooter. . “First Word: New Directions in African Art(s).” African Arts ():, , , . http://www.jstor.org/stable/ , accessed June , References cited . Anon. . “ Prizewinners.” African Arts ( ):–. Ross, Doran H. . “First Word: African Arts’ Silver Anniversary.” African Arts ______. . “ Prizewinners.” African Arts ( ):–. ():, . Battiss, Walter. . “ELC Art and Cra Centre at Rorke’s Dri.” African Arts Wemega-Kwawu, Rikki. . “ e Politics of Exclusion.” http://www.mtls.ca/issue/ ():– . writings/essay/rikki-wemega-kwawu/, accessed November , . Carman, Jillian (ed). . e Visual Century: South African Art in Context, – . Vol. , – . Johannesburg: Wits University Press. Hobbs, Phillipa, and Rankin, Elizabeth. . Rorke’s Dri: Empowering Prints. Johannesburg: Juta and Co. Headrests. Johannesburg: Wits University Press. Klopper, Sandra. . “South Africa’s Culture of Collecting: e Uno cial ______. . “Creating Heritage, Manipulating Tradition: Art and Material History.” African Arts ():– , –. Culture in South Africa’s Rainbow Nation.” In Preserving the Cultural Heritage of Leibhammer, Nessa, and Fiona Rankin-Smith (eds). . e Collection of W.F.P. Africa: Crisis or Renaissance? ed. Kenji Yoshida and John Mack, pp. –. London: Burton: Of Course You Would not Want a Canoe.... Johannesburg: University of the James Currey and Pretoria: UNISA Press. Witwatersrand Art Galleries. ______. “ e Standard Bank Collection of African Art: A Heritage Collection Matthews, omas. . “Mural Painting in South Africa.” African Arts ( ): –. in the Making.” In Signature Pieces: e Standard Bank Corporate Art Collection, ed. ______. . “A Xhosa Mural.” African Arts ():–. Julia Charlton, pp. –. Johannesburg: e Standard Bank. Miles, Elza. . Polly Street: e Story of an Art Centre. Johannesburg: e ______. ( ) “Making a Market for African Art in Johannesburg in the s.” Ampersand Foundation. In e Challenge of the Object: rd Congress of the International Committee of the History of Art (CIHA). Part /Section , “Cultural Clearings: e Object Transformed Nettleton, Anitra. . “.... In What Degree ey Are Possessed of Ornamental by the Market,” pp. –. Nuremberg: Redaktion. Taste: A History of the Writing on Black Art in South Africa.” In African Art in Southern Africa: Tradition to Township, ed. A. Nettleton and W.D. Hammond Nettleton, Anitra, and Catherine Vogel. . “ e Arts of Southern Africa.” African Tooke, pp. – . Johannesburg: Ad Donker. Arts (): –. ______. . “Shaking o the Shackles: From Apartheid to African Renaissance Oguibe, Olu. . “Africa: Art of a Continent” [Exhibition review]. African Arts in Art History Syllabi.” In Compression vs Expression: Containing and Explaining (): , –. the World’s Art, ed. J. Onians, pp. –. New Haven, CT: Stirling and Francine Van Robbroeck, Lize (ed). . e Visual Century: South African Art in Context. Vol. Clark Institute & Yale University Press. , – . Johannesburg: Wits University Press ______. . African Dream Machines: Style, Identity and Meaning of African
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