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Exile in the Poetry of Johannes Bobrowski and Alfonsas Nyka-Niliū N As

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Exile in the Poetry of Johannes Bobrowski and Alfonsas Nyka-Niliū N As BETWEEN ARCADIA AND INFERNO - EXILE IN THE POETRY OF JOHANNES BOBROWSKI AND ALFONSAS NYKA-NILIŪ N AS SUMMARY This study deals with the theme of exile in the lyrical work of two Central European poets of the second half of the 20th century: a German, Johan- nes Bobrowski (1917-1965) and a Lithuanian, Alfonsas Nyka-Niliūnas (b.1919). The goal of the investigation is to reveal how the event of exile is represented in the poetry of two authors who belong to different na- tional literatures and to give an analytical and exhaustive description of literary exile. Exile - an involuntary departure of a person or a group of persons from a native place - is one of the oldest phenomena of human exist- ence. It acquires major dimensions in the modern age and, accordingly, in modern literature. Exile seems to play the most significant role in the гол century literatures of Central Europe which in certain periods could develop without restriction only in foreign countries. In the last decades exile and emigration acted as a stimulus not only to the appearance of literary creations but also of theoretical concepts (e.g. postcolonial literary theory, Deleuze/Guattari philosophy of nomadismus). This study is the first in-depth research of Bobrowski where he is treated as a representative of exile literature. Many interpreters have ob- served that exile is an important theme of his lyrics, but so far there was no study devoted specifically to this subject. Although literature written by exiles constitutes an important part of modern Lithuanian literature, there were only a few attempts to deal with the exile literature on a theoretical level. In the case of Niliūnas, too, a study which would encompass his entire lyrical opus does not exist. Furthermore, his poetry which expresses the condition of exile most pro- foundly in Lithuanian literature has never been considered in the transna- tional context and approached from a comparative perspective. This research was inspired by several authors and theoretical schools. First of all, it is the tradition of hermeneutics, as represented by the works of Hans-Georg Gadamer, Peter Szondi, and George Steiner. Other thought-provoking impulses came from cultural semiotics (Jury Lotman) and discourse analysis (Dominique Maingueneau). The ques- tions raised in the study were also influenced by two thinkers of history, society and ethics - Walter Benjamin and Emmanuel Levinas (both of whom experienced exile as well). The first chapter of the study Many-faced exile deals with the first textually recorded cases of exile and distinguishes two types of exile nar- rative: communal and individual. The first type is best represented by the history of the Jewish nation, the second - by the exile of the Roman poet Ovid. The story of Ovid is exemplary due to the political circumstances of his exile as well: deported from Rome by the orders of the emperor, he remained his subject even in exile. Such examples of imperial exile one finds in the European history up to the present day, especially in the Rus- sian Empire and the Soviet Union. But in the modern age one is more frequently exiled beyond the borders of the country. Moreover, one departs from it not voluntarily, but at the same time not by the act of force of the authorities. Such a transiinpe- пл/form of exile begins to prevail from the French Revolution onwards. For a person exiled to Western metropolises exile turns into an encounter with a different cultural environment, with modernity. In the zoth century departure from the native country acquires even more varied forms: besides political exile there appears economic orprofes- sionalemigration, diaspora communities grow in significance, and the term inner emigration comes into use. In the study I discuss points of resemblance between exile and adjacent phenomena. Every emigre can experience and describe his/her situation as exile. Thus works of writers, who from a bio- graphical point of view are voluntary emigres, can be treated as belonging to exile literature (for example, James Joyce). On the other hand, in the imagination of emigres it is not the images of the loss of the native place but .rather, images of the new place and the new identity that prevail (as in the writings of some American expatriate writers of the early 2.0th century, for example, T. S. Eliot). Inner emigration (In some European languages - inner exile) means the opposition of the writer living in a totalitarian regime to government policies, which finds expression in his/her withdrawal from an official literary life. An important feature of the literature of inner exile is the Aesopic language, an allegorical technique of encrypting the forbid- den theme (which can be of political, moral, historical or religious nature) in the image, and this encryption is recognized and valued only in a given sociopolitical environment. I argue that both the term "inner emigration" and the kind of literature denoted by it can be properly understood only against the background of the more varied and more ancient phenomena of the "real" literature of exile. The literature of diaspora can be defined as the one written by the authors who have accepted the culture of their adopted country as primary, and in this context they re-imagine aspects of their identity which involve their native country or that of their an- cestors. A telling (though not exclusive) indicator of diaspora literature is the language used: for example, one could attribute the work of Antanas Šileika or Raymond Philip who write in English but on Lithuanian top- ics to the Lithuanian diaspora literature of North America. In a linguistic and thematic respect diaspora literature marks the end of exile literature. A recent development similar to diaspora literature is postcolonial literary movement which adheres to the principle of hybridity. Postwar Lithuanian emigration is in many ways paradigmatic in the modern history of exile. The exodus of the intelligentsia to the West '97 before the approaching Soviet Army is the most important wave of mass emigration in Lithuania in the 20th century. Its impact on moderniza- tion of literature and culture is universally acknowledged. This wave of exile carried along with it Alfonsas Nyka-Niliūnas, a poet, critic and translator, who departed for West Germany in 1944 and for the United States in 1949. In Germany the most important period of exile is dated from 1933 to 1945, the years of Nazi dictatorship. For a long time this period was considered to be the German literature of exile. However, this approach tended to ignore authors of the postwar exile (including Nelly Sachs, Erich Fried, Michael Hamburger, Peter Weiss, Wolfgang Hildesheimer, and Paul Celan) who also made a significant impact on German literature. In this study the poet and prose writer Johannes Bobrowski is treated as belonging to the postwar German exile literature. Born and raised in Eastern Prussia, a soldier in World War II, after the war Bobrowski lived in East Berlin until his early death. The exile Bobrowski did not change his linguistic and, partly, cultural environment, thus his exile acquires a milder form, which in the 20th century was most common in the Spanish- speaking countries (e.g. Spanish Republican exiles in Mexico). Yet Ger- man literary critics, albeit noting the importance of the exile theme in his poetry, were reluctant to classify him as an exile. The main reason for this was the moral climate of postwar Germany, where the loss of Eastern ter- ritories and the deportation of their German inhabitants were considered to be a retribution for waging the atrocious war. Only in the last decades has the situation changed, and the interest in the German past in Eastern Europe has surfaced again, albeit coupled with the recognition that what has happened is irreversible. The example of Bobrowski shows that when defining the literature of exile the crucial element is not the sociocultural context but the representation of exile as such in the literary texts. There is one more question to be raised: can Bobrowski, who lived in totalitarian •98 East Germany, be called an author of inner emigration? I claim that in his short literary career Bobrowski kept a cautious distance from the ideology of the GDR, but did not abstain and was not banned from participating in the official literary life. There he was paradoxically facilitated by his great exilic theme. In the theory of literature the primary focus lies on the negative aspects of exile. Exile is characterized as rupture, shock, or trauma. Indeed, the texts of exile contain not only a number of testimonies of this negative experience but show marks of its impact on conceptual and formal levels as well. However, if the sense of loss is too acute it can affect the quality of writing, turning it solely into a document of individual therapy. Such a state (which Thomas Mann called a "heart asthma of exile") is a permanent companion of exile, and the creative literature of exile comes into being by struggling with it. If a writer overcomes the initial challenge, his/her texts can acquire a new quality. ~Withdrawal-And-Return is the term of the cultural historian Arnold Toynbee used to denote a situation when in order to create a new order, the artist has to break away from society. Dominique Maingueneau speaks about the paratopy of a writer, i.e., his/her inherently ambivalent relations with social and literary institutions. Exile can be seen as a radical form of paratopy. When the habitual sociocultural institutions disappear, the representation of the "paratopical situation" in the texts written be- comes the only tie which connects the writer with the "literary field" of his/her native country.
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