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Home , Friedrich Gorenstein, Sandra Magnus

THE UNIVERSITY OF NICOSIA

VISIONS OF SPACE HABITATION: FROM FICTION TO REALITY

A THESIS SUBMITED TO

THE FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE

FOR THE PROFESSIONAL DIPLOMA

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

SUPERVISORS

PROFESSOR SOLON XENOPOULOS

PROFESSOR NIKOLAS PATSAVOS

FARHAD PAKAN

NICOSIA

JANUARY 2012

Contents

Acknowledgment 3

Abstract 4

Exhibits 5

Abbreviations and acronyms 7

1 Introduction 8

2 Visions of Space Exploration in the Films of Tarkovski and Kubrick 11

3 Life at the Extremes 23

3.1 Habitability and Life on Earth 23

3.1.1 The Halley VI Antarctic Research Centre 25

3.1.2 The Aquarius Underwater Laboratory 27

3.2 Offworld Human Settlements 31

3.2.1 The International Space Station (ISS) 33

3.2.2 The City as a Spaceship (CAAS) 38

4 Formation of a new Settlement 44

4.1 Toward the Earth’s Eight Continent 45

4.1.1 Early Attempts 46

4.1.2 HABOT BASE Architecture 52

4.2 Lunar Site Design 58

4.2.1 Perception of Lunar Urbanity 67

4.2.2 Learning from the Romans 70

5 Conclusion 75

References 78

Acknowledgments

I wish to thank Prof. Xenopoulos, Prof. Patsavos and Prof. Menikou for helping me to outline and structure this paper and for their assistance with grammar and proper citation.

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to provide an analytic observation through the visions of space habitation. It will study how the adventurous way of thinking and imagination of the curious human about the future of its life within the extraterrestrial environment, became a stepping stone for studying and challenging of these extreme environments and the initiation of a brave new era in the history of humanity. An era which rose up from the courageous imagination of man and it is moving forward to the habitation of the outer planets and the whole universe. This is the story of a spacefaring civilization.

Exhibits

1 Dawn of the space age 8

2 ‘Huntsville Times’ newspapers cover in April 12, 1961, reporting Yuri Gagarin

journey through space 9

3 Kris Kelvin’s “Island of Memory” home 13

4 Encounters with a mysterious Black monolith shape human history 14

5 The match‐cut spanning four million years 15

6 The Star‐Child into which Dr. Bowman is transformed, looking at Earth 16

7 The match‐cuts of first section of Solaris (Life on Earth) 18

8 The match‐cuts of first section of 2001: a space odyssey (Life on Earth) 19

9 The match‐cuts of second section of Solaris (life in outer space) 20

10 The match‐cuts of second section of 2001: a space odyssey (life in outer space) 20

11 The match‐cuts of final section of Solaris (Dream) 21

12 The match‐cuts of final section of 2001: a space odyssey (Eternity) 22

13 Central Module is the heart of Halley VI 25

14 The planned layout of the modules and some of the external buildings 26

15 NEEMO aquanaut performing extra‐vehicular activity 27

16 An aquanaut anchors to a simulated asteroid outside the Aquarius lab 28

17 Moon Landing 1969 31

18 International Space Station orbiting high above the blue sea and white clouds 33

19 European space laboratory Columbus 35

20 International Space Station Flight Controllers 36

21 My Chawl 39

22 Three STS‐107 crewmembers 40

23 Lunar Base – 1971 47

24 Influence of color and light on human health in limited space conditions 48

25 Lunar Habitation Timeline 49

26 Future steps on the Moon 51

27 Habot mobile lunar base concept 52

28 Mankin’s original configuration concepts for the Habot base cluster 53

29 Module variations 55

30 Habot base configuration analysis matrix 57

31 Scaled plan‐area catalog of all major base elements 62

32 Element proximity diagram 63

33 Completed lunar‐base site plan 65

34 Diorama of complete base design 66

35 a forum complex in ancient Rome 70

36 Hyatt Regency in San Francisco 71

37 Once touched, lunar wilderness bears this mark forever 74

Tables

1 Catalog of lunar‐base site elements 61

Abbreviations and acronyms

AI Artificial Intelligence

AIAA American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

BAS British Antarctic Survey

CAAS the City as a Spaceship

ESA European Space Agency

EVA Extravehicular Activity

HAL Heuristically Programmed Algorithmic Computer

ISS the International Space Station

LCROSS Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite

LEM Lunar Excursion Module

LLOX Lunar‐derived Liquid Oxygen

MCC Mission Control Center

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NEEMO NASA Extreme Environment Mission Operations

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NURP National Undersea Research Program

PAN AM Pan American World Airways

UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization

US United States of America

USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

VSE Vision of Space Exploration

1 Introduction

“For the 10 millennia of its history, architecture has operated within a familiar, fixed range of conditions governed by the cradle of Earth.”1 However, the launch of Sputnik 1 in

1957 burst man’s ancient design boundaries, and introduced a new set of freedoms and restrictions, which were the initiator of the Space Age and the beginning of a new era in the thought, the history, and the future of humanity (see Exhibit 1). The Space Age is characterized by the rapid development of its political, scientific, and technological achievements. But, it offers something beyond these points. It offers the questions about the common position and the vague future of man. Limitless thoughts

Exhibit 1. Dawn of the space age (Artistic Render).

Source: Todd, Gregory R. Dawn of the Space Age. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., 14 Feb. 2009. Web. 11 Dec. 2011. . about the hazy future of man, detonates the power of fantasy and imagination of curious

1 Howe, A. Scott., and Brent Sherwood. "Lunar Architecture and Urbanism." Out of This World: the New Field of Space Architecture. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009. 317‐330. Print. 8

writers, artists, scientists, and designers. For many years, being in space became a recurrent theme in man’s mythology, philosophy, poets, and novels. Such dreaming, desires and curiosities were the initiators of the visions of the space‐age fantasies. They pervaded man’s childhood and growth within every single cell of its exploring mind and make it fantasize and think about its future position within the extraterrestrial environment. Eventually, in 1961 the crazy‐wise man succeeds to orbit its home planet (see Exhibit 2).

Exhibit 2. ‘Huntsville Times’ newspaper cover in April 12, 1961, reporting Yuri Gagarin journey through space.

Source: Winter, Othon. The Huntsville Times Cover. Digital image. Instituto Ciência Hoje. Instituto Ciência Hoje, 05 May 2011. Web. 11 Dec. 2011. .

As Carl Sagan argued “Migrating off this planet opens our mind to new discoveries and knowledge, challenging us to formulate new visions of humanity’s future. The nature of our species is to explore the unknown, to pursue the far horizon, to forge new frontiers. Driven by destiny to extend human civilization beyond our own Solar System, the bold journey

through space satisfies our spirit to know, increases our coping skills, and enriches human culture.”2

Most of the early dreamers of space travel such as Italy’s inventive artists, Michelangelo and Da Vinci; France’s science fiction writer, Jules Verne; and Romania’s mathematician,

Hermann Oberth came from Europe; the drawings and writings of these visionaries inspired generations of future space scientists, engineers, and designers worldwide; Furthermore, man’s biggest jump for the visions of space habitation, happened during the American and

Russian space programs. In parallel, American and Russian cinema played an extremely important role towards the creation of this ethos of space enterprise and offworld habitation.

Chapter 2 is an analysis of two of important films of 20th century, Solaris by Russian director Andrei Tarkovski, and 2001: A Space Odyssey by American director Stanley Kubrick, which played an important role in the thoughts, and ideologies of the time.

Chapter 3 is dedicated to case studies of analogues within the extreme environments of both planet earth and offworld environment. It will analyze how these spin‐offs of space activity could affect the quality of man’s living environments on earth and at the same time its further procedure of extraterrestrial habitation.

Chapter 4 analyses through the design attempts of architects and designers of 20th and

21st century. Designer’s efforts took place due to prescribe an integrated policy and methodology for the habitation of extraterrestrial environments.

2 Sagan, Carl Edward. "Are We Ready to Go Exploring Again?" Parade Magazine 17 July 1994: 16. Print. 10

Visions of Space Exploration in the Films of Tarkovski3 and

Kubrick4

“Through the power of imagination, we can conceive and often execute grand plans. This conceptual ability influences our behavior, whether in terms of individuals or institutions, nations, or humanity. It results in the setting of goals which energize people to impressive achievements. And so it is with outer space and human expansion into the universe.” 5

One of the most important characteristics of human brain is the ability to think and question its overall situation. This way of analyzing the condition and clustering the information and ideas, made man capable of programming and projecting its next performances. Indeed, nineteenth and twentieth century were two of the most important eras in the history of man’s exploration. Because of its courageous thinking about the future, and especially for the living conditions of humanity in extreme environments. Living offworld was one kind of these extreme environments which became an important trend through the ways of thinking of writers, artists, and composers of the time. Through their ways of thinking they were able to imagine and study the possible conditions between man and the universe. Based on their research, and the collection of information, either factual or fictional, not only they were able to visualize and fantasize the future of man beyond its existing borders, but also they played a critical role towards the creation of the notion of space enterprise within the layers of human society.

3 Andrei Tarkovsky considers as one of the most famous Russian filmmakers, writer, film editor, film theorist because of his visionary approach to cinematic time and space, as well as his commitment to cinema as poetry. 4 Stanley Kubrick is an American film director, writer, producer, and photographer that was one of the most universally acclaimed and influential directors of the postwar era. His films were a reflection of his obsessive nature, perfectionist masterpieces which remain among the most provocative and visionary motion pictures ever made. 5 Harris, Philip Robert. Space Enterprise: Living and Working Offworld in the 21st Century. Chichester, UK: Springer/Praxis, 2009. Print.

The following section will be an examination of two important science fiction movies of

20th century: 2001: A Space Odyssey by Stanley Kubrick and Solaris by Andrei Tarkovski. Both of these movies were visualizing the future of extraterrestrial life of man, and its challenges within the extreme environment of outer space; however this was done from two different points of view.

“Routinely called Tarkovsky's reply to Kubrick's "2001" ‐‐ But Kubrick's film is outward, charting man's next step in the universe, while Tarkovsky's is inward, asking about the nature and reality of the human personality.” 6

In the film Solaris, Tarkovsky’s main gist is to discuss about the human factors than the benefits of outer space. The audience is able to feel and touch the psychological trauma of the cosmonaut scientists which are living in a space station orbiting the oceanic planet

Solaris. Not only they weren’t able to progress their work and study about the characteristics of the new planet, but also they were surrendered to a series of emotional crises and hallucinations that were constructed by the mysterious effect of the new planet.

Tarkovsky suggests that outer space is not the final frontier, but human is.

Through the long‐slow shots, and the extension of the periods of stillness even to the point of the breath‐hold of this film, society is shown to be able to realize the disability of man, who growing up in the terrestrial environment of its home planet, had to adjust to a new unpleasant extraterrestrial environment. Not only, as human, is not able to handle the environmental effects of unknown environments, but also, the lack of emotional contacts with their original living environment, family, and own species, and more over their memories and feelings drag their destiny toward, hopelessness and loss of essential human characteristics such as dignity, and conscience.

6 Ebert, Roger. "Critic Reviews for Solaris (re‐release) at Metacritic." Chicago Sun‐Times.Metacritic. 2011 CBS Interactive Inc, 18 Oct. 2002. Web. 28 Oct. 2011. .

“Night is the best time here; it somehow reminds me of earth. Attach strips of paper to the air vents, at night it sounds like the rustling of leaves.” 7

Solaris is often compared to 2001: A Space Odyssey, but the Russian director found

Kubrick's vision unappealingly cold and sterile. In Tarkovsky's loose adaptation of Stanislaw

Lem's novel, the humans aren't robot‐like; they're porous, volatile, coming apart at the seams. Implicitly and explicitly, Solaris questions man’s need to voyage to the far ends of the universe; for Tarkovsky, whose barely futuristic vision is peppered with Old Master paintings and strains of Bach, Earth's comforts and boundless mysteries are more than enough (see Exhibit 3).

Exhibit 3. Kris Kelvin’s “Island of Memory” home (the final scene of Solaris).

Source: White, Cameron. Island of Memory. Digital image. First and Last. First and Last Blog, 15 Mar. 2011. Web. 11 Dec. 2011. .

7 (Dialogue taken from the film) Solaris. Dir. Andrei Tarkovsky and Mikhail Romadin. By Andrei Tarkovsky, Friedrich Gorenstein, Vadim Yusov, and Eduard Artemyev. Perf. Natalya Bondarchuk, Donatas Banionis, Yuri Jarvet, Anatoli Solonitsin, Vladislav Dvorjetzki, Nikolaĭ Grin′ko, and Sos Sarkissian. Mosﬁlm, 1972. DVD.

On the other hand the movie 2001: A Space Odyssey was a successful film because of its scenario about the evolution of man through a series of encounters with a mysterious black monolith affecting man’s destiny, but this time from an optimistic point of view. What the monolith teaches is tool making, and bestows imagination (see Exhibit 4). Not only human is going to be able to adjust itself to the extraterrestrial living conditions, but also we are able to go further and control the difficulties of the extraterrestrial environment by the assistance of technology and artificial intelligence (AI); in Kubrick’s film, man is capable of having emotional contacts with Hal8, and talk about its personal needs and privacy.

Exhibit 4. Encounters with a mysterious black monolith shape human history.

Source: Lindsey, Woody. Encounters with a mysterious black monolith shape human history. Digital image. Film Directors. Woody Lindsey. Web. 25 Dec. 2011. .

8 HAL (Heuristically programmed Algorithmic computer) is an artificial intelligence that interacts with the astronaut crew of the Discovery One spacecraft, usually represented as a red television‐camera eye found throughout the ship. HAL is capable of speech, speech recognition, facial recognition, natural language processing, lip reading, art appreciation, interpreting and reproducing emotional behaviors, reasoning, and playing chess.

However it is an antagonist character.

The important message of this movie is the ability of showing the powerful role of science and tools in relation to its advancement. By the use of tools the herbivorous ape‐ like early human as Kubrick pictured them, were able to reclaim the control of the resources of their own planet and proceed through its 4 million years of evolution.9 Exhibit 5 is a match‐cut of the film that showing the evolution of the primary ape and its tool which is a bone to the modern man and its high‐tech space ship wandering in outer space.

Exhibit 5. The match‐cut spanning four million years.

Source: The Match‐cut Spanning Four Million Years. Digital image. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Web. 29 Oct. 2011. .

9 "2001: A Space Odyssey (film)." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Web. 29 Oct. 2011. .

In Kubrick’s ‘foresee’, in year 2001 human is able to travel through the universe without any difficulty from the “PAN AM” space plane carriers which are moving around in the outer space. By the passage of time man and tool will go through their mutual evolution and indeed each one’s advancement is related to the other’s. In addition, they will be able to reveal their emotional potentialities toward each other and through this gradual evolution man will be able to reach to its limitless capabilities and ungraspable intelligence, and become a pure energy and spirit (see Exhibit 6).

“The most dramatic use of the icon was in the film's conclusion. In this scene...Bowman is reborn as the Star Child ...depicted as a fetus floating in space in an amniotic sack. The Star Child turns to consider the Whole Earth floating in front of it, both glowing a bright blue‐white. The two appear as newborn versions of Man and Earth, face‐to‐face, ready to be born into a future of unthinkable possibilities.” 10

Exhibit 6. The Star‐Child into which Dr. Bowman is transformed, looking at Earth (the final scene).

Source: Jacobs, Robert. "Whole Earth or No Earth: The Origin of the Whole Earth Icon in the Ashes of Hiroshima and Nagasaki." The Asia‐Pacific Journal 5th ser. 9.13 (2011). Web. 29 Oct. 2011. .

10 Jacobs, Robert. "Whole Earth or No Earth: The Origin of the Whole Earth Icon in the Ashes of Hiroshima and Nagasaki." The Asia‐Pacific Journal 5th ser. 9.13 (2011). Web. 29 Oct. 2011. .

Mainly within the fictions of both directors Kubrick and Tarkovsky, 20th century man’s society was able to realize some of the advantages and disadvantages of the future of the off world habitation. On one hand the main message is about the weakness and fragility of man through facing the extreme environmental problems such as health, or emotional crisis and psychological issues which are connected to the issue of time and monotonous condition of extraterrestrial ways of living; and on the other hand positive imaginations such as advancing with the help of science and technology, doing daily life in collaboration and under the supervision of machine and artificial intelligence, having an emotional contact with personal computer, fast and safe transportation and trespassing the boundaries of the cosmos can be a tempting motivation for the future of life on outer planets.

Unlike Tarkovsky who pictured an emotional human drama within the unpleasant environment of the outer space, Kubrick foresees it as a place of mystery and ongoing. For the American film director, space is man’s final frontier in order to advance its evolution; it is a fast and straight forward unlimited pathway, vague but sweet. Although Tarkovsky, who adapted the story from a novel by Stanislaw Lem, cloaks the film in the tried‐and‐true science fiction trope of making contact with beings from other worlds, Solaris deals with the exact opposite notion. "I must tell you that we really have no desire to conquer any cosmos," Snaut opines to Kelvin. "We want to extend the Earth up to its borders. We don't know what to do with other worlds. We don't need other worlds. We need a mirror. We struggle to make contact, but we'll never achieve it."11 If man cannot make actual contact with his fellow man, how can he expect to contact beings from another world? Just like

11 Solaris. Dir. Andrei Tarkovsky and Mikhail Romadin. By Andrei Tarkovsky, Friedrich Gorenstein, Vadim Yusov, and Eduard Artemyev. Perf. Natalya Bondarchuk, Donatas Banionis, Yuri Jarvet, Anatoli Solonitsin, Vladislav Dvorjetzki, Nikolaĭ Grin′ko, and Sos Sarkissian. Mosfilm, 1972. DVD.

Carson McCullers12 theorizes in The Heart is a Lonely Hunter, the notion of really connecting with another human being is terrifying to us. If that sort of connection is impossible in the terrestrial world, it is absolutely impossible in intergalactic terms.

In a simpler way, through visual comparisons between the two films, the audience will be able to realize the visions that were created by the two directors. Both of the films were structured on three different sequences of time and place. The first part of the films is mainly concentrated on the condition of man and its relations with its home planet

(picturing the origin of man), the second part is about man’s living condition within the extraterrestrial environments, and the last part, which can be considered as the main points of both directors and is about the man’s destiny within the unknown universe.

In Solaris everything begins with the singing of the birds, symphony of the crickets, flow of water, and the rain fall. Man is at the same rhythm as nature. Whatever is needed to satisfy man’s desire already exists, and that is the beauty of human’s planet (see Exhibit 7).

Exhibit 7. The match‐cuts of first section of Solaris (Life on Earth)

Source: Solaris. Dir. Andrei Tarkovsky and Mikhail Romadin. By Andrei Tarkovsky, Friedrich Gorenstein, Vadim Yusov, and Eduard Artemyev. Perf. Natalya Bondarchuk, Donatas Banionis, Yuri Jarvet, Anatoli Solonitsin, Vladislav Dvorjetzki, Nikolaĭ Grin′ko, and Sos Sarkissian. Mosfilm, 1972. DVD.

12 An American writer who wrote novels, short stories, and two plays, as well as essays and some poetry. Her first novel The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter explores the spiritual isolation of misfits and outcasts of the South. "Carson McCullers." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Web. 11 Dec. 2011. .

In 2001: a space odyssey as mentioned before, the whole story begins by the tribe of ape‐shape humans that hopelessly look for their required foods and water. Primary man has no power, is scared, and desperately is waiting for the call of destiny which probably is extinction. But, suddenly after an encountering of the herbivorous ape with an unknown black monolith everything start to change. Now man has a tool, will take control of the water, can eat animal’s flesh, and start a new chapter in the history of its life (see Exhibit 8).

Exhibit 8. The match‐cuts of first section of 2001: A Space Odyssey (Life on Earth)

Source: 2001, a Space Odyssey. Dir. Stanley Kubrick. Prod. Stanley Kubrick. By Stanley Kubrick, Arthur C. Clarke, Geoffrey Unsworth, and Ray Lovejoy. Perf. Keir Dullea, Gary Lockwood, and William Sylvester. Metro‐Goldwyn‐Mayer, 1968. DVD.

The second part of Solaris begins from the entering of Kelvin (psychologist) into the

Solaris space station. Nobody is there for welcoming him; other two crews are busy with their psychological traumas and refuse to talk to the new member; man is not able to contact with its species. Environment of the space orbiter is completely messy, electrical wires are insecure, and there is chaos everywhere. For Tarkovski, all of these conditions were caused by the planetary radiations and human’s weakness to prevent the following hallucinations. In a simpler word, man is unable to protect himself from environmental hazards (see Exhibit 9).

Exhibit 9. The match‐cuts of Second section of Solaris (Solaris space station).

The second part of 2001: a space odyssey is an optimistic visualization about the life of human in outer space.

Exhibit 10. The match‐cuts of second section of 2001: A Space Odyssey (Life in outer space).

Man is running forward through the universe. In luxurious cozy spaceships, man is able to follow its daily programs, do exercises, play chess, eat well, watch TV channels, make cheap contacts with its family on earth, communicate with artificial intelligence, and of course precede its knowledge, advancement, and evolution by the assistance of the tool

(see Exhibit 10).

The last part of both films is the main gist of the directors. In Solaris the audience can see the grieving moment of the man’s species; it is all about fade memories, and regrets.

Once upon a time on a pale blue planet, there was a man who used to have everything; comfort, family, nature, beauty, happiness, feeling, friends, and more over the real meaning of life. But, because of a wrong decision about its final frontier, now all of them are just an oasis, and a fade away dream within the man’s mind and memory (see Exhibit 11).

Exhibit 11. The match‐cuts of final section of Solaris (regret).

On the other hand, in the last section of 2001: a space odyssey, Kubrick is picturing the glorious future of mankind. Now human is walking at the edge of its solar system, and is ready to become one with the universe. Through the last contact of the man and the black monolith, the new child will be born. This child can be a symbol for the next generation of man species on the evolution chart. Human will become as advanced as pure light. Universe will become the new womb for the fetus of the star‐child (see Exhibit 12).

Exhibit 12. The match‐cuts of final section of 2001: A Space Odyssey (Eternity).

Life at the Extreme

Astrobiologists and scientists were always interested in understanding the prospects of life in extraterrestrial environments. The study of life in earth’s extreme environments would help to understand the full range of life’s capabilities and limitations; by doing some comparisons between these findings and other solar system’s environmental conditions, human could be able to identify aspects and information of habitable environments beyond earth.13 According to Piantadosi, “life at the extreme is constrained in extraordinary ways. the diversity of environments in which people are found, either as permanent inhabitants or as temporary visitors, ranges from the high Andes to the scorched Sahara to the frigid Arctic, yet these places are a small fraction of those that harbor life in the thin biosphere around the planet’s surface. Most of earth is too inhospitable for even optimally adapted individuals, and out of necessity, curiosity, or self‐indulgence, we have invented technologies to venture into previously impenetrable domains, from the depth of the oceans to the depth of space.”14

3.1 Habitability and Life on Earth

Whenever there is a talk about extreme conditions of the home planet, either it is about the extreme environments such as Desert, Ocean, Antarctica, etc. or the impacts of extreme environmental catastrophes like Global Warming, Famine, or even the imagination

13 "Extreme Life: California Academy of Sciences." California Academy of Sciences ‐ San Francisco Museum and Planetarium ‐ Bay Area Natural History Museum. Web. 30 Oct. 2011. . 14 Piantadosi, Claude A. The Biology of Human Survival: Life and Death in Extreme Environments. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2003. Print.

of an Atomic Warfare, etc. Adjustability of man and survival between life and death is the common ground within both of the groups. The case study of extreme living conditions has the message of the ability of man to adopt technology in order to make these extremes livable. But the question is where does architecture stand? And what is the role of architecture?

In the beginning of the creation of extreme habitable areas, because of the demanding conditions of extreme environments, whole projects were usually treated purely as engineering problems and architecture followed engineering as a second wave; in other words, the only thing that mattered was that people don’t die on their journey into the extreme.15 According to Salvid’s opinion “Belatedly, there is a realization that architecture has a crucial role to play. As planned space journeys become longer, decent living conditions will not just be an indulgence but may be the key to staying sane. The Antarctic may be freezing cold, but it is a hothouse environment for the scientists there, who will be happier and more productive if they inhabit some liveable spaces that acknowledge their social needs.”16

In order to have a better understanding and study about the future of human species in offworld extreme conditions and to be able to program about the future of man’s outer space missions, human needs to get into the real environment and simulate and analyze the reality of living within the extreme environment and its effects on human’s behavior. All of these analogues can work as parallels for interplanetary design.

15 Slavid, Ruth. Introduction. Extreme Architecture: Building for Challenging Environments. London: Laurence King, 2009. 7. Print. 16 Ibid, 7.

3.1.1 Halley VI Antarctic Research Centre

Halley VI Antarctic Research Centre by Hugh Broughton Architects is one of the newly well developed projects within the tough and gloomy environment of Antarctica which is giving an optimistic overview about the design of extreme architecture. From the 85 competitors, this project was the winner of the international competition for the British

Antarctic Survey (BAS). As Broughton mentioned, interior design of the base was the key reason of wining this competition.17 Basically the architectural team concentrates more on the interior living conditions for the 60 occupants of the Centre. In addition another important thing about the Halley VI Antarctic Research Centre is the architectural program of the base. In Broughton’s point of view “The majority of activities that take place at Halley

VI can be accommodated by use of a repeated standard module. However, some activities

Exhibit 13. Central Module is the heart of Halley VI

Source: Slavid, Ruth. Central Module. Digital image. The Architectural Review. The Architectural Review, July 2010. Web. 12 Dec. 2011. .

17 Slavid, Ruth. Extreme Architecture: Building for Challenging Environments. London: Laurence King, 2009. Print.

are constant and require a distinct approach. These activities are housed in a special central module that is the principal space for eating, drinking, and recreation and is the major destination of the station.”18 (see Exhibit 13)

By the use of moveable acoustic partitions on the lower deck, architects were able to maximize the flexibility of the central module. In simple words, the lower floor can be divided into a number of cellular spaces or converted into a large open‐plan area. This combination of open and closed panels will allow a wide range of activities to take place.

For instance, in winter scientists are able to create an intimate scale of dining area which is

Exhibit 14. The planned layout of the modules and some of the external buildings

Source: The Planned Layout of the Modules and Some of the External Buildings. Digital image.British Antarctic Survey. British Antarctic Survey,Natural Environment Research Council. Web. 12 Dec. 2011. .

18 Broughton, Hugh. "Halley VI Antarctic Research Station." Out of This World: the New Field of Space Architecture. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009. 363‐70. Print.

suitable for the serve of 16 residences and have a complete scale for the serve of the whole

60 crews. Within the central module there are areas for darts, table tennis, pool, and computer games which are offering recreation to sustain the crew through the dark months.

In addition, by losing some modules based in fire or any other accident, inhabitants are able to live for some days in the other components till the arrival of the emergency forces and the full evacuation of the base. Finally, variation of individual and communal activities through the daily program of the base, create a chill out hybrid environment for living and working of the inhabitants of the base. Exhibit 14 shows the planned layout of Halley VI.

3.1.2 The Aquarius Underwater Laboratory

Exhibit 15. NEEMO aquanaut performing extra‐vehicular activity

Sources: Soderman, Teague. NEEMO Aquanaut Performing Extra‐vehicular Activity (EVA) outside the Aquarius Undersea Laboratory. Digital

image. Nasa Lunar Science Institute. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 20 Sept. 2011. Web. 12 Dec. 2011.

The Aquarius Underwater Laboratory funded by NOAA’S National Undersea Research

Program (NURP), is another important example of extreme architecture for an extreme environment. Aquarius provides undersea life support systems for living and working of scientists in comfortable living quarters with sophisticated research capabilities19 (see

Exhibit 15). There are many arguments about the replacement of human by the machine based on consideration of cost and safety. “Human exploration in the extreme environments of the sea and outer space has captured the attention and imagination of our nation for almost half a century. Aquarius may be the only underwater laboratory operating in our oceans today, but based on its record of productivity and accomplishment, and the human spirit of exploration, it won’t be the last,” according to Miller and Cooper.20

Exhibit 16. An aquanaut anchors to a simulated asteroid outside the Aquarius lab

Source: Berger, Eric. An Aquanaut Anchors to a Simulated Asteroid outside the Aquarius Lab. Digital image. Chron. Hearst

Communications Inc., 14 Oct. 2011. Web. 12 Dec. 2011.

toward‐an‐asteroid‐will‐be‐2219658.php>.

19 Miller, Steven L., and Craig Cooper. "The Aquarius Underwater Laboratory: America's "Inner Space" Station." Marine Technology Society 34(4) (2000/2001): 69‐74.UNCW Center for Marine Science. Web. 02 Nov. 2o11. . 20 Miller, Steven L., and Craig Cooper. "The Aquarius Underwater Laboratory: America's "Inner Space" Station." Marine Technology Society 34(4) (2000/2001): 69‐74.UNCW Center for Marine Science. Web. 02 Nov. 2o11. .

Nowadays the Aquarius Underwater Laboratory is one of the main destinations for

NASA’s undersea missions. During the series of NASA’s NEEMO missions, they will take advantage of the applicability of astronaut’s training to deep‐sea travels. The neutral floatable environment of underwater is the closest simulation of the near weightless conditions on an asteroid; the crew will test some methods of anchoring to an asteroid’s surface (see Exhibit 16). Research on NEEMO is a critical blessing for NASA’s aim of sending humans to an asteroid by 2025.21

There are many advantages through the practice of such analogue environments.

Indeed the Aquarius Underwater Laboratory is the closest simulation environment to a zero gravity condition that is offering three individual characteristics. Practicing Extra Vehicular

Activities (EVA) such as spacewalk will give the desired ideas about how to move around on a zero gravity extraterrestrial environment. In addition, crews are able to learn about the methods of collecting information and data. Also astronauts are able to practice how to anchor to the surface of an asteroid.

NASA does not yet have the spacecraft, rockets or technology needed to fly humans to its ultimate destination, Mars. In the interim period, the space agency is focusing on more doable missions. To that end, it is building the Orion spacecraft and a heavy lift rocket needed to launch enough food, water, fuel and other supplies for a six month mission to fly to and from a nearby asteroid in a decade or so. The agency hopes that by conducting such flights to an asteroid transiting near Earth's orbit, and perhaps the small moons of Mars, it can learn enough about deep space travel to send humans to Mars within a few decades.

21 Moskowitz, Clara. "Astronauts Set to Become Aquanauts for Undersea 'Asteroid' Mission | NASA Extreme Environment Mission Operations NEEMO 15 | NASA Human Mission to an Asteroid." Space.com. TechMediaNetwork, 20 Sept. 2011. Web. 02 Nov. 2011. .

For now, at least, some of the first steps will have to be taken in the clear waters off the

Florida Keys.22

Generally, there are a lot of feedbacks and experiences that man can take from such analogues. For instance, not only man can work on the issues like safety, construction, arrangement of plan, and layout of the site, and etc. But also, there can be an analysis and study about the diversity of use, activity, interior environments, production of needs, self‐ sufficiency and self‐sustainability, and proper use of existing resources.

During the design process of extreme environment’s habitats, it is important to know that the experiences and feedbacks that emerge from such analogues could be an important element for man’s future procedures through its extraterrestrial activities. For instance, not only man will be able to use such experimental and technological spin offs for augmentation of the quality of life in terrestrial environment, but also it can become an important field of study and experiment for preparation of a safe jump for the colonization of outer planets.

22 Berger, Eric. "NASA Crew Will Train for Asteroid in the Sea 'Aquanauts' Spending 13 Days in Underwater Lab." Chron. Hearst

Communications Inc., 14 Oct. 2011. Web. 12 Dec. 2011. .

3.2 Offworld Human Settlements

Exhibit 17. Moon Landing 1969

Source: Dr,No. Newspaper ‐ Moon Landing 1969. Digital image. Deadline Live. PhpBB Group, 12 Dec. 2005. Web. 12 Dec. 2012. .

Through the voyage of Apollo 11 LEM and landing of the astronauts Neil Armstrong and

Buzz Aldrin on the lunar surface on July 20, 1969 finally a dream became true (see Exhibit

17). Far apart from the recurrent imaginations and simulations that were proceeding on the extreme environments of earth, man took its first step toward a brave new era and the development of a spacefaring civilization. This succession of going beyond the earth’s boundaries was forcing the man to redefine the image of humankind. According to the longshoreman philosopher Eric Hoffer “we are no longer earthbound”.23

One of the important aspects of the offworld human settlement is the ability of removing “the psychological binders and blinders on our collective self‐concept”, and promotes humanities actual potentials. But as man moves ahead on its journey, it needs to be pragmatic.24

In opposition to life on Earth, one of the absolute necessities for survival and living in an extraterrestrial environment is to construct things. Weather these things are spacesuits, spaceships or space stations, all are following a common characteristic: they are all capsules. A capsular system is an essential requirement for any offworld journey or colonization in outer space.25 In order to have a better vision about the necessity of these capsular systems and their benefits for the future of designing man’s extraterrestrial community, it is important to analyze the case of the ISS.

23 Harris, Philip Robert. Space Enterprise: Living and Working Offworld in the 21st Century. Chichester, UK: Springer/Praxis, 2009. Print. 24 Harris, Philip Robert. Space Enterprise: Living and Working Offworld in the 21st Century. Chichester, UK: Springer/Praxis, 2009. Print. 25 Van Gelder, David Smidt, and Bart Jan Polman. "The Politics of a Build(th)ing."Volume 25 (2010): 52. Print.

3.2.1 The International Space Station (ISS)

The International Space Station is a floating complex built with ten to twelve meter long coke can shaped modules connected by four way nodes. The ISS includes American,

Russian, Japanese and European modules. According to the cultural, design and technical sensibilities of the supporting nation, each module was organized and outfitted and their total modules are creating a united housing and laboratory complex (see Exhibit 18).26 One of the most important tasks for the design of such capsular systems is to design the whole module based on the human perspective. International Space Station is the real testing site in order to assess and understand the capacity of man’s species through a long duration stay on the outer planets.

Exhibit 18. International Space Station orbiting high above the blue sea and white clouds, November 25, 2009 as seen from space shuttle Atlantis (STS‐129)

Source: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts129/multimedia/gallery/09-11-25.html

26 Mohanty, Susmita. "Mumbai as a Spaceship Compact Living on Earth as in Space." Volume25 (2010): 77‐79. Print.

Not only International Space Station is important because of its great technicality and high‐tech machineries that deal with the challenges and unforgiving environment of the space, and its mutual technological spin‐offs for our home planet, but also it will make man capable of utilizing much information about the human perspectives and aspects of such environments that later on can be adapted in the architectural design and program of the extraterrestrial habitats (see Exhibit 19). According to Barbara Imhof “long duration missions on the Moon or to Mars will require a different cultural approach in order not to jeopardize the mission. When a spaceship environment on a six month trip to mars create psychological stressors for the crew, a well‐functioning technical system will not solely solve the problem. Therefore in the long run, there is an urgent need to change the conditions of space travel by incorporating cultural aspects ‐ for example, to make the living environment more home‐like and comfortable – that will give the space traveller a sense of well‐being.

Investigating into these matters inevitably draws attention to the technologies needed, but moreover to the physiological and psychological strategies (with their spatial implications) required to cope with these extreme environments”.27

NASA’s Psychiatrist Nick Kanas argued that, the ISS is a training site and embarkation for our long duration space missions to the Moon, the planets, and beyond. In order to tolerate such activities, it is important to bring down the stressors and stress that are produced during living and working in space habitat. And ISS is a unique environment for studying the psychological and psychiatric impacts of long duration living and working in space28.

27 Imhof, Barbara. "The Human Perspective." Volume 25 (2010): 163. Print. 28 Kanas, Nick, and Dietrich Manzey. Space Psychology and Psychiatry. Dordrecht: Springer, 2008. Print.

Exhibit 19. European space laboratory Columbus. Research laboratory provides internal payload accommodation for experiments in the field of multidisciplinary research into material science, fluid physics and life science. In addition, an external payload facility hosts experiments and applications in the field of space science, Earth observation and technology.

Source: Ducros, D. European Space Laboratory Columbus. Digital image. German Aerospace Center (DLR). German Aerospace Center

(DLR), 12 July 2006. Web. 13 Dec. 2011.

1/216_read‐2/>.

Nowadays, all the experts and space programmers of NASA are trying to define a specific daily schedule and program of activity for the inhabitants of the International Space

Station, in order to supervise and control the living quality and personal behaviors of the crews. As International Space Station Commander Frank De Winne explains about the programs of a typical day on board of the ISS, all of the executive programs of crews were organized in relation to the GMT time zone; every part of the daily activities were planned in detail on a timeline schedule in the ISS control room on Earth, and will be uploaded on

the computer screen on board.29 As astronaut Sandra Magnus argued “The long term planners from every country get together and start mapping out how to fit in all of the work priorities that everyone has. These priorities can range from installing new equipment, getting maintenance done. Spacewalk, robotics and system work that the ground does all of the time. All of the objectives have to fit together so that there is no interference and that crew and ground controller time is used efficiently. This takes a lot of work and a lot of coordination.”30

The scheduling program of the daily works tells to astronauts when to go to sleep, wake up, do exercises, to have meal, and giving all important information for the specific tasks. In

Magnus opinion, this program is astronaut’s main way of communication and coordination the day with the ground (see Exhibit 20).

Exhibit 20. International Space Station Flight Controllers (Johnson Space Center, Houston)

Source: International Space Station Flight Controllers. Digital image. Nasa. Nasa, 6 Oct. 2006. Web. 14 Dec. 2011. .

29 What Does a Typical Working Day on the ISS Look Like? Perf. Frank De Winne. European Space Agency (ESA), 2009. YouTube. ESA, 14 Nov. 2009. Web. 13 Dec. 2011. . 30 Magnus, Sandra. "A Typical Day." NASA. 23 Oct. 2011. Web. 02 Oct. 2011. .

Basically a typical day on board the International Space Station begins from 6am. There is a period right after waking up called “post‐sleep” which is about an hour and a half and will be dedicated on taking shower, having breakfast, getting ready for work, and eventually getting to work. Afterwards there is the morning planning conference between the crews and control centers on Earth; there will be a discussion about the daily plan which includes any occurred changes since the previous evening. After the conference, which is usually 15 minutes long or so, crews must look at the daily schedule and know what is expected.

Usually afterwards astronauts are doing cardio exercises based on a specific exercise schedule; use of treadmill, bike, and stretching movements will be essential. Crews will have an hour for lunch, and will gather and eat together; it will be a good time for taking pictures out of the service module windows while they are waiting for their food to warm up; in addition, lunch time is a useful moment for the communication of the crew about their daily works. Usually afternoon continues on the same track as the morning, but there are more interactions with Mission Control Center (MCC), and any tasks that require lots of ground support usually show up on ISS schedules. Officially the daily work will be finished after the evening planning conference, which is typically 17:30 pm or 18:00 pm. Around 20:00 crews will be heading to dinner which considers as an unwind time. Afterwards there is the “pre‐ sleep” period that is about 2 hours and during it crews are able to take a look ahead to the next day’s plan and get ready for the morning; moreover, astronauts will check their email, phone calls, news, and photos. Bed is officially at 21:30, but not everyone makes it to bed that early. Eventually, the next day the whole cycle starts again.31

31 Magnus, Sandra. "A Typical Day." NASA. 23 Oct. 2011. Web. 02 Oct. 2011. .

3.2.2 The City as a Spaceship (CAAS)

As mentioned before, all of such kind space missions and extraterrestrial habitation activities have many benefits for man’s species and its communities. On one hand it is good for the advancement and technological improvement to go beyond Earth’s boundaries and get connected to infinite advantages of the outer space, but on the other hand technological spin offs of such activities will have direct effects on the quality of life on the home planet.

Within the urban fabric of the dense cities like Mumbai, Tokyo, New York, or Sao Paolo there are many compact homes that are similar to the conditions of the mid‐deck of a space shuttle; by comparing the shuttle’s mid‐deck and these compact houses man will understand that there is not much difference in size, basic amenities, and socio‐ psychological stressors. In the urban tissue of a city like Mumbai, there are many recognizable troublesome elements such as shortage of real estate, clean air, water and waste disposal which are the cause of living problems of such environments. In addition, there are some other common difficulties like odor, noise, crowding, privacy, hygiene, maintenance and storage.32

The International Space Station has many similarities to a Mumbai chawl. A chawl is an integrated housing complex with four to five floors, where each floor consists of ten to twenty Kohlis that are comparable with the ISS habitat modules in size and functions. In a simple word a kohli is an all‐purpose room with all the functions of living, eating, and sleeping space that are all connecting to a common pathway (see Exhibit 21).

32 Mohanty, Susmita. "Mumbai as a Spaceship Compact Living on Earth as in Space." Volume25 (2010): 77‐79. Print.

During the migration of people for working in the booming cotton textile industry of

Mumbai in late nineteenth century, chawls were created to house these people. But nowadays most of these cotton mills are closed or relocated, and it is causing the disappearance of the chawls and appearance of the modern residential housing or commercial buildings. Moreover, slums or informal settlements of Mumbai are under the severe urban redevelopment pressure. These two floor compartments are made from a small cube, the upper deck has a low ceiling and is the sleeping quarter and provides the privacy of the inhabitants; on the other hand the lower deck is the living quarter and the place of daily activities. These slum cubes are also similar to the arrangement of the space shuttle (see Exhibit 22).33

Exhibit 21. My Chawl

Source: Loke, Atui. My Chawl. Digital image. Hindustan Times. HT Media Limited, 13 Feb. 2010. Web. 14 Dec. 2011. .

33 Mohanty, Susmita. "Mumbai as a Spaceship Compact Living on Earth as in Space." Volume 25 (2010): 77‐79. Print.

According to Mohanty “the chawls and slums of Mumbai occupy prime land in a city where real estate prices are among the highest in the world. With many redevelopment schemes under way to shift chawl and slum residents to new ‘nano‐houses’ on the periphery of the city, the structural systems that supported the social‐mixing of the inhabitants are under threat. With the rampant modernization of Mumbai, city politicians and builders are scheming to ‘redevelop’ Mumbai’s slums and chawls to create business districts and residential complexes. They say they will rehabilitate chawl and slum residents in nano houses built in the far‐flung suburbs. These so‐called nano‐houses being promised to the chawl and slum tenants are a sham; they are of inhuman proportions”.34

Exhibit 22. Three STS‐107 crewmembers are pictured prior to their sleep shift in bunk beds on the middeck of the space shuttle. From the left are mission specialists Laurel B. Clark, Rick D. Husband, and Kalpana Chawla

Source: Ramon, Ilan. STS‐107 Shuttle Mission Imagery. Digital image. NASA. NASA, 20 Jan. 2003. Web. 14 Dec. 2011. .

34 Mohanty, Susmita. "Mumbai as a Spaceship Compact Living on Earth as in Space." Volume25 (2010): 77‐79. Print.

Nowadays in order to satisfy the needs of displacement the chawls and slums residents,

Mumbai is calling out for an architectural intervention. Because of the compactness of the nano and slum dwelling, there will be a need for the use of technological spin‐offs that were tested in space ship and space stations, and it can be a turning point in the collaboration of architects and space ship designers. Within this cooperation both architects and designers need to create comfortable living spaces for the family in a tiny apartment which is facing many problems; solutions for some of these conditions were approached by space ship designers and it can readily apply for these nano‐houses. By the use of the same products that spaceship designers are producing, architects can design similar products with the same functions, but in the scale of the urban environment; For instance, designing air scrubbing systems to supply clean air in a polluted urban environment (a mix of filtration processing and recirculation), recycling grey and black water, trying to produce fresh local materials, minimizing waste, etc. In addition, there are other common issues like productivity, privacy, assembly, aesthetics, identity, sensation, views, mood, safety, utilities, and adaptive use that are pertinent to the design of the habitat environment of dense cities.

Of course living both in space and dense cities will have concentration on sustainability, material recycling, and re‐generable life support. In the design of the dense urban living environment, there is a need for consideration on social and psychological stresses that are caused by overcrowded public spaces and utilities, cramped living and working conditions, traffic jams, pollution and the lack of privacy, but in a lesser degree than extraterrestrial habitats.

There are many studies about the effects of long duration isolation of astronauts and the environmental stressors. Also about long‐term living in extreme urban environments,

there are many researches that give many feedbacks about mental performance, individual well‐being, behavioral health and interpersonal relations. All of this information can be useful for the improvement of the quality of life.

The city of Mumbai is the world’s densest city with nearly 23,000 people per square kilometer with an estimated population of around 24million. In order to sustain Mumbai on a daily basis there will be a huge requirement for the logistics and life support systems which include food and water supply, waste management systems, energy grids, air revitalization and pollution mitigation systems. To deal with this amount of infrastructures, man can use a spaceship as an elegant simile for the city planners.

According to Mohanty “imagine decomposing the city, in terms of urban planning, into modular micro‐cities that function as self‐sustainable islands. Each island can be designed to survive independently with a closed‐loop life support system and green technologies such that the waste is minimized and whatever is generated, gets recycled back in. this will eliminate the need for long sewage networks, long‐distance transportation of consumables and complicated energy grid. These notions are outlined in the manifesto, ‘The City As A

Spaceship’ (CAAS). CAAS will be a part of a planned urban renewal with a mind to sustainability, security and quality of life. CAAS has been conceived by its founders to investigate the reciprocities between space and terrestrial architecture”.35

In such way of observation, spaceship and space habitat are considered similar to the modern and densely packed hyper cities of tomorrow. Any information from space technology and ideas can be useful for the quality and development of these cities, can give

35 Mohanty, Susmita. "Mumbai as a Spaceship Compact Living on Earth as in Space." Volume 25 (2010): 77‐79. Print.

to man a reliable collection about the living, growing stronger, challenging and surviving, etc. that can be translatable for the space colonies of the man.

“We think of wonderful yet obvious symbiosis tomorrow’s space ideas shape today’s cities, and investment in today’s cities serves as the vehicle and test bed to both subsidize and implement tomorrow’s space endeavors. ‘The Earth as a spaceship’ is not merely a metaphor – it is a tangible, viable way for the future survival of humankind”.36

36 Mohanty, Susmita. "Mumbai as a Spaceship Compact Living on Earth as in Space." Volume 25 (2010): 77‐79. Print.

Formation of a New Settlement

“As when youths leave home for college, the Moon can become a schooling place, a stepping‐stone to the boundless horizons of human destiny. We return to the Moon to practice living off the extraterrestrial land and to test not only engineering systems but also political and social prerequisites. With the experience gained from research stations on the moon, people from earth will one day walk the ancient river valleys of Mars, dive the ice seas of Europa, climb the Great Wall of Miranda, and cross the far edge of the solar system. The continued exploration of the solar system is a challenge that can unite nations, inspire youth, advance science, and ultimately end our confinement to one fragile planet”.37

Buzz Aldrin

Around 50 years ago going to outer space was just a race between US and USSR; but nowadays it is a peaceful program for all nations of planet Earth. Man is working with its full power to translate all of the past utopian dreams to realities. Up to now humans were successful in terms of the creation of satellite telecommunications, remote sensing, earth observation, manned and unmanned missions aloft, and more. During the last several decades, many groups of experts suggest about the planetary engineering or terraforming for the restructuring of other planets into New Earth.38

The Question is, how?

Since 1957 when Sputnik was launched, the only concentration of the spacefarer man was about the technical developments of the extraterrestrial environment than the social aspects of life. Up to the point of making its manned and unmanned missions feasible, or letting man to walk on the surface of the Moon for a short duration mission it was successful. But after the acclimatization problems of the astronaut Norman Thagard who

37 Sharpe, Burton L., Bonnie L. Cooper, and Madhu Thangavelu. Foreword. The Moon: Resources, Future Development, and Settlement. By David G. Schrunk. Second ed. Berlin: Springer, 2008. Print. 38 Harris, Philip Robert. Space Enterprise: Living and Working Offworld in the 21st Century. Chichester, UK: Springer/Praxis, 2009. Print.

stayed in the Russian Mir station for 115 days, and other long duration missions of astronauts and scientists within the extreme terrestrial and extraterrestrial environments, space agencies and enterprisers realized about the need for an integrated and intensive programing on the human factors and life science of man. Believes of today’s planners and policy makers are that space is not just for doing science and astronomy, but a place for exploration, settlement, and utilization of its vast resources.39

4.1 Towards Earth’s Eighth Continent

Based on the belief of Dutch based architectural firm Must Urbanism40, the Moon will be the next frontier of the man for about 3,000 years, and will give human opportunities such as the extraction of raw materials, science and tourism. In other words, there is money in abundance. Must Urbanism mentioned that “it would be unwise to have too many illusions about the initial quality of life on the moon. Only those who have an ‘off‐shore mentality’ will survive in the foul conditions and isolation. They will gradually create a new habitat, inch by inch, at the moon’s expense. Bits of the Earth will be implanted on the

Moon. Capsules with oxygen, water, liveable temperatures, gravity, and a regular daily rhythm will keep out the enemy – the Moon.”41

Due to its close distance to the earth, moon can function as man’s first real construction site, in order to practice, and analyze all the necessities, and further requirements for the creation and design of an appropriate extraterrestrial habitat.

39 Harris, Philip R. "LEAVING EARTH'S CRADLE: JOINT VENTURING." Space Enterprise Living and Working Offworld in the 21st Century. New York [etc.: Springer/Praxis, 2009. 68‐69. Print. 40 Must Urbanism is an Amsterdam Based architectural firm that established by the architects Wouter Veldhuis, Marijn van der Linden, Leentje Sijsma, Svenja Jager, and Sanneke van Wijk. 41 Veldhuis, Wouter, Marijn Van Der Linden, Leentje Sijsma, Svenja Jager, and Senneke Van Wijk. "Very Dirty Realism." Volume 25 (2010): 26‐31. Print.

4.1.1 Early Attempts

One of the first architectural projects about the creation of a residential habitat on the

Moon was by the Russian architect Igor Kozlov who was in collaboration with the Soviet space program. In his interview with Project Russia in 2000 he mentioned that after watching some TV programs about the creation of settlements on the Moon, he realized that living inside a space capsule like Soyuz is not a proper solution for the living environment of man. Kozlov believed that in space architecture design, the main task of the architect is the design of a proper interior environment. Generally the Moon base program of Soviet Union consisted of issues such as: energy, transport life‐support and so on, but the responsibility of Kozlov was to write and define the principles of architectural design parts of the base. The whole concept and design of the base created from the idea of

‘standardization’ and later on decision was to create standardized cylindrical modules fully assembled on earth and then put together on the Moon. Then the task was the creation of an environment from the combination of standardized modules which will offer us the most complete and the safest environment for living and working of twelve people for about one year on the lunar surface. During the design the architect has to think about some technical difficulties like delivery of the modules, and how to send the entire volume through the atmosphere, but the main task is solving the actual architectural problems of the moon base. From here the program concentrated on defining a system for combining standard modules with various functional designations: living space modules, public space modules, laboratories, modules of operational systems and power supply, and so on. Moreover there was concentration on the study of the site to find the right area and the connectivity of the

modules in order to create an open system to insure the future configuration and expansion of the lunar base (see Exhibit 23).

Exhibit 23. Lunar Base – 1971. Section of a living quarter for two persons, with training/workspace annex sleep/relax space, toilet and communal area with kitchen.

Source: Lunar Base. 1971. Photograph. Getting There Being There. By Igor Kozlov. Vol. 25. Volume, 2010. 143. Print.

For the design of the interior spaces, the main task was to create a fully adaptable environment for living and actively working of the inhabitants for a whole year, which has to offer possible sense of Earth conditions in an extremely limited space. Psychologists believe that this way of design will be an effective way for working against the negative mental effects of the extreme environment. So, based on the concept for the interior spaces, the main principle that directs the organization of the area was to achieve a maximum mutability in terms of space, color and light (see Exhibit 24). For instance, in public space module there are a series of revolving rings, which will provide a variety of sets of furniture and equipment based on the necessities of use; Or a system of fake windows to imitate the

daily and yearly cycles, or projection of a dynamic landscape with the potential of visualizing various conditions like the wind breeze, storm clouds, autumn leaves fall or snow fall.

Unfortunately even after the creation of a ‘life size working model’ of the standardized living module for four people, the whole project got shut down.42

Exhibit 24. Influence of color and light on human health in limited space conditions. Studies carried out on the research module of the institute of Medico‐Biological Problems – mid 1980s.

Source: Influence of Color and Light on Human Health in Limited Space Conditions. 1980. Photograph. Getting There Being There. By Igor Kozlov. Vol. 25. Volume. 145. Print.

Igor Kozlov worked for about 20 years on the idea of space habitat; his main concentration was about the quality of capsules and their interior interactions with the man, and at the same time on the connectivity of the modules in a bigger scale. Later on

Must Urbanism came and argued about the future opportunities and the importance of the lunar development. Main concentration of the Must Urbanism was about the needs for the

42 "From Science to Fiction." Interview by Andrei Kaftanov. Volume 2010: 138‐45. Print.

creation of a futuristic program and policy which will give us the ability of living offworld and development of the scale of our habitat, and at the same time to extract and take advantage of all of resources and further opportunities (see Exhibit 25).

Exhibit 25. Lunar Habitation Timeline

Source: Lunar Habitation Timeline. Photograph. Getting There Being There. By Must Urbanism. Vol. 25. Volume. 28‐29. Print.

Based on Must Urbanism’s proposal for the ‘Moon appendix’ of the United Nation

Charter, there is a number of primary ordering principles that have to be establish to channel Man’s destructive forces during its intervention:

 To set up a standard system of coordination; this will chart the Moon (making things

measurable).

 By zoning of the Moon from the beginning man will be able to protect its

appearance from the Earth. UNESCO listed the near side of the moon which is 59%

and always facing toward the Earth as the first extraterrestrial World Heritage Site.

This way of zoning will save the Moon from Large‐scale interventions and

excavations, and will becomes a strategy for possible settlement of future

generations. In other words, our Small‐scale interventions will be on the near side

and the Large‐scale interventions will be on the far side of the Moon.

 Having a secondary zoning will secure specific economic goals. They are great

economic objectives such as raw material extraction, science and tourism, but they

are all in confliction with the permanent habitation of the Moon. For instance,

further life on Moon will benefit from the suitable protection of the major sources of

life there. Also tourism will take advantages from the protection of the lunar

heritages like the site of the first Moon landing, natural craters, or the crater that

caused by impact from NASA satellite LCROSS in October 2009.43

Eventually, habitation of an extraterrestrial environment must be based on an integrated program; this program must consist the design quality of the individual living units and communal environments based on human factors, and at the same time strategic timeline of habitation about the development and expansion of the scale of community, population, and variety of professions based on a unified timetable.

43 Veldhuis, Wouter, Marijn Van Der Linden, Leentje Sijsma, Svenja Jager, and Senneke Van Wijk. "Very Dirty Realism." Volume 25 (2010): 26‐31. Print.

Exhibit 26. Future steps on the Moon

Source: Future Steps on the Moon. Photograph. Getting There Being There. By Must Urbanism. Vol. 25. Volume. 27. Print.

As Must Urbanism visualized in Exhibit 26, Man’s first step on the Moon will be for the scientifically approaches. The next step will be again for scientific purposes but in a large multinational collaboration, because of financial donations in exchange for concessions on the Moon. Later on man can move toward an extensive mineral extraction industry which will able him to create physical environments on the Moon. It might even be said that the first base camps will be created by the scientists for the practical reasons and the use of staff. Then the base camp will reproduce the new occupation pattern, and because of the shortage of the living space people have to live together in a close proximity. The private domain will define in an absolute minimum. In addition, because of the possible meteor strike on the Moon, it is better to spread the investments of the occupation of the Moon.

So, the first base camp will be small and the particles will be scattered around the whole lunar surface, and each one of them will be self‐sufficient.44

44 Veldhuis, Wouter, Marijn Van Der Linden, Leentje Sijsma, Svenja Jager, and Senneke Van Wijk. "Very Dirty Realism." Volume 25 (2010): 26‐31. Print.

4.1.2 HABOT BASE Architecture

Exhibit 27. Habot mobile lunar base concept

Source: Dino, Jonas. Mobile Lunar Base. Digital image. NASA. NASA, 29 Mar. 2008. Web. 15 Dec. 2011. .

One of the current projects of the AIAA is the design of a new lunar outpost called

Habot base which introduced by John Mankins in 2000. “Habot is a contraction of habitat and robot. It constitutes an innovative approach to combine human and robotic exploration capabilities.” 45 (see Exhibit 27). A Habot base is created from identical mobile modules that are customized to support the habitant’s various living and working activities. Configuration of these modules will depend on the use and type of each one, and the design of specific arrangement. The original configuration of the base consists from six Habot modules, and

45 Dudley Rowley, Marilyn, Thomas Gangale, Lawrence Lemke, and Marc M. Cohe. Habot Lunar Crew Size, Skill Mix, and Time Model. Tech. no. 2005‐01‐2792. SAE International, 11 July 2005. Web. 16 Nov. 2011. .

later on more modules will attach to the base. Combination of these modules will create the complete living and working environment. Exhibit 28 shows the general layout of a Habot basic module that can be adapted to many functions such as: sleeping quarters, life science laboratory, fuel and logistics depot, EVA access facility, Bioregenerative life‐support laboratory, excursion Habot (rover) and so on. Basic configuration of base plan defined on two different concepts which called Mankins 2000; Mankins 2001.

Exhibit 28. Mankin’s original configuration concepts for the Habot base cluster: a) 2000 Habot Harmony concept configuration and b) 2001 Habot Conestoga concept configuration.

Source: Mankin’s Original Configuration Concepts for the Habot Base Cluster. 2000. Photograph. Out of This World: the New Field of Space Architecture. By John Mankins. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009. 247. Print.

Mankins chose the hexagonal grid which provides a three axis plan. Mankins 2000

Habot is following an open‐ended plan configuration which has the potential of being able to grow organically on axis within the constraints of 60 deg/120 deg/180 deg geometry. It would allow the modules to attach at any open port as the plan expands or changes.

However, Mankins 2001 presents a closed‐loop configuration of the modules which these ring configurations and provide a dual axis and egress from all of the modules. The analysis of the Habot base configuration consists of nine criteria:46

 Preferably to have a dual circulation access to the all parts of the base.

 To provide dual means of egress from all part of the base for the case of emergency

and fire safety.

 To have a compatible condition in between the functionality of the volumes and

circulation.

 Being able to arrange a suitable workspace and social areas.

 Provide ease of mobility for assembly and disassembly of the base.

 Provide efficient thermal view angles.

 Provide docking excursion modules for EVA access.

 Minimizing variation of the pressure port angle.

 Economize docking ports.

Exhibit 29 shows the pattern analysis of circulation/equipment portions of nine optional conditions of Habot plans. The most obvious observation is the inverse relationship between circulation area and solid equipment area: the more circulation area, the less area and volume available for equipment or other functions.

46 Howe, A. Scott., and Brent Sherwood. "Habat Concept." Out of This World: the New Field of Space Architecture. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009. 241‐58. Print.

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World:

This

Out

Photograph.

Variations

Variations Module

Ross

Module

Print.

29.

Tisdale,

248.

Exhibit Source: 2009.

Type A is the minimal circulation arrangement with one pressure port entry and one passage to the e center circle.

Type B L‐shape divides the areas to major “three‐quarters” area and a minor “one‐quarter” area.

Type C straight passage widens in the middle (offers dual access and dual remote egress).

Type D the T‐shape is giving the ability of attaching a module to the side of a linear arrangement.

Type E an orthogonal cross axis divides the floor into four equal areas. This plan offers two linear pathways to cross at the center.

Type F a radial symmetrical arrangement with the angle of 120 degree apart.

Type G this plan consist the maximum circulation area with six 50 degree passages.

Type H this type is a hybrid option which is a combination of a 90 degree bend with an obtuse angle.

Type J is a 120 degree bent.

After the pattern analysis of each individual module, next step is to study the possible plan arrangements. The remaining sections of Exhibit 29 illustrate such plan variation in both double configurations and triple configurations. This way of studying could be incorporated into larger habitat configurations. For instance by defining an angular system we are able to create a new connection pattern in relation to the required amount of

modules and users. Exhibit 30 is showing four fundamental connections which are used to build plan types such as: open, closed loop, expanded loop, and hybrid.47

Exhibit 30. Habot base configuration analysis matrix.

Source: Tisdale, Ross A. Habot Base Configuration Analysis Matrix. Photograph. Out of This World: the New Field of Space Architecture. Ed. Marc M. Cohen. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009. 253. Print.

This project presents how detailed preliminary analysis can be useful to design a livable space on an extraterrestrial environment. The Habot case begins from a novel concept, and developes through a sequence of focusing and studying the lunar environment and its contexts. The Habot concept is able to enable different technologies, and at the same time to enable the community to move on to the next level of human performances and living qualities; For instance, it will have positive effects on different fields of human’s activity

47 Howe, A. Scott., and Brent Sherwood. "Habat Concept." Out of This World: the New Field of Space Architecture. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009. 241‐58. Print.

such as athlete, etc. Probably, division of a habitable system into small modules with multiple ports is one of the reliable solutions for architects and extraterrestrial urban planners for the design of a safe and expandable habitation.

4.2 Lunar Site Design

Site planning is the fundamental tool for organizing architecture. It will guide human developmental and daily activities within a site. By establishing a framework for merging the required architectural elements, man is able to ensure that those elements will work together for its design goals. A good site plan has to be flexible enough to adapt any required changing over long time scales while still express its original goals. For having an integrated site plan development there are some methods that are important to know for an extraterrestrial architectural design.48

The essential problem of the site planning of a lunar outpost is to accommodate the conflicting needs of all of the site elements. If the designer accurately identify and quantify multivariate relationships among all of the site elements, then linear programming could be used confidently to arrive at an optimal site arrangement. However, two factors stun this approach. Firstly, for sites that involving human activities, the relationships are so complex and comprehensive that they challenge numerical modeling; an experienced architect provides more useful results than any algorithm. Admittedly, for the case of laying out an early lunar base, human factor is less important than other enabling and quantifiable engineering consideration.

48 Howe, A. Scott., and Brent Sherwood. "Lunar‐base Site Design." Out of This World: the New Field of Space Architecture. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009. 299‐310. Print.

The second stunning factor is that, within the very early studies of the phases of such novel project as a lunar outpost, available details about the elements are quite inadequate in order to provide useful quantification of their mutual interactions. As mentioned before, combination of separated knowledge of an experienced architect into a single unit will be the only practical solution to working with incomplete information and data.

There is a four‐step method that can provide a practical tool for designers in order to make them capable of recording, organizing, and visualizing all of the critical relationships of the site.

 The first step is to define an adequate architectural program for the site, such as

supportive activities and the goals and aspirations that must achieve.

 The second step is to prepare an accurate definition of the site elements. Individual

pieces of the site architecture impose essential necessities. Hardware systems (like

buildings), site works (like roads), or more abstract elements (like required space of

activities among the buildings) are some of these elements. In addition geographical,

topographical, geological data are essential.

 The third step is to identify and define the connections among the elements,

consisting how they must be arranged within the site. An effective way to record

these is to list them as part of element description of each element they affect.

 The forth step is to create a quantitative proximity diagram which graphically shows

the relative sizes of the elements as well as the relative importance of element

connections, iteratively optimizing the proximity diagram automatically generates

the skeleton of a workable site plan.

According to Brent Sherwood “The primary reason for the incomplete nature of typical lunar‐base site plans is lack of sufficiently complete, consistent, element detail. A useful site plan cannot be generated until everything large enough or important enough to affect it is defined to comparable level of detail. That includes all buildings, activity spaces, vehicles, industrial equipment, and utilities. The Robotic Lunar Surface Operations study (Sherwood

1990b) was charged with developing one reasonable scenario down through several layers of engineering detail. The disadvantage of a point‐design approach is that the underlying concept might not be universally relevant. But a tremendous compensating advantage is that a point‐design can achieve a level of detail that requires all of the elements to be well understood, iterated, and consistent. Such detail exposes to analysis many significant engineering issues.”49

Within the concept design process of the base elements, and its major connections, elements can be divided into four classes as fixed, mobile, utility, and sitework. Table 1 lists important characteristics of the lunar‐base elements within the four mentioned categories and their required quantities that matter for conceptual site planning. In addition, strategic provisions can be added to the list of elements. For instance, topological

49 Howe, A. Scott., and Brent Sherwood. "Lunar‐base Site Design." Out of This World: the New Field of Space Architecture. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009. 299‐310. Print.

Table 1. Catalog of lunar‐base site elements, quantities, and characteristics is the first data product required to develop an integrated site plan (courtesy of Boeing Co.).

Source: Sherwood, Brent. Out of This World: The New Field of Space Architecture. By Scott A. Howe. Reston, VA: AIAA, 2009. 301.

expansion constraints for long‐term base growth: habitation, industry, mining, space port, and wilderness which all can introduce unique considerations.

As Sherwood explained, a site at the southern edge of the Mare Tranquilities, near the

Apollo 11 Tranquility Base, was an attractive area for the base program due to several reasons. Its geology is empirically known through in situ human observation and returned samples. Its regolith is comparatively rich in ilmenite and is level and well comminuted by meteorite gardening. “Thus a usable soil feedstock, low in rock content, can be scraped up with minimal mining infrastructure.” The location at the edge of the mare allows mining growth to the north and highland regions exploration to the south. Continuous communication abilities of the near side with earth and minimize propulsive requirements for transportation operations to and from orbit.50

Exhibit 31. Scaled plan‐area catalog of all major base elements is the first step to graphically depicting their interrelationships (courtesy of Boeing Co.).

Source: Sherwood, Brent. Out of This World: The New Field of Space Architecture. By Scott A. Howe. Reston, VA: AIAA, 2009. 305.

50 Howe, A. Scott., and Brent Sherwood. "Lunar‐base Site Design." Out of This World: the New Field of Space Architecture. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009. 299‐310. Print.

Proximity Diagram

Whenever designers are designing for surface sites, the proximity diagram should be two dimensional, and for space systems in microgravity, the proximity diagram must be three dimensional. Exhibit 31 is a graphical collection of the plan area of all major base elements, as circles at the same scale.

Exhibit 32. Element proximity diagram resolves the functional relationships among all major elements in a to‐scale layout (courtesy of Boeing Co.).

Source: Sherwood, Brent. Out of This World: The New Field of Space Architecture. By Scott A. Howe. Reston, VA: AIAA, 2009. 305.

This diagram makes the designers able to compare individual and multiple elements size and at the same time to show how some elements depend on each other. The arranged proximity diagram of elements circle is illustrated in Exhibit 32. The lines are showing functional connections between pairs of elements, and thickness shows the relative importance of the connection.

Proximity diagram has simple rules. Connection lines should be kept as short as possible, and none should cross. Satisfying both of these rules is hardly possible. In many cases, repetition between the proximity diagram and the element set produces better results. During the generating the proximity diagram, it is critical to accommodate peculiar requirements that might influence the ultimate physical element arrangement.

Site Plan

A fully developed proximity diagram can be trusted as a guide for laying out the actual site plan due to arrangement of the elements relationship through their importance. Details of elements must be inserted, along with the physical infrastructure in order to comprehend the relationship of the elements throughout the site.

According to Sherwood “progressively folding in constraints and details derived from a specific program and element set has enabled application of a simple method of developing site plans to the example of an early lunar base. The result is a to‐scale site plan used to quantify operational activities in and around the base. In particular, phased buildup of the base, as constrained by flight, diurnal, and surface‐vehicles schedules, can be engineered as

a result.”51 Exhibit 33 shows the final site plan of the lunar base study, and Exhibit 34 is a diorama overview.

Exhibit 33. Completed lunar‐base site plan fulfills requirements of the proximity diagram (courtesy of Boeing Co.).

Source: Sherwood, Brent. Out of This World: The New Field of Space Architecture. By Scott A. Howe. Reston, VA: AIAA, 2009. 307.

51 Howe, A. Scott., and Brent Sherwood. "Lunar‐base Site Design." Out of This World: the New Field of Space Architecture. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009. 299‐310. Print.

Exhibit 34. Diorama of complete base design shows how the site plan comes to life (courtesy of Boeing Co.).

Source: Sherwood, Brent. Out of This World: The New Field of Space Architecture. By Scott A. Howe. Reston, VA: AIAA, 2009. 308.

In the future and within the indefinite growth of the lunar base due to the establishment of research, and production purposes, the zoning system outlined would lead naturally to a cruciform, essentially oriented transportation and utility service infrastructure. The city center would grow into an “activity hub” at the intersection of these cardinal spines, which could grow to enormous scales that absorb the initial base site while preserving the original regional separation. According to Sherwood “evolved directly out of the original site constraints and site plan, such as orthogonal layout is immediately recognizable to city planners as the decumanus, karko, and forum layout of all Roman cities‐ one of the most pervasive, persistent, and successful designs in the history of civilization. The

simplicity of such a sectored scheme appears able to serve changing requirements in scale, element type, and even program emphasis as a permanent Tranquility Base grows”.52

4.2.1 Perception of Lunar Urbanity

By setting some goals from the beginning of the configuration of the extraterrestrial habitat, man will recognize that the off‐world urbanism might help to avoid wasted efforts in design while it is under progress. Those who desire professionally to design built lunar environment are either space engineers who know little about architecture and urban development; or, architects who know little about the countable characteristics of space environment or testing and development and operation of the space systems However, the extraterrestrial planners have to be well skilled in both fields.53

Within the growth of space habitation and its dependency on technology and machinery, space architecture became entirely vehicular, and dependents on the component that launch from the Earth. The ISS is an obvious fact of such vehicular architecture for the support of human activity, which carries many disadvantages such as noise, smell, and odd shapes. The interior human environment of such capsular systems adapted its condition from the methods and solutions that were used in the design of the atmospheric flight vehicles like airplanes and rockets. At the same time vehicles were optimized for traveling, and longer duration missions based on vehicular architecture and going through retrofitting, and modules adaptation. Even nowadays the space architecture

52 Howe, A. Scott., and Brent Sherwood. "Lunar‐base Site Design." Out of This World: the New Field of Space Architecture. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009. 299‐310. Print. 53 Howe, A. Scott., and Brent Sherwood. "Lunar Architecture and Urbanism." Out of This World: the New Field of Space Architecture. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009. 317‐330. Print.

of these linked capsular cylinders is extremely vehicular. It is acceptable that space lethal environment demands all these artifices and technologies to sustain life, promote efficiency, and prevent disasters but, they are just enough for the first stage of extraterrestrial habitation; and not for the formation of the off‐world urbanity. In other words, space cannot become a settled human domain unless people establish their lives there, and off course factors like travel time, expense, and risk will make it more practical for people to transform traveling in space to living in space. Human living is a complex activity that needs much more than engineering accommodation because it includes working, resting, playing, and growing.

Designing for living is a vast field and it requires a multivariate balance which only human experience, wisdom, and artistry can feasibly provide. This artistry is the practice of architecture and at its best it has to project human values and aspirations; at the very least, it embodies man’s needs and behaviors. On the other hand civic architecture is the largest scale form of architecture which serves and embodies human communities. By studying through the history of urbanity, there is much information about the creation of these organized civilizations that can be analyzed as a case study for the creation of an extraterrestrial civilization. According to Sherwood “The City is architecture’s grandest product, a built framework within which large numbers of people conduct individual but linked lives. As a tool to enable the evolution of increased social complexity, the city must first provide enduring organization and sustain the individual and collective needs of people living in it.”54

54 Howe, A. Scott., and Brent Sherwood. "Lunar Architecture and Urbanism." Out of This World: the New Field of Space Architecture. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009. 317‐330. Print.

In the beginning of the space program the main task was to land a few people on the

Moon, and learn how to keep them there continuously. This approach spent the best engineering efforts of the 20th century. Nowadays there is a need for the establishment of an off‐world urbanism that provides the amenity, stimulation, and cultural support of its habitants. In addition, architects have to learn about the space. According to Sherwood

“off‐world urban design will require attention to all of the traditional architectural and planning subjects, plus advanced and closed life support, radiation management, reduced‐ gravity biology, space mining, biomass production, and material recycling. There are all in addition to the full complement disciplines specific to spacecraft engineering. Planet‐surface architecture must further address launch and landing; alien engineering geology, weather, diurnal cycle, and gravity level; and alien wilderness management.” 55

Apparently, in order to establish a mature and noble lunar urbanism, architects and off‐ world urban designers have to analyze and master many technical, cultural, and environmental subjects. This technical and environmental approaching for architecture can be a great stepping‐stone for creation of extraterrestrial habitations and future of man’s civilization.

Lunar Urbanism will be densely populated at all stages of its evolution. In comparison with Earth which the cost of spreading out in a single‐family home is low, on the Moon every cubic meter of the habitable modules must be imported, assembled, and sealed.

Lethal conditions will oblige the extraterrestrial architecture to be an interior architecture, which will be discussed in the next section.

55 Howe, A. Scott., and Brent Sherwood. "Lunar Architecture and Urbanism." Out of This World: the New Field of Space Architecture. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009. 317‐330. Print.

4.2.2 Learning from the Romans

As mentioned before, space program activities have uncountable amounts of advantages and technological spin‐offs that can be useful for many similar extreme conditions on planet earth. At the same time, man’s experiences and design patterns through the advancement of its civilization within urban life on earth can offer many information and solutions that would be helpful for the design and construction of extraterrestrial habitats.

Roman Urbanism was understood and executed as a sequence of controlled volumes and views. All of the natural landscape was regarded as an alien. Romans compelled the same planning schemes everywhere and create their own surrounding universe. Virtually all of the outdoor spaces begin to function as “urban rooms” that within them the public rituals of society could be happen. Exhibit 35 is an example of how the Roman architecture controlled the human environment that even outdoor urban spaces became interiors.

Exhibit 35. a forum complex in ancient Rome as it might have been built by Hadrian.

Source: Sherwood, Brent. Out of This World: The New Field of Space Architecture. By Scott A. Howe. Reston, VA: AIAA, 2009. 326.

Roman urbanism can make it clear for the offworld urban designers, that necessarily interior extraterrestrial urbanism nevertheless be grand and theatrical and promote civic life. Later on in 20th century community was the witnesses of a multiple type of “interior outdoors”. Exhibit 36 shows the Hyatt Regency in San Francisco; its spare roof fenestration and artificial plants make soaring space an almost rain‐forest‐like faux outdoor.

Exhibit 36. Hyatt Regency in San Francisco

Source: Hyatt Regency San Francisco. Digital image. Portman Holdings. Portman Holdings, LLC. Web. 17 Dec. 2011. .

In the same manner, the interior environment of a shopping mall defines an architecture that maintains economic concentration. The mall forms an interior landscape that simulates the sidewalks, temporary pedestrians, and the false outdoor streets of retail facades. This way of the creation of interior outdoor environments, will make architects

able to create such adaptable and familiar environment for the urbanism of the Moon.

Studying and analyzing through the different terrestrial environments such as spiritual, commercial and so on will be an appropriate tool for architects and designers and it will give them the required feed backs and information for the formation of the interior of the extraterrestrial environments.56

In addition to the rich human past and its precious information for the creation of the lunar urbanism and the public interiors, architects needs to consider the important facts of the lunar proportions.

I. Reduced‐Gravity Proportions

II. Nonsterile Environment

III. Irreplaceable Wilderness

I. The issue of Reduced‐Gravity Proportions refers to the condition of the human

gaits on the surface of the moon which will be longer and rise higher. This type of

conditions will raise some problems about the human factors that need to be

solved. For instance, to define a new standard for ceiling height, doorways, and

corridor widths; or structural system can be much more slender on the Moon

than the Earth. Lunar architecture can become lighter and more expansive

despite its pressurized closure, its exterior shielding, and its urban crowdedness.

II. Like the Earth, an extraterrestrial life will be nonsterile. On the lunar surface, life

will be in symbiosis and parasitic interaction with ecological hosts and

56 Howe, A. Scott., and Brent Sherwood. "Lunar Architecture and Urbanism." Out of This World: the New Field of Space Architecture. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009. 317‐330. Print.

microscopic organisms. Inside the sealed lunar city, pathogen management will

be a real problem. For instance, bacteria that metabolize by rusted metal that

can live in extreme temperature, pressure, radiation, and toxics. In addition

man’s life will be in co‐inhabitation with feral pets and research animals.

III. The Moon must be the place of demarcation between wilderness and human

use. By definition of a new borderline, not only will protected inhabitant from the

outer dangers, but also the overrunning expansion of the man’s routine activities

through the lunar landscape will be controlled. For millennia home planet’s

surface is suffering from the invasion of the man’s modern development, but its

ultimate environmental resilience has the ability to render most of the signs of

the man’s actions into transience; Denuded forests and ravaged deserts Eco

structures can finally recover. On the other hand, the inanimate lunar

environment is broken and irrecoverable. At least millions of years are required

for micrometeorite to recreate centimeters of regolith (see Exhibit 37). As

Sherwood argues “the forces that reclaim the strip mines and ruins on Earth

simply do not exist on the Moon; the first trek through a pristine region of the

Moon’s unique ‘magnificent desolation’ ruins its ineffable wilderness value

practically forever.”57

Evidently, the mentioned points are some important characteristics that will affect design of the lunar architecture and urbanism. These are some of the conditions and

57 Howe, A. Scott., and Brent Sherwood. "Lunar Architecture and Urbanism." Out of This World: the New Field of Space Architecture. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009. 317‐330. Print.

boundaries that by acceptance of them, architects and designers will be able to create a more appropriate lunar habitat environment.

Exhibit 37. Once touched, lunar wilderness bears this mark forever, and so its character is irrevocably changed.

Source: Plait, Phil. One Small Step. Digital image. Discover Magazine. Kalmbach Publishing Co., 20 July 2008. Web. 17 Dec. 2011. .

Conclusion

“The opening of a new, high frontier will challenge the best in us. The new lands waiting to be built in space will give us new freedom to search for better governments, social systems, and ways of life, so that our efforts during the decades ahead enable our children to find a world richer in opportunity.”58

Dr. Gerard K. O’Neill

For many years different groups of people including designers, authors, engineers, explorers, and planners were inspired by the concept of off world human settlement. For the humans, extraterrestrial environment is extreme, a thin line between death and life.

Space architects must consider as much realism as possible into their way of thinking and process of design. An accurate, fastidious, and strict design can become more provoking than specious fantasies and will be functional and practical for the formation of an extraterrestrial living environment and spacefaring civilization.59

In the beginning, man’s living environment within the outer space will be created by the use of capsular systems and modular units, which are connecting by a system of pathways.

These modules are entirely made in earth and exported by space shuttles. First civilization of man consists of astronauts, engineers, scientists, and different group of experts. This small group has the duty of installation and assembling the modules and machineries. In other words, first phase of man’s habitation will take place in a small period of time. After the installation of first outpost, everything is ready for the arrival of the second group of inhabitants. More groups of people, machineries, and living necessities will be imported

58 Harris, Philip Robert. Afterword. Space Enterprise: Living and Working Offworld in the 21st Century. Chichester, UK: Springer/Praxis, 2009. 527. Print. 59 Howe, A. Scott., and Brent Sherwood. "Lunar Architecture and Urbanism." Out of This World: the New Field of Space Architecture. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009. 317‐330. Print.

from the earth in order to establish the man’s proper living community. Together with the formation of community, man will begin to take advantages of in situ resources. Apparently, first generation of inhabitants of extraterrestrial environments are the creators of a new government, and democratic society. Human’s living environment of outer space will function like a living organism, which expresses a fully self‐sustainable and self‐sufficient quality of life. Extraterrestrial habitat will develop step by step; through the passage of time man community’s dependency will become fader and fader till the whole system of the community become self‐supportive and dependent on the in situ productions.

In a glimpse there are some benefits that would offer by the exploration and habitation of extraterrestrial environments:

 A whole new world for the growth and rise of culture.

 Advancement in science, engineering, medicine, government, and law.

 Room for population growth of earth.

 Expansion of business opportunities and trading markets.

 Reaching to an unlimited resource of materials and energy.

 The opening of endless frontiers.60

“Mankind will not remain forever on Earth. In the pursuit of light and space, we will first probe the limits of the atmosphere, and later extend our control throughout the solar system. Humans will ascend into the expanse of the heavens and found a settlement there. The impossible of today will become the possible of tomorrow.”61

Konstantin Tsiolkovski

60 Sharpe, Burton L., Bonnie L. Cooper, and Madhu Thangavelu. Foreword. The Moon: Resources, Future Development, and Settlement. By David G. Schrunk. Second ed. Berlin: Springer, 2008. 199. Print. 61 Harris, Philip Robert. Afterword. Space Enterprise: Living and Working Offworld in the 21st Century. Chichester, UK: Springer/Praxis, 2009. 65. Print.

Space enterprise, will be regarded as an incredible offer, a gift. It is indeed a stepping stone which we will learn to explore, live, and work in space. Soon after the first extraterrestrial habitat becomes operational, it will become obvious that the entire solar system will be open for exploration and habitation by man; and afterward man will be able to go beyond its solar system and falling into the infinity.

In a new extraterrestrial environment where people live in a limit, restrict, and physically isolated community, it will be a matter of time before the birth of the first outer space child. As Must Urbanism argued “the birth of the first child will lead to the inevitable establishment of the human race on the Moon”62. By the assistance of the technology, mechanical instruments, and within a proper living environment man will be able to adapt to the life on the outer planets. Generations that are born in an extraterrestrial environment will be able to adapt and get use to the current condition of their living environments, in both physical and mental construct. As shown in Exhibit 6 In the final scenery of 2001: a space odyssey the image of the Star Child and the earth refers to the rise of the whole earth; it’s an icon and symbol of the unity of humanity and the evolution of man through its dominancy in the solar system and the entire universe. This was the story of a spacefaring civilization.

“Eventually, spacefarers will become space kind”63

62 Veldhuis, Wouter, Marijn Van Der Linden, Leentje Sijsma, Svenja Jager, and Senneke Van Wijk. "Very Dirty Realism." Volume 25 (2010): 26‐31. Print. 63 Harris, Philip Robert. Afterword. Space Enterprise: Living and Working Offworld in the 21st Century. Chichester, UK: Springer/Praxis, 2009. 66. Print.

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