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Acknowledgments

Funding for this project was provided by US Fish & Wildlife Service Wildlife Conservation and Restoration Program Grant No R-11-1, Great Outdoors Colorado Trust Fund (GOCO), and the sportsmen of Colorado.

The Colorado Division of Wildlife gratefully acknowledges the following individuals:

Kevin S. McKelvey, USDA Forest Service, Field-test Educators: Rocky Mountain Research Station, Robert Lancaster, Walsh High School, Missoula, MT, for providing lynx occurrence Walsh, CO data from 1842 through 1998. Mark Little, Broomfield High School, Broomfield, CO For assistance in developing the field test: Lyn Neve, Swink High School, Swink, CO Anne Tweed, Senior Science Consultant, Camille Schiraldi, TH Pickens Technical McREL (Mid-continent Research for Center, Aurora, CO Education and Learning) Fran Sturgis, Adams City High School, Pam Van Scotter, Director, BSCS (Biological Commerce City, CO Sciences Curriculum Study) Center for Cherie Wyatt, Burlington Middle School, Curriculum Development. Burlington, CO Nicole Knapp, Science Educator, BSCS Debbie Yeager, Moffat County High School, Craig, CO

Content Advisors and Reviewers: Graphic Design: Writers: Tanya Shenk, Senior Research Darren Eurich, State of Colorado Wendy Hanophy, DOW Biologist, Mammal Research Integrated Document Solutions (IDS) Jeff Keidel, Buena Vista High School, Jeff Rucks, Head of Education, DOW Buena Vista, CO Lisa Evans, Northeast Region Illustrations: Education Coordinator, DOW Helen Zane Jensen, Life-Size Snow Copy Editor: Steve Lucero, Southeast Region Tracks Dawn Taylor Owens, Colorado Education Coordinator, DOW Marjorie Leggitt, All Other Illustrations Department of Natural Resources Linda Groat, Southeast Region Rural Education Specialist, DOW Classroom Observations and Educator Printing: Debbie Lerch-Cushman, Metro Denver Interviews: Education Coordinator, DOW State of Colorado Integrated Stan Johnson, Northwest Region James Philips Document Solutions (IDS) Print Education Coordinator, DOW Wendy Hanophy Operations Renee Herring, Wildlife Watch Coordinator, DOW Administrative Assistance: ©Copyright 2005 by Colorado Division of Wildlife. All rights reserved. Permission granted to reproduce handouts and Mackenzie Bulger transparencies for classroom use. All illustrations are copy- Map Development: righted by the artists and may not be reproduced for other Chris Flohr than classroom use—they may not be reproduced or Don Schrupp, Southwest ReGAP, Paula Zangari transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or Colorado Principal Investigator mechanical, or by any information storage or retrieval Eric Waller, Southwest ReGAP, system, without permission in writing. For permissions and Project Coordinator and Editor: other rights under this copyright, please contact Colorado Colorado Land Cover Coordinator Division of Wildlife, 6060 Broadway, Denver, CO 80216, Wendy Hanophy, DOW Attn: Wendy Hanophy. TableTable OfOf ContentsContents Return Of The Snow Cat The Reintroduction Of Lynx To Colorado Module Overview ...... 1

Lesson 1: Lynx Links Educator’s Overview...... 6 Lynx Links ...... 12

Lesson 2: Planning The “Purrrfect” Comeback Educator’s Overview...... 22 Planning the “Purrrfect Comeback” ...... 26

Lesson 3: Map That Cat Educator’s Overview...... 32 Lynx Sightings in Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado ...... 48

Lesson 4: Built-in Snowshoes Educator’s Overview...... 50 Built-in Snowshoes ...... 56 TableTable OfOf ContentsContents Lesson 5: Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow Educator’s Overview...... 66 Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow . . . . 72

Lesson 6: No Cat Is An Island Educator’s Overview...... 82 No Cat Is An Island ...... 90

Lesson 7: It’s A Plot! Educator’s Overview...... 100 It’s A Plot! ...... 104

Lesson 8: Seven Steps To Success Educator’s Overview...... 114 Seven Steps To Success ...... 116

Glossary ...... 121 Module Overview Return Of The Snow Cat The Reintroduction Of Lynx To Colorado

Cool Cats, Cool Science The reintroduction sounds interesting, but you may wonder what’s in it for you and your One hundred years ago, Colorado had students. Are you interested in providing fewer than 2,000 elk, 7,000 deer, and 1,000 students with an opportunity to explore the pronghorn. Through the efforts of involved applications of science to real issues? Do you citizens and the Colorado Division of Wildlife long for materials with real depth that can (DOW), our state now has more than 300,000 allow your students to explore a topic in many elk, 500,000 deer, and 60,000 pronghorn. The ways? Do you want your students to use real DOW has also restored diminishing popu- (and current) research data to analyze, draw lations of river otters, ospreys, peregrine conclusions about, and apply to real situ- falcons, bald eagles and greenback cutthroat ations? Understand and interpret patterns trout to healthy levels. from numbers? Use the scientific process to raise their own questions, develop hypotheses Now, a historic and heroic project is and examine data to test them? Develop underway to return the beautiful Canada lynx critical reading skills? Understand the cross- to its historic range in Colorado. The mid-size disciplinary nature of science issues and wildcat was presumed extirpated from the problems? If you answered yes to any of state and listed as “state endangered” in these questions, this module is for you. 1973. After many years searching for any remaining lynx, the Colorado Division of Wildlife began a pro-active reintroduction effort. The first lynx were released on February What is This? 3, 1999. By 2000, the regal cat with the short tail, large fur-covered paws and tufted ears This eight-lesson module, designed for was listed as “threatened” under the federal two weeks of classroom instruction, teaches Endangered Species Act. Colorado’s lynx basic high school level ecology (ecosystems, restoration project seeks to prevent the lynx population dynamics, and more) using real from ever reaching “endangered” status, and research data from the Colorado Division of hopefully to delist them altogether. Wildlife’s lynx reintroduction efforts. The module is designed to supplement or replace This is only the second time in North the activities found in most high school America that a lynx reintroduction has been biology, ecology, or environmental science attempted. The first effort to establish lynx in textbooks that address these topics. It is the Adirondack Park in New York in the late first module developed by the DOW to 1980’s failed. There was no adequate moni- address the specific learning objectives of toring plan, and it was impossible to discern high school students. Materials are inquiry- where the project went wrong. When based, develop critical thinking skills, supply Colorado decided to undertake this project, evidence to support each concept, and the state put in place stringent scientific moni- include a field research experience. toring. Not only would this experimental Module Overview approach enhance the success of the reintro- duction, it would allow scientists to add to a growing body of knowledge about species restoration.

Return Of The Snow Cat 1 Using Return Of The Snow Cat: Steve Lucero, Education Coordinator SE Region The Reintroduction Of Lynx To 4255 Sinton Road Colorado in Your Classroom Colorado Springs, CO 80907 719-227-5203 The lessons in this module are designed Lisa Evans, Education Coordinator, to be taught in sequence. For each activity, NE Region the students take on the role of a scientist, 317 W. Prospect receive an introduction to the problem and to Ft Collins, CO 80526 their task, are required to choose relevant 970-472-4343 information, and collect, record, and analyze data. Debbie Lerch-Cushman, Education Coordinator, Denver Metro Area To supplement this module, each regional 6060 Broadway DOW office has a Lynx Loan Box available for Denver, CO 80216 check out. The box contains pelts and skulls 303-291-7328 of many subalpine animals, additional lessons, print material, and videos. Contact the Education Coordinator in your region to reserve the loan box: Correlation to the Colorado Model Stan Johnson, Education Coordinator, Content Standards NW Region 711 Independent Ave. Return Of The Snow Cat: The Grand Junction, CO 81505 Reintroduction Of Lynx To Colorado supports 970-255-6191 teachers in their efforts to provide the knowledge and skills specified in the Linda Groat, Rural Education Specialist, Colorado Model Content Standards and the SE Region corresponding grade level assessment 2500 S. Main frameworks. Lamar, CO 81052 719-336-6608

Lynx

Module Overview

2 Return Of The Snow Cat COLORADO MODEL CONTENT STANDARDS

Lesson 2: Lesson 4: Lesson 5: Lesson 6: Lesson 8: Lesson 1: Planning The Lesson 3: Lesson 7: Built-in Hare Today, No Cat Is Seven Steps Lynx Links “Purrrfect” Map That Cat It’s A Plot! Snowshoes Gone Tomorrow An Island To Success Science Comeback 1: Students understand the processes of XX X X XX X scientific investigation and design. They conduct, communicate about and evaluate such investigations.

2.3: Students understand that interactions X can produce changes in a system, although the total quantities of matter and energy remain unchanged.

3.1: Students know and understand the XXXXXXXX characteristics of living things, the diversity of life, and how living things interact with each other and with their environment.

3.3: Students know and understand how the X human body functions, factors that influence its structures and functions, and how these structures and functions compare with those of other organisms.

5: Students know and understand inter- X XXX relations among science, technology, and human activity and how they can affect the world.

6: Students understand that science involves XX XXXX a particular way of knowing and understand common connections among scientific disciplines.

COLORADO MODEL CONTENT STANDARDS

Lesson 2: Lesson 4: Lesson 5: Lesson 6: Lesson 8: Lesson 1: Planning The Lesson 3: Lesson 7: Built-in Hare Today, No Cat Is Seven Steps Lynx Links “Purrrfect” Map That Cat It’s A Plot! Snowshoes Gone Tomorrow An Island To Success Reading and Writing Comeback 1: Students read and understand a variety XXXXXXXX of materials.

2: Students write and speak for a variety of XX purposes and audiences.

3: Students write and speak using XX conventional grammar, usage, sentence structure, punctuation, capitalization, and spelling.

4: Students apply thinking skills to their XXXXXXXX reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing.

5: Students read to locate, select, and make XX X X X use of relevant information from a variety of

media, reference, and technological sources. Module Overview

Return Of The Snow Cat 3 COLORADO MODEL CONTENT STANDARDS

Lesson 2: Lesson 4: Lesson 5: Lesson 6: Lesson 8: Lesson 1: Planning The Lesson 3: Lesson 7: Built-in Hare Today, No Cat Is Seven Steps Lynx Links “Purrrfect” Map That Cat It’s A Plot! Snowshoes Gone Tomorrow An Island To Success Mathematics Comeback 1: Students develop number sense and use XX X X X numbers and number relationships in problem-solving situations and communicate the reasoning used in solving these problems.

2: Students use algebraic methods to explore, X model, and describe patterns and functions involving numbers, shapes, data, and graphs in problem-solving situations and communi- cate the reasoning used in solving these problems.

3: Students use data collections and analysis, X X XXXX statistics, and probability in problem-solving situations and communicate the reasoning used in solving these problems.

4: Students use geometric concepts, X properties, and relationships in problem- solving situations and communicate the reasoning used in solving these problems.

5: Students use a variety of tools and XX X X techniques to measure, apply the results in problem-solving situations, and communicate the reasoning used in solving these problems.

6: Students link concepts and procedures XXXXXXX as they develop and use computational techniques, including estimation, mental arithmetic, paper-and-pencil, calculators, and computers, in problem-solving situations and communicate the reasoning used in solving these problems.

COLORADO MODEL CONTENT STANDARDS

Lesson 2: Lesson 4: Lesson 5: Lesson 6: Lesson 8: Lesson 1: Planning The Lesson 3: Lesson 7: Built-in Hare Today, No Cat Is Seven Steps Lynx Links “Purrrfect” Map That Cat It’s A Plot! Snowshoes Gone Tomorrow An Island To Success Geography Comeback 1: Students know how to use and construct XXXX maps, globes, and other geographic tools to locate and derive information about people, places, and environments.

2: Students know the physical and human XX characteristics of places, and use this knowledge to define and study regions and their patterns of change.

3: Students understand how physical XX XX X XX processes shape Earth's surface patterns and systems.

5: Students understand the effects of XX X X interactions between human and physical systems and the changes in meaning, use and importance of resources.

Module Overview

4 Return Of The Snow Cat Notes ______Module Overview ______

Return Of The Snow Cat 5 Lesson 1 Educator’s Overview Lynx Links

Duration One 45-minute Summary class period This activity is designed to build active science reading skills, and establish basic vocabulary and concepts for understanding what wildlife management is, who does it, Vocabulary what lynx are, and some history of lynx in Colorado. This Bag limit activity serves as a foundation to study lynx ecology and the science of reintroducing species. Candidate species Census method Colorado Division of Wildlife (DOW) Learning Objectives Background Conterminous 48 After completing this activity, For many students and states students will be able to: adults, reading science is like District Wildlife • Compare the features of reading a foreign language. Manager (DWM) Colorado’s native felines: lynx, Whether the science writing Endangered bobcat, and mountain lion. is found in a textbook, a newspaper, a journal, or on the Endangered • Construct a timeline illustrating Internet, it often contains Species Act (ESA) the history of lynx in Colorado. vocabulary that is unique to that Extirpated • Define wildlife management science area. Even words and Extinct and list some wildlife phrases that are familiar can be used in different ways and have Game animal management techniques. different meanings in a scientific Habitat • Define basic wildlife context. For example, a wildlife management terms by inferring Natural resource biologist using the terms “game,” meaning from the context in “community,” or “seasons” is Population which the term is used. rarely referring to Bingo, her Recovered • Distinguish between state and neighborhood, or summer. Recovery plan federal wildlife management agencies and the responsi- For students to be able to Reintroduction bilities of each. make sense of what they read, Season vocabulary development and the • Define “threatened” and ability to access prior knowledge Species of special “endangered” as applied to are crucial. Often the writer of concern wildlife and state and federal scientific material takes for Threatened law. granted that the readers share U.S. Fish and the same basic knowledge and Wildlife Service jargon. This first activity is (USFWS) designed to acknowledge this Viable population peculiar fault of scientists and Wildlife begin to encourage students to management

Lesson 1: Lynx Links Lesson 1: Lynx

6 Return Of The Snow Cat think about strategies they might Teaching Strategies use to understand new words or concepts. 1. Thoroughly read the student activity for Lynx Links. There will be some words 2. This activity introduces the presented in the student reading entire unit, Return of the Snow that are not directly defined. You Cat: the Reintroduction of Lynx and your students will probably to Colorado to the students. This notice these, as they are in bold first activity, Lynx Links, provides text, just like some other words a great opportunity to get that are immediately followed students excited about the topic. with a definition. Students will be Begin by playing the DVD: Return asked to make sense of these of the Snow Cat: the words without using a dictionary Reintroduction of Lynx to and later discuss their thinking Colorado for students. Tell them processes. Materials and that they will be studying about lynx and the extraordinary effort Preparation While students are working to restore populations of this on reading skills, they will be • Laminated color native cat. Let students know this learning some key concepts photographs of is a current issue—and an related to lynx and wildlife lynx, bobcat, and experiment of immense management. These concepts mountain lion importance. will form a conceptual framework • Student Reading for students as they proceed 3. Optional: It is optional, but and Activity Pages through the remainder of the unit. highly recommended, that you for Lynx Links— obtain a Lynx Loan Box from one photocopy your Regional Colorado Division per student of Wildlife office (see module • DVD player and overview). The box contains lynx, monitor bobcat, and mountain lion pelts • DVD: Return of and skulls which can be used for the Snow Cat: The student observation. Reintroduction of You can begin by placing the Lynx to Colorado colored photographs of the lynx, • Optional: Obtain bobcat and lion in a visible place. Lynx Loan Box If you have the loan box, place from DOW the skull replicas and pelts in a Regional Office visible place as well. 4. Inform students that their research of lynx will involve not only various experiments and simulated activities, but also reading scientific materials from various sources. This initial reading will provide them with the background information and

vocabulary they need to study Lesson 1: Lynx Links this amazing animal.

Return Of The Snow Cat 7 5. Give each student Reading and Activity (While both state and federal wildlife agencies Pages for Lynx Links. After students have read may jointly manage species, the U.S. Fish & individually, they can complete the activities Wildlife Service has ultimate authority for all either alone or in small groups. federally listed species and migratory birds: 6. Review the activities as a group. The golden eagle, American robin, Colorado discussion will give you a good opportunity pikeminnow; while the Colorado Division of to point out to students that they use some Wildlife manages the rest) of the same skills in reading as they do in “hands-on” science: they engage prior knowledge, they hypothesize (I think the word means… because…), they evaluate, look for Extensions patterns, make inferences, and so on. • Research the names and responsibilities of the seven other divisions of Colorado’s Department of Natural Resources. Assessment The student activities can serve as an assessment for vocabulary, lynx history in Colorado, and lynx characteristics.

Provide students with this list of Colorado species: mule deer, golden eagle, bullsnake, tiger salamander, sagebrush lizard, snapping turtle, rainbow trout, black bear, red fox, American robin, Woodhouse’s toad, Colorado pikeminnow, and striped skunk. Ask students to state whether the Colorado Division of Wildlife or the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service has ultimate authority to manage each species and why.

Mountain Lion

Lesson 1: Lynx Links Lesson 1: Lynx

8 Return Of The Snow Cat Student Activity Answer Keys

1 2 E V 3 X E X T I R P A T E D 4 5 T A U S F W S 6 7 I C B A G L I M I T I N O L L 8 9 C E N S U S M E T H O D D W M T T P L 10 11 R E I N T R O D U C T I O N I R P H F 12 M N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S I L E M 13 14 15 E N H A B I T A T G A 16 N O R T T A N D U E I E M A 17 A S C O N P E G N O N E E A E G V D O N M 18 E S E A S O N P I E 19 R R R L M N 20 E N D A N G E R E D S P E C I E S A C T D N D L G E

Across Down

3. A species that has been 10. An attempt to re-establish a 1. A species that no longer 13. A species that is in eliminated from part of its species in an area that was exists on this planet immediate danger of historical range once part of its historical becoming extinct in all or a 2. Population that is large range large portion of its range 4. Agency responsible for enough and healthy enough managing migratory birds, 12. That portion of the envi- to be self-sustaining in the 15. Animals that people can marine mammals and ronment that people have wild legally hunt, trap or fish federally “listed” species assigned value to or use 5. The application of scientific 16. When a species population 7. The number of a species 14. The arrangement of food, knowledge to sustain wildlife is large or healthy enough to that can be harvested in a water, shelter and space and its habitat be taken off the “list”

specified period of time suitable to an animal’s needs Lesson 1: Lynx Links 6. Enclosed within one 17. The owners of wildlife in the 8. Method to count members 18. The time of year one can common boundary United States of a population, part of hunt or fish 11. Species that are vulnerable 19. The geographic region where population monitoring 20. A 1973 federal law that because they exist in small a plant or animal species 9. A special Colorado biologist protects animals and plants numbers or in a limited normally lives who is also a law from extinction in this range enforcement officer country

Return Of The Snow Cat 9 This timeline represents one possibility; students’ timelines should be similar.

1897: Creation of state 1878–1935: wildlife agency (CDOW) 14 records of lynx 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1878 1979–1999: 1968–1973: 12 statewide investigations 4 records of lynx to find lynx (none found) 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 1950 Present 1973: Last known lynx killed on Vail ski area/ 2000: Lynx officially listed 1993–99: Endangered Species Act passed as threatened by USFWS $500 reward offered for information on lynx 1992: Petition filed to list lynx as 1999: Lynx reintroduced to Colorado a federally endangered species 1993: U.S. Forest Service designates lynx as a sensitive species

Since students have been asked to choose the features to compare the three felines, this represents just one possible example of a comparison table.

FEATURE Tufts on Spots or Weight Tail Fur Color Size of Feet Ears? Stripes?

LYNX 20–30 lbs. Bobbed, Yes No Uniform in Large in black tip color, thick proportion and long to body

BOBCAT 20–30 lbs. Bobbed, Yes Yes Striped on In proportion black spot on body, not as with the rest top of tip, thick of the body white below

MOUNTAIN LION 130 lbs. Long, No No Uniform color, In proportion black tip not thick with the rest of the body

Bobcat

Lesson 1: Lynx Links Lesson 1: Lynx

10 Return Of The Snow Cat Notes ______

______Lesson 1: Lynx Links ______

Return Of The Snow Cat 11 Lesson 1 Student Pages Lynx Links

Summary This first section provides you with a foundation for studying lynx reintro- duction in Colorado—it will “link” together some basic concepts. Included is information about lynx and what is known about their history in our state, the science of wildlife management, and a working definition of reintroduction and its use as a management tool to recover wildlife species.

Lynx, the Snow Cat others being the mountain lion and the bobcat. It’s easy to distinguish a lynx from The name lynx comes from the Greek a mountain lion. Lynx weigh about 20-to- word, leukos, which means white. That’s 30 pounds; lions weigh about 130 pounds. not surprising, because these wild cats Lynx have short, “bobbed” tails, and tend to live where there is a lot of snow. In mountain lions have graceful, black-tipped fact, as you will soon discover, lynx are tails that are nearly three feet long. uniquely suited to travel and hunt in deep snow. On the other hand, telling a lynx from a bobcat can be pretty difficult if you don’t The lynx is one of Colorado’s three know what to look for. Both are about native species of wild felines (cats)—the twice the size of a domestic cat, have

Bobcat

Lesson 1: Lynx Links Lesson 1: Lynx

12 Return Of The Snow Cat bobbed tails, and tufts of fur on the tips of The History of Lynx in Colorado their ears. But the two cats do have some noticeable differences! The tip of the tail Lynx sightings have always been rare on a lynx is completely black, as if the tail in Colorado. Perhaps this is because this had been dipped in ink. The tip of the tail secretive cat lives in areas where most of a bobcat has a black spot on the top people don’t usually travel, or perhaps and is white underneath, and the bobcat’s they have never existed in large numbers. tail will often have several black stripes. A 1911 report, “A Biological Survey of Lynx typically have long, thick fur that is Colorado,” referred to lynx as “tolerably uniformly grayish-brown in winter, and common” in some parts of the state, but shorter and more reddish in the summer. mentioned that “its numbers are rapidly They lack distinct spots and striping. In decreasing.” Prior to the reintroduction contrast, bobcats will typically have program, only 18 authenticated records of distinct spotting on their coats and the species existed in the state and 14 of striping on their front legs and faces. those occurred between 1878 and 1935. The remaining four documented records, The most conspicuous difference between January 1968 and February 1973, between lynx and bobcats are in the all occurred in the central mountains paws. Lynx feet are huge and look out of within a 35-mile radius of Hoosier Pass, proportion to the rest of their body—like furry clown feet! Bobcats have much smaller paws, and in profile they look mostly like a big house cat.

Mountain Lion Lesson 1: Lynx Links

Return Of The Snow Cat 13 south of Breckenridge. The last known lynx in Colorado was illegally trapped and killed on the Vail ski area in February 1973.

Colorado Division of Wildlife (DOW) biologists began to wonder if any lynx remained in the state. Between 1979 and 1998, researchers conducted 12 investi- gations in Colorado to document the presence of lynx. Intensive efforts—using snow tracking (5,833.5 miles), hair snags (62 locations), remote cameras (110 locations) and snares (686 trap nights)— So, what’s this Colorado Division yielded only 11 sets of tracks with a high of Wildlife? probability, but not absolute certainty, of being lynx. Since the founding of the United States in 1776, wildlife has always been From 1993 until the start of the lynx considered a public resource. Unique reintroduction program in 1999, the DOW among nations—in the new democracy, offered a $500 reward for positive infor- wildlife belonged to the people, not the mation on lynx, but never paid out any king. money. Researchers concluded that if any lynx remained in Colorado, their numbers In the early years, wildlife was were so small they did not represent a abundant and new settlers made use of viable population and were not animals in whatever way they could. Some detectable by known census methods. It species were hunted for food, while others was quite possible that lynx had been were collected for fur, feathers, or other extirpated from Colorado. valuable parts. Some species, particularly large predators such as wolves, lions, and bears, were eradicated because they posed a threat to human life or competed with humans for resources.

As time passed, wildlife populations began to dwindle and concern grew for the long-term well being of wildlife popu- lations. People began to pass laws to regulate the harvest of wildlife and study the best methods to sustain wildlife species. The field of wildlife management was born. Wildlife management is defined as the application of scientific knowledge and technical skills to protect, preserve, conserve, limit, enhance or extend the value of wildlife and its habitat.

Lesson 1: Lynx Links Lesson 1: Lynx

14 Return Of The Snow Cat Each state was given jurisdiction over • Habitat improvement—adding or most of the plants and animals in its state. improving key components of the Most states typically have a Department of species’ habitat; Natural Resources that oversees all the • Education—providing information to the natural resources —that portion of the public about wildlife habitat and needs. environment upon which people have placed or assigned value or see as being available for use. In Colorado, the Some management techniques apply Department of Natural Resources is only to game animals—animals that divided into eight smaller agencies or people can legally hunt, trap, or fish. “divisions” that manage minerals, state These include regulations that: lands, parks, oil and gas, forests, water, • Set seasons—establishing certain times and wildlife. Since 1897, the Colorado of year people may hunt or fish; Division of Wildlife has had the responsi- bility to manage wildlife as a public trust, • Issue licenses—issuing a certain for all the people of the state. number of licenses or permits to hunt a certain species or a certain sex of that species; • Set bag limits—allow only a specified Some Tools of Wildlife number of fish or animals to be harvested within a certain time limit; Management • Set size limits—usually for fish, spec- Wildlife agencies employ trained biol- ifying a minimum or maximum weight or ogists and other specialists who design length of a species that may be caught. and carry out management plans based on the needs and desired outcomes for a Law enforcement goes hand in hand given species. They have a variety of tech- with other wildlife management tech- niques and tools they can use to maintain niques. Many college educated biologists wildlife populations at optimal levels. in wildlife agencies are also highly trained Some examples are: law enforcement officers. In Colorado, • Population monitoring—estimating the these special biologists are known as number of individuals of a species either District Wildlife Managers or DWMs. directly (by counting individual animals) While their emphasis is on enforcing or indirectly (through evidence such as wildlife regulations, Colorado’s DWMs tracks, scat, or nests); have the same training and authority as all other peace officers in the state. • Habitat analysis—identifying the key needs of the animal in question (food, Most wildlife management plans water, shelter, space); include public input and include specifics • Habitat protection—passing laws that about when, where, and for how long any protect key habitat for the species; management strategy will be used. It is • Protection—passing laws that make really important to identify what the plan injuring or killing that species a crime; hopes to achieve and to identify any

potential negative effects from the plan. Lesson 1: Lynx Links

Return Of The Snow Cat 15 Both the state and federal government also maintain a list of species that may be at risk of becoming threatened or endangered. At the state level, this is the list of species of special concern. At the federal level, these species are often candidate species for possible listing.

Special Management Cases Recovery Plans and Marine mammals, and migratory Reintroduction as a Management species such as songbirds and waterfowl, Technique are under the jurisdiction of a federal wildlife agency, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife The Endangered Species Act is a Service (USFWS), because they cross federal law passed in 1973 that protects state and/or national boundaries. The plants and animals from becoming extinct DOW also does not have jurisdiction over in this country. When a species is placed species that are nationally threatened or on the federal threatened or endangered endangered. However, the DOW actively species list, the federal government, manages these species (except marine through the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, mammals—Colorado has none) in part- supersedes the state’s authority to nership with the USFWS. manage that species. Species that are only on a state’s threatened or endangered species list are still managed by that state’s wildlife agency. Lists The Endangered Species Act of 1973 Actors strive to get on the “A” list and requires the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service businesses work hard to make the and the states to develop recovery plans “Fortune 500.” But there are lists no one for threatened and endangered species. wants to be on—state or federal Species are considered “recovered” when threatened or endangered species lists. A they can be taken off the list—when their wildlife species with endangered status is populations are large enough and healthy in immediate risk of becoming extinct enough to be self-sustaining in the wild. (eliminated) in all or a large portion of its range. Threatened species are not in Recovery plans, like all other wildlife immediate peril of extinction, but are management plans, make use of different vulnerable because they exist in small options and techniques. One option is numbers or in such a limited range that reintroduction, an attempt to re-establish they may become endangered. a species in an area that was once part of

Lesson 1: Lynx Links Lesson 1: Lynx

16 Return Of The Snow Cat its historical range, but from which it has In 1997, by order of U.S. District Court, been extirpated. Reintroduction is one of the USFWS was required to review their the more extreme and costly recovery decision not to list lynx. Upon review, they options, and is chosen only when certain issued a finding of “warranted but conditions are met and after a rigorous precluded.” That meant they found scientific and public review. scientific evidence for concern and the lynx was a candidate species.

Since studies could not conclusively The Lynx Link demonstrate that lynx still existed in viable numbers, and with the lynx a candidate to Efforts to protect lynx populations in be put on the federal threatened species Colorado began in the early 70’s. First, the list, DOW biologists began formulating a hunting season on lynx was closed. Lynx recovery plan. Given the isolation of were designated a state endangered Colorado from the nearest northern lynx species in 1976 by the Colorado Wildlife populations, biologists from the DOW and Commission (the Colorado Wildlife other experts determined that reintro- Commission is responsible for state duction was the only practical option for listings while federal classification is made recovering the species in our state. Re- by the Secretary of the U.S. Department of introduction of lynx began in 1999. In the Interior). A petition to list lynx as a March 2000, lynx were officially listed as federally endangered species in the threatened in the conterminous 48 states conterminous 48 states was filed in the by the USFWS. state of Washington, but the listing was denied in 1992. In 1993, the U.S. Forest Service designated lynx as a sensitive species, granting it special consideration in land use planning efforts.

Lynx Lesson 1: Lynx Links

Return Of The Snow Cat 17 Lynx Links—Terms Without using a dictionary, see if you can figure out the meaning of these words Reading scientific reports or textbooks and write a working definition of them: can be like trying to read material in a Viable population foreign language. The world of science, including the world of wildlife biologists, ______has a language all its own. If you are ______reading scientific material and cannot ______understand a word, you may not be able to ______understand the concept that goes with it. Census method Usually, in educational materials such as this, the writer will “flag” a new term ______that he or she thinks may be unfamiliar to ______you and define it. An example of this is the ______sentence, “Wildlife management is ______defined as the application of scientific knowledge and technical skills to…” The Extirpated new term is in bold letters and the word “defined” is in the sentence and it is ______obvious that a term is being defined. ______Sometimes, however, the writer is ______forgetful, or possibly thinks that the word is a familiar one that anyone would Habitat understand. Or, perhaps, you may be asked to read a scientific article that was ______not primarily written for students and none ______of the words are defined. What do you do ______then? Your first instinct may be to look in ______the dictionary. Usually, that is a very good idea. Common scientific terms are often in Conterminous dictionaries. But some aren’t. Sometimes, you can look at the sentence more ______carefully, look at how the word or term is ______used and come up with a working defi- ______nition yourself. The new word may sound ______like a word you already know and will be somewhat similar in meaning. Now that you think you know what these words mean, try the crossword There are five bold words in the puzzle on the next page. Each answer is material that you just read that the author one of the bold terms in the reading. (who, for his or her protection from frus- trated students, will not be identified at this time) deliberately did not define.

Lesson 1: Lynx Links Lesson 1: Lynx

18 Return Of The Snow Cat 1 2

3

4 5

6 7

8 9

10 11

12

13 14 15

16

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18

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Across Down

3. A species that has been 10. An attempt to re-establish a 1. A species that no longer 13. A species that is in eliminated from part of its species in an area that was exists on this planet immediate danger of historical range once part of its historical becoming extinct in all or a 2. Population that is large range large portion of its range 4. Agency responsible for enough and healthy enough managing migratory birds, 12. That portion of the envi- to be self-sustaining in the 15. Animals that people can marine mammals and ronment that people have wild legally hunt, trap or fish federally “listed” species assigned value to or use 5. The application of scientific 16. When a species population 7. The number of a species 14. The arrangement of food, knowledge to sustain wildlife is large or healthy enough to that can be harvested in a water, shelter and space and its habitat be taken off the “list” specified period of time suitable to an animal’s needs 6. Enclosed within one 17. The owners of wildlife in the

8. Method to count members 18. The time of year one can common boundary United States Lesson 1: Lynx Links of a population, part of hunt or fish 11. Species that are vulnerable 19. The geographic region where population monitoring 20. A 1973 federal law that because they exist in small a plant or animal species 9. A special Colorado biologist protects animals and plants numbers or in a limited normally lives who is also a law from extinction in this range enforcement officer country

Return Of The Snow Cat 19 Time Chronological time is used for describing historical events and developments, such Time is important in scientific writing, as describing what you did yesterday or just as it is in your life. Most people describing the history of the events that cannot organize their lives or make sense led to the decision to reintroduce lynx to of the world without talking about time. Colorado. Process time, on the other Think about it for a moment. Could you hand, describes the sequence of a even describe your life without time? If process, such as how to bake a cake or you tried to tell a friend what you did how cells divide. yesterday, you might have to mention breakfast, lunch, or supper. You may have There were many dates and events been late or early to an event. All the mentioned in the material that you just underlined words reference time, as do read. On your own paper, sketch out a young, old, day, night, month, year, first, timeline which includes all these dates and last….well, you get the picture. events, beginning in 1878 and ending in the “present.” Time is used in scientific writing in the same two ways that it is used in life.

1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1878

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 1950 Present

Lesson 1: Lynx Links Lesson 1: Lynx

20 Return Of The Snow Cat Cat Comparison Using what you already know and have experienced is also helpful for Another important way to understand comparing things and situations in things is by comparing them to other science. In fact, most scientific endeavors, things. How can you say that something is such as identifying, describing, defining, large or hairy unless you have some idea and classifying, are based on your finely what large or hairy means? How large? tuned ability to make comparisons. Bigger than a bread box? Bigger than a freight train? How hairy? More hairy than We usually compare things based on an earthworm? A gorilla? Sometimes their features, some aspect or charac- descriptions only have meaning when they teristic. For example, you might choose are compared to something else. friends based on their height (short or tall), social competence (outgoing or Ultimately, there are two ways to withdrawn), or interests (sports or chess). compare things. Things are either alike or This reading compared the features of the they are different. (This anonymous author three native felines in Colorado. Set up a now imagines eyes rolling and the word table similar to the one below to compare “duh” being uttered by the reader—but them based on features that each has. stick with me a moment). In life, when you You choose which features are important. have a decision to make—like purchasing shoes or deciding between social events— comparing the situation to a past expe- rience can help make your decision easier.

FEATURE

LYNX

BOBCAT

MOUNTAIN LION Lesson 1: Lynx Links

Return Of The Snow Cat 21 Lesson 2 Educator’s Overview Planning The “Purrrfect” Comeback

Summary After discussing factors that shape a reintroduction effort, students retrieve archived press releases on a Web site to document successful historic species’ reintroduction and recovery efforts in Colorado.

Learning Objectives and range of wildlife. While each species management plan is After completing this activity, unique and designed to avoid Duration students will be able to: any decline of the species, few involve the intense human effort • List seven general questions One or two and financial resources of a which must be answered 45-minute class species reintroduction program. before a species reintroduction periods Usually, reintroduction programs effort can begin. are a “last resort,” designed to • Search the Colorado Division of halt and reverse a precipitous Wildlife’s Web site for infor- drop in a species population. Vocabulary mation published in any DOW While reintroduction programs Competition press release dated from are used to attempt to prevent January 1996 until the present. extirpation or extinction of Habitat • Provide an example of one species, it is important to Home range native Colorado species that emphasize that worldwide, 60 Limiting factor has been reintroduced to the percent of animal extinctions are due to habitat loss. Therefore, the Niche state, the major reason(s) for the decline of that species, and best long-term strategy for the events/changes/laws that species conservation is habitat occurred that enabled the conservation. species to recover. It is difficult to keep current on most scientific issues, and wildlife management is no exception. By the time most Background textbooks are published, the information in them is already Many wildlife species are dated. However, timely infor- managed by humans, in hopes of mation is often available on the keeping populations self- Internet, through government sustaining for future generations. agencies, universities, and other Various measures, from setting credible scientific institutions. hunting seasons, to habitat This activity introduces students improvement, to protection, are to a Web site where they can find designed to control the numbers current information on wildlife in

Lesson 2: Planning the “Purrrfect” Comeback

22 Return Of The Snow Cat their state. Since the lynx reintro- Will the lynx have too much duction program is presently competition? underway, and there are new What other environmental developments in the program all variables need to be the time, activities in this module considered? will employ the DOW Web site to Has/will Colorado’s drought keep both these materials and have an impact on lynx? What students up to date. about recent forest fires? Are there suitable release sites? Is there enough lynx habitat Teaching Strategies left in Colorado? How do people feel about lynx? Is there a safe 1. Thoroughly read the student area to release them? materials for Planning the Where will we get lynx for “Purrrfect” Comeback. reintroduction? How will we know they are similar to native 2. Give each student just the lynx? Where are healthy popu- Materials and reading packet. Do not hand out lations of lynx? How will we get the Internet activity. Preparation them here? 3. After giving students What’s our plan? How will • Access to the sufficient time to read the packet, we monitor our reintroduction? Internet (from tell students that they are playing How will we know if/when classroom, school computer center, the role of members of the Lynx we’ve succeeded? What would local library, or Reintroduction Planning Team. be an optimal population of lynx home) 4. As a class, brainstorm a list in Colorado? How can we tell when we have that many? • Student Reading of questions that the “Lynx and Activity Pages Team” must answer before they 5. Write all suggestions in a for Planning The can start this effort. Use the visible place. Ask students to “Purrrfect” larger questions in the reading copy these questions for future Comeback, one as a start. Some possible use. photocopy per responses are: student 6. Now distribute the Internet What are the specie’s assignment. Depending on your • White board or critical needs and limiting school’s resources, have blackboard factors? students complete the What habitat do lynx prefer? assignment in class, a computer What do lynx eat? lab, in their local library, or at What was the historic range home. Allow enough time for

of lynx in North America and in students to complete the Comeback Lesson 2: Planning the “Purrrfect” Colorado? assignment. What other species compete 7. In class, ask for students to with lynx for food or other habitat volunteer to present information components? on the nine species mentioned in Why did lynx decline in the the press release. What first place? Have those factors contributed to the loss or decline been addressed? of the species? What has helped Have any other species the recovery of the species into filled the void created by the its historic range? List the missing lynx? reasons for decline in a visible What else lives where the lynx place. lives? What other species eat the same prey?

Return Of The Snow Cat 23 8. Point out that habitat loss was a major Student Activity Answer Key factor in decline of more than half of the species studied. Emphasize that worldwide, Rocky Mountain Bighorn Sheep 60 percent of animal extinctions are due to • Major reason(s) for the decline of this habitat loss. While reintroduction efforts are species: Disease, loss of habitat. important, it is most important over the long term to conserve the habitat that species • Events/changes/laws that occurred to need to survive. enable recovery: Reintroduction.

Boreal Toad • Major reason(s) for the decline of this Assessment species: Unknown, research underway. The groups’ list of generated questions • Events/changes/laws that occurred to (for a Lynx Recovery Team) serves as an enable recovery: Not recovered, captive assessment for this activity. breeding, reintroduction, and monitoring programs are underway.

American Peregrine Falcon Extensions • Major reason(s) for the decline of this species: Thinning of eggs from pesticide • Students can explore the U.S. Fish & DDT. Wildlife Service Web site (http://www.fws. gov/endangered/) for additional infor- • Events/changes/laws that occurred to mation on recovery plans for threatened and enable recovery: National ban of DDT, endangered species. captive breeding and reintroduction. • Research other rare or declining species in Colorado. Develop a plan to bring about Boreal Toad recovery for one of these species. What method could be used?

Bighorn Sheep

Lesson 2: Planning the “Purrrfect” Comeback

24 Return Of The Snow Cat Greenback Cutthroat Trout Lesser Prairie Chicken • Major reason(s) for the decline of this Major reason(s) for the decline of this species: Not mentioned in press release, but species: Loss of habitat. found in “Wildlife in Danger.” Overfishing, Events/changes/laws that occurred to introduction of rainbow, book, brown, and enable recovery: Habitat improvement and Yellowstone cutthroat into their habitat, loss preservation, landowner agreements. of habitat. River Otter • Events/changes/laws that occurred to enable recovery: Captive breeding and • Major reason(s) for the decline of this release into suitable reintroduction sites, species: Not found in the press release. stream improvement. From “Wildlife in Danger”—Trapping, water pollution, and farming. Elk • Events/changes/laws that occurred to • Major reason(s) for the decline of this enable recovery: Reintroduction. species: Unregulated market hunting. Black-footed Ferret • Events/changes/laws that occurred to enable recovery: Two decades of hunting • Major reason(s) for the decline of this restrictions and importing elk from species: Not found in the press release. Yellowstone National Park. From “Wildlife in Danger”—Poisoning of prairie dogs, disease, loss of habitat. Plains Sharp-tailed Grouse • Events/changes/laws that occurred to • Major reason(s) for the decline of this enable recovery: Not recovered—still crit- species: Habitat loss. ically endangered. Captive breeding and reintroduction is underway. • Events/changes/laws that occurred to enable recovery: Habitat improvement— planting grasses grouse like.

River Otter

Elk Lesson 2: Planning the “Purrrfect” Comeback Lesson 2: Planning the “Purrrfect”

Return Of The Snow Cat 25 Lesson 2 Student Pages Planning the “Purrrfect” Comeback

A Not Quite “Purrrfect” Solution What are the species critical needs and limiting factors? Reintroduction can be a valuable Each species has its own habitat wildlife management tool for recovering requirements—the arrangement of food, species that have become extirpated in water, shelter and space suitable to its local areas or even globally extinct in the needs. The amount of habitat that the wild. In part, reintroduction can be animal needs or travels over in the credited with saving many species from course of its daily activities—its home extinction, including the California condor, range—may depend on its social black-footed ferret, peregrine falcon, and behavior and whether it is solitary or our Nation’s symbol, the bald eagle. While travels in groups. Is there enough habitat species reintroductions like these are left to support a breeding population? impressive, reintroduction is hardly a perfect answer to the problem of Limiting factors are components of vanishing species. the environment that keep an animal from surviving or reproducing, like Reintroduction is a very complex diseases or predators or lack of food. strategy that costs millions of dollars and Are limiting factors so severe that there the time of biologists whose efforts could would be more animals dying than be directed elsewhere. Each reintroduction surviving if they were reintroduced? takes so much work that the technique should not be thought of as a universal Why did the species decline in the first tool for broad-scale preservation of place? species. Since most endangered species To be sure the reintroduction is are in trouble because their habitat has successful, biologists must make sure been fragmented, destroyed or degraded, that the main cause(s) of the original conserving and restoring habitat is usually extirpation are gone. What caused the the best way to sustain endangered plants demise of the population? Disease? and animals and to prevent species listing Unregulated over-hunting? Over- in the first place. collection? Pollution? Poisoning? Too much competition (demand for limited Under most conditions, scientists favor resources)? Predation by introduced or conserving the habitat that supports many native species? Habitat loss? Adverse species rather than a species by species effect of an earlier management approach. When reintroduction seems to program? Conflict with human activity? be the best or only option, biologists do a Have there been changes in the original lot of homework beforehand to make sure events or new regulations that will now that the reintroduction has a high proba- allow the species to recover? bility of success. Before the project begins, biologists have to find the answers to lots of questions.

Lesson 2: Planning the “Purrrfect” Comeback

26 Return Of The Snow Cat Have any other species filled the void respond to the environment in similar created by the extirpated species? ways. Also, it is important that removing Every animal has its own niche—its individuals from the source population role or function in an ecological doesn’t endanger that population. If the community. Sometimes when a species source population is captive bred, then is eliminated from an area, there is no the animals must have enough expe- species to take that role and there are rience to survive in the wild and not be dramatic changes in the habitat. For so confident in the presence of humans example, a golden eagle is a predator that they pose a danger. Once the that hunts rodents. If all the golden source animals are found, they need to eagles were extirpated from an area and be screened for contagious pathogens no other species took its place, rodent and parasites, and there has to be a populations may grow so large that they transportation plan to get them to the eat all the vegetation. On the other hand, release site. other species that eat rodents, such as Do we know what we want to hawks and snakes, may come in and fill accomplish and have a plan to monitor this niche. If many other species filled our success? this role, there might be too much Most reintroduction efforts are exper- competition for a successful reintro- imental. The reintroduction team first duction of golden eagles. chooses indicators of success (i.e. optimal population level) or failure and What other environmental variables decides what events would cause them need to be considered? to end the reintroduction program. Then Is climate a factor? Is there an they carefully plan their initial release ongoing drought that reduces the food strategy (e.g. timing, acclimatization of supply? Are there highways criss- release animals, group composition and crossing an area where a reintroduction number, release pattern and technique, is being considered? Are invasive etc.), and design a monitoring program species that were not historically in the to track everything. Finally, the team area a threat? develops education and public relations programs to inform and sometimes involve the public in the effort. Are there suitable release sites? Is there suitable habitat within the Successful Reintroductions—More than

historic range of the species? Is this area Good Science of sufficient size that the species can be Comeback Lesson 2: Planning the “Purrrfect” sustained for the foreseeable future? Ultimately, decision makers need How do people living near the potential more than the best scientific input to release site feel about this proposal? decide whether to reintroduce a species. They need to know that there is long- term financial and political support, that Is there a suitable source and avail- there is full involvement and permission ability of animals for reintroduction? of all relevant government agencies, and The individuals that are gathered for that the legal requirements of both the reintroduction should be genetically Endangered Species Act and Colorado similar to the native animals and statutes have been met. They must also

Return Of The Snow Cat 27 attempt to address the concerns of local citizens, identify any risks to human life and property, and identify ways to minimize these risks. Finally, they must make sure that the species will have minimal threat from human activities.

Lynx Reintroduction Team Planning Questions

______

Lesson 2: Planning the “Purrrfect” Comeback

28 Return Of The Snow Cat Planning the “Purrrfect” questions. The Colorado Division of Wildlife is YOUR state agency, conserving Comeback for Lynx YOUR wildlife. It only makes sense that YOU know how to get information about When undertaking a task as difficult as YOUR wildlife whenever you want. So, reintroducing lynx back into historic after you have answered the questions, habitat, it pays to have experience. The feel free to explore the rest of the site to Colorado Division of Wildlife has had see what it has to offer. plenty! The lynx reintroduction follows many successful efforts at restoring To access the site, you can either type Colorado’s native species. Information in the Web address: http://wildlife. about these reintroductions can be found state.co.us or you can type Colorado on the Colorado Division of Wildlife’s Web Division of Wildlife in the search box on site. your screen. Once you are at the Web site, you will notice a row just below the This activity will require you to access agency banner that looks like this:

DOW’s Web site to answer a few brief Lesson 2: Planning the “Purrrfect” Comeback Lesson 2: Planning the “Purrrfect”

Click on “News & Media.” You will then see a column on the left hand side with the following choices:

Now, click on “Press Releases.”

Return Of The Snow Cat 29 This is what you will see:

Fill in the information as shown here and click on the “GO” button.

Lesson 2: Planning the “Purrrfect” Comeback

30 Return Of The Snow Cat Click on the press release titled: LYNX PART OF LONG LINE OF REINTRO- DUCTIONS BY DIVISION and read it.

Then, choose just one of the species that Events/changes/laws that occurred to is talked about in the press release and enable recovery: answer the following questions about that ______species. If you cannot find all your infor- mation on your species in the press ______release, you can click on “Wildlife ______Species” on the row menu beneath the ______banner, and then on “Species of Concern” ______on the left side. Then click on the “Wildlife in Danger” publication. ______Species Name: ______

That’s it! Pretty easy! Major reason(s) for the decline of this Comeback Lesson 2: Planning the “Purrrfect” species: So much for history, there’s a cat to ______bring back. Let’s get started. As scientists trying to reintroduce lynx into Colorado, ______you’ve generated some questions to ______answer; questions that you can answer ______over the next week or so as you complete ______each lesson. ______

Return Of The Snow Cat 31 Lesson 3 Educator’s Overview Map That Cat

Summary Students map the geographic distribution of lynx in North America based on historic lynx occurrences to gain important insights into the connection between coniferous forests and lynx occurrence in North America.

Learning Objectives occur in different areas, but each of these areas has similar climate Students will be able to: and geography. This activity is designed to demonstrate that • Map and describe the historic lynx prefer coniferous forests as distribution of Canada lynx in habitat, and that these forests the western United States. occur in similar climates. Duration • Interpret three graphs to analyze the distribution of plant One 45-minute cover types and lynx in class period Montana, Wyoming and Colorado. Teaching Strategies • Convert a metric measurement 1. Thoroughly read the student materials for Map That Cat. Vocabulary into an English measurement. 2. As a review of the previous Cover type activity, ask students how they might find out which habitat lynx Background prefer in Colorado and where they previously lived in the state. The climate of any physical Someone should suggest looking environment determines what at historical information. organisms live there. Life is 3. Tell students that you have mostly dependent on two historic information gathered climatic elements—temperature from written accounts and and moisture. Most organisms trapping records for the western are adapted to live within a United States. They will need to particular range of these two map the information. factors. Plants only grow in suitable climates. The animals 4. Divide the class into groups that depend on those plants— of four to six. Give each group either directly (herbivores) or indi- state maps and the corre- rectly (carnivores)—are found in sponding Lynx Sightings by State those same climates. On Earth, charts. similar biological communities

Lesson 3: Map That Cat

32 Return Of The Snow Cat 5. Using the chart information, 9. Point out that there seem to students should draw a small dot be spruce/fir forests in many 1 (about ⁄8” in diameter) in the areas of the United States. correct county on each state Explain that the forests in each map for every lynx occurrence. region are not identical. In the Dots may overlap. (Note: western states, the species of students may ask why the trees include mostly Englemann Materials and Colorado map and information is spruce and subalpine fir, the Preparation different from the information same trees that are found in provided in Lesson 1—that there British Columbia and Alberta, • State maps and were only 18 authenticated Canada. In the Northeastern corresponding Lynx records of lynx in the state. Tell United States and Quebec, Records 1842 to them that the information in Canada, red spruce, black 1998 for each of Lesson 1 included only actual spruce, and balsam fir are the these states: specimens that were trapped, dominant tree species. In the Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, Montana, and no written records. This Great Smoky Mountains and the Idaho, and information includes written southern Appalachian Mountains, Washington, one entries in journals and other red spruce and Fraser fir are the photocopy per documents that could not be dominant species. Emphasize group of students verified. However, for this activity, that he type of vegetation that • Student Page including written records is can grow in an area depends on Lynx Sightings in useful.) climate, especially temperature Montana, Wyoming, and moisture. Describe for 6. After each group has and Colorado, one students how temperature and completed their maps, ask photocopy per moisture decrease as latitude students to assemble all the group of students (distance from the equator) maps by taping them together. • Overhead projector increases. They also decrease as Hang the maps in a very visible elevation (height above sea level) • Acetate classroom location. increases. In general, every transparency: IMPORTANT: These maps are degree of latitude traveling north Map of Lynx also needed for Lesson 6, No Cat (or south) of the equator is the Sightings, Is An Island. Please leave the 1842–1998 equivalent of moving 360 feet maps posted. higher in elevation at the equator. • Acetate 7. Place the acetate of the map As a result, mountains often transparency: entitled Map of Lynx Sightings, show the same sequence of Spruce/Fir Forests in the 1842–1998 on an overhead change in ecosystems that is Conterminous found as one goes north or south projector. Ask students to United States compare this map to the maps from the equator. You would they created. They should notice expect to find many of the same • Optional: that the points for the western environmental conditions in Classroom biology texts illustrating United States are identical, but Colorado’s high mountains as in lower elevations of northern earth’s biomes and this map includes lynx sightings the relationship Montana, and therefore, similar in other geographic locations: the between climate Lake States, and Northeast. tree species. Since high and latitude/ elevations in the Southeastern elevation. 8. Now place the acetate of the U.S. have the same climate as in map entitled Spruce/Fir Forests Maine or Quebec, Canada, many Lesson 3: Map That Cat in the Conterminous United of the tree species are the same. States on the overhead projector. Optional: If students’ biology textbooks illustrate this concept, you may want to direct them to those illustrations.

Return Of The Snow Cat 33 10. Now place the Map of Lynx Sightings, Student Activity Answer Keys 1842–1998 on top of the Spruce/Fir Forests in the Conterminous United States map. Point 1. Which state is farthest north? Montana. out that lynx are usually seen in spruce/fir 2. Approximately what percentage of forests. Montana’s landscape is 2,000 meters in 11. Now hand out the student page entitled elevation or less? 88 percent (Note: Lynx Sightings in Montana, Wyoming, and Students can figure this out by drawing a Colorado. Ask students to look at the graphs horizontal line from the top of each area and answer each question. bar representing 2,000 meters or less to the Percent axis of the graph and adding 12. Ask students, “What general statement those numbers together.) can you make regarding lynx sightings in the Rocky Mountains related to elevation”? Lynx 3. Approximately what percentage of sightings have been primarily in areas of high Wyoming’s landscape is 2,000 meters in elevation. The farther south in the Rocky elevation or less? 49 percent Mountains, the higher the elevation. 4. Approximately what percentage of Colorado’s landscape is 2,000 meters in elevation or less? 48 percent 5. How high in feet is 2,000 meters? 6,560 Assessment feet (meters x 3.28 = feet) By researching the plant cover type of any 6. Looking just at lynx sightings; are lynx location in North America (U.S. or Canada), found at higher elevations in Montana, students should be able to state whether lynx Wyoming, or Colorado? Colorado habitat exists in that location. 7. Would the plant cover type (type of plants found at that location) be the same at 2,500 meters elevation in each state? No. Why or why not? The type of vegetation that can Extensions grow in an area depends on climate. Temperature and moisture decrease as • Students could map historic worldwide latitude (distance from the equator) distribution of lynx. increases. They also decrease as elevation (height about sea level) increases. You would expect to find many of the same environmental conditions in Colorado’s high mountains as in lower elevations of northern Montana. 8. What forest type is probably represented Subalpine Fir at the elevations where lynx sightings occur in each state? Spruce/Fir forests.

Lesson 3: Map That Cat

34 Return Of The Snow Cat

Map of Lynx Sightings, 1842–1998 Lesson 3: Map That Cat

Return Of The Snow Cat 35 Lesson 3: Map That Cat

36 Return Of The Snow Cat Spruce/Fir Forests in the

Conterminous United States Lesson 3: Map That Cat

Return Of The Snow Cat 37 Lesson 3: Map That Cat

38 Return Of The Snow Cat Colorado Counties

Sedgwick Logan Weld Moffat Jackson Larimer Phillips Routt Broomfield Morgan Grand Boulder Denver Rio Blanco Yuma Gilpin Adams Washington Clear Arapahoe Garfield Eagle Creek Summit Jefferson Elbert Douglas Kit Carson Pitkin Lake Park Mesa Lincoln Delta Cheyenne Teller El Paso Gunnison Chaffee

Montrose Fremont Kiowa Crowley Ouray Pueblo Saguache Custer San Miguel Hinsdale Bent Prowers Otero Dolores San Juan Mineral Huerfano Rio Alamosa Grande Montezuma Las Animas Baca La Plata Costilla Archuleta Conejos Lesson 3: Map That Cat That Map 3: Lesson

Return Of The Snow Cat 39 Utah Counties

Cache Rich Box Elder

Weber Morgan Davis Daggett Summit Salt Lake Tooele Wasatch Duchesne Uintah Utah

Juab Carbon

Sanpete

Millard Emery Grand

Sevier

Beaver Piute Wayne

Iron Garfield San Juan

Washington Kane Lesson 3: Map That Cat

40 Return Of The Snow Cat Wyoming Counties

Sheridan Crook Park Big Horn

Campbell Johnson Teton Washakie Weston Hot Springs

Niobrara Converse Fremont Natrona Sublette

Goshen Platte Lincoln Carbon Sweetwater Albany

Uinta Laramie Lesson 3: Map That Cat That Map 3: Lesson

Return Of The Snow Cat 41 Montana Counties

Daniels Sheridan Lincoln Glacier Toole Hill

Flathead Liberty Blaine Valley Roosevelt Pondera Phillips

Richland Teton Chouteau Sanders Lake McCone

Mineral Cascade Dawson Lewis Garfield Fergus and Petroleum Clark Judith Missoula Basin Wibaux Prairie

Powell Meagher Rosebud Musselshell Granite Wheatland Fallon Broad- Golden Valley Treasure water Custer Jefferson

Ravalli Deer Lodge Silver Sweet Bow Yellowstone Gallatin Grass Still- water Carter Powder Park Big Horn River Madison Beaverhead Carbon Lesson 3: Map That Cat

42 Return Of The Snow Cat Idaho Counties Teton Bear Lake Fremont Caribou Bonnieville Madison Franklin Bannock Clark Bingham Jefferson Oneida Power

Butte Minidoka Cassia Blaine Lemhi Lincoln Custer Jerome Twin Falls Twin Camas Gooding Idaho Elmore Valley Clearwater Boise Shoshone Owyhee Ada Boundary Lewis Bonner Gem Adams Latah Kootenai Benewah Nez Perce Payette Canyon Washington Lesson 3: Map That Cat That Map 3: Lesson

Return Of The Snow Cat 43 Washington Counties

Whatcom Pend Oreille San Okanogan Juan Ferry Skagit Stevens Island

Clallam Snohomish Chelan Jefferson Douglas Kitsap Lincoln Spokane King Grays Mason Harbor Grant Kittitas Pierce Adams Whitman Thurston

Pacific Lewis Franklin Garfield Yakima Columbia Benton Walla Asotin Cowlitz Walla Wahkiakum Skamania Kuckitat Clark Lesson 3: Map That Cat

44 Return Of The Snow Cat Lynx Sightings by State

COLORADO UTAH Number of Lynx Number of Lynx County County Sightings, 1842–1998 Sightings, 1842–1998 Archuleta 3 Cache 1 Boulder 3 Daggett 3 Chaffee 5 Duchesne 5 Clear Creek 5 Emery 1 Conejos 3 Morgan 1 Costilla 1 Summit 15 Custer 2 Uintah 9 Delta 1 Wasatch 10 Douglas 3 TOTAL 45 Eagle 48 El Paso 1 WYOMING Garfield 5 Number of Lynx County Grand 8 Sightings, 1842–1998 Gunnison 10 Albany 3 Hinsdale 1 Big Horn 2 Huerfano 1 Carbon 10 Jackson 4 Converse 5 Laplata 4 Crook 3 Lake 3 Fremont 41 Larimer 7 Johnson 8 Mesa 2 Laramie 1 Moffat 2 Lincoln 57 Montezuma 4 Natrona 1 Montrose 2 Niobrara 1 Park 11 Park 39 Pitkin 21 Platte 1 Rio Blanco 9 Sheridan 4 Rio Grande 1 Sublette 83 Routt 12 Sweetwater 3 Saguache 1 Teton 70 San Juan 2 Uinta 3

Summit 14 Weston 2 Lesson 3: Map That Cat Teller 1 TOTAL 337 TOTAL 200

Return Of The Snow Cat 45 Lynx Sightings by State

MONTANA MONTANA (continued) Number of Lynx Number of Lynx County County Sightings, 1842–1998 Sightings, 1842–1998 Beaverhead 97 Teton 108 Blaine 1 Wheatland 1 Broadwater 1 Yellowstone 2 Carbon 2 TOTAL 1,581 Cascade 6 Chouteau 2 IDAHO Daniels 1 Number of Lynx County Dawson 1 Sightings, 1842–1998 Deer Lodge 32 Bear Lake 4 Fergus 32 Benewah 1 Flathead 255 Blaine 7 Gallatin 20 Boise 1 Garfield 1 Bonner 22 Glacier 68 Bonneville 3 Granite 38 Boundary 5 Jefferson 11 Butte 1 Judith Basin 2 Camas 2 Lake 16 Caribou 4 Lewis And Clark 134 Clark 8 Liberty 1 Clearwater 9 Lincoln 236 Custer 56 Madison 7 Elmore 3 Meagher 8 Fremont 21 Mineral 22 Idaho 41 Missoula 242 Jerome 1 Musselshell 2 Kootenai 3 Park 16 Latah 4 Phillips 1 Lemhi 44 Pondera 18 Nez Perce 1 Powell 126 Oneida 1 Ravalli 38 Power 1 Roosevelt 1 Shoshone 17 Sanders 14 Teton 4 Silver Bow 14 Twin Falls 2 Stillwater 2 Valley 5 Sweet Grass 2 TOTAL 271

Lesson 3: Map That Cat

46 Return Of The Snow Cat Lynx Sightings by State

WASHINGTON Number of Lynx County Sightings, 1842–1998 Chelan 64 Columbia 1 Douglas 5 Ferry 55 Garfield 2 Jefferson 1 King 4 Kittitas 1 Okanogan 501 Pend Oreille 91 Pierce 1 Skagit 2 Skamania 10 Snohomish 1 Spokane 2 Stevens 24 Whatcom 4 Whitman 3 Yakima 11

TOTAL 783 Lesson 3: Map That Cat

Return Of The Snow Cat 47 Lesson 3 Student Page Lynx Sightings in Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado

Dr. McKelvey analyzed lynx sighting 1. Which state is farthest north? records by county for Montana, Wyoming ______and Colorado and graphed both the percentage of elevation types (area) 2. Approximately what percentage of found in the counties and the percentage Montana’s landscape is 2,000 meters in of lynx sightings (points) at each of the elevation or less? elevations. ______3. Approximately what percentage of Wyoming’s landscape is 2,000 meters in elevation or less? ______4. Approximately what percentage of Colorado’s landscape is 2,000 meters in elevation or less? ______5. How high in feet is 2,000 meters? ______6. Looking just at lynx sightings; are lynx found at higher elevations in Montana, Wyoming, or Colorado? ______7. Would the plant cover type (type of plants found at that location) be the same at 2,500 meters elevation in each state? Why or why not? ______8. What forest type is probably repre- sented at the elevations where lynx sightings occur in each state? From Ecology and Conversation of Lynx in the United States. Used with the ______permission of Dr. Kevin S. McKelvey

Lesson 3: Map That Cat

48 Return Of The Snow Cat Notes ______

______Lesson 3: Map That Cat ______

Return Of The Snow Cat 49 Lesson 4 Educator’s Overview Built-in Snowshoes

Summary Students measure snow tracks of various wildlife species and calculate foot loading—they divide the weight of the animal by the total surface area of its feet. They use these calculations to discuss wildlife adaptations for moving in deep snow and discuss implications for interspecies compe- tition and lynx management.

Learning Objectives Teaching Strategies Duration Students will be able to: 1. Thoroughly read the student activity for Built-in Snowshoes. Two 45-minute • Calculate the foot loading ratios class periods of ten wildlife species in English 2. Optional: If you have a large, or metric units. flat piece of Styrofoam, you can • Describe how foot loading open this activity by setting up affects the amount of energy an the following scenario for Vocabulary animal must exert to move in students: Ask them to imagine snow. that the floor was tiled with this Adaptation Styrofoam. Would it be easier to Boreal • Infer the impact of low or high walk across the floor in ladies snow pack on lynx survival. spike heels or flat soled shoes? Foot loading Why? Would that be true even if Mesocarnivore the persons wearing the shoes Subalpine forest were the same height and weight? Now ask them to Background imagine that the classroom floor The Canada Lynx is uniquely was covered with four feet of adapted to live in the extremely snow and continue with the next snowy environment of Colorado’s step. high altitude coniferous forests. A 3. Begin by discussing the lynx is about as big as a difficulty of moving in deep snow. medium-sized dog. Its long legs, Ask students: light body, and sizable feet Have you ever tried to walk in reduce its foot loading, the ratio deep snow? that could be called a “sink in the snow coefficient.” This enables Have you ever tried to chase the lynx to move quickly and a friend while playing in deep easily over deep snow that might snow? be an obstacle to other Discuss how running—and predators. even walking—in deep snow is very tiring and burns up a lot of

Lesson 4: Built-in Snowshoes

50 Return Of The Snow Cat energy (calories) in a short period 6. Explain that students will be of time. examining and comparing foot Ask students to brainstorm loading ratios of various wildlife how moving around in deep species. They will use this infor- snow can be made easier. They mation to learn more about the may think of several possibilities, ecology of the lynx and some which may include: implications for the lynx reintro- duction program in Colorado. • Having snowshoes or skis; Optional: You may also want to • Being lighter; place the pelts from the Lynx • Being taller and having Loan Box out so students can longer legs. examine the feet of the animals Discuss why each of these they will be comparing. Materials and would make it easier to move Preparation around in snow and ask students 7. Hand out the student readings and materials. Ask to give an example from personal • Student packet: experiences. students to read the background Built-in Snowshoes information and notify you when • Graph paper 4. Explain that wild animals also they are ready to begin calcu- lating foot loading ratios. (Optional: have difficulty moving about in photocopy acetate deep snow. They burn up a lot of 8. Demonstrate how to trace a overlays of graph calories, too. If animals burn foot print. Trace a line around the paper grid for easier more calories than they pad of the foot, but do not tracing) consume, they may not survive. include claws. Look at these • Calculators Ask students to think about examples for the red squirrel and • Optional: Large, animals that have adaptations the pine marten: flat piece of that make it easier to move Styrofoam, about through snow. Ask them to list Red Squirrel the length and examples of animals that employ height of a floor tile, some of the same strategies they Hind and about 1–2” listed for humans. These may thick; a ladies spike include: heeled shoe, and a flat soled shoe. • Snowshoe hares have big feet that enable them to • Optional props: A move on top of snow; pair of snowshoes • Moose have long legs and and/or a pair of skis can wade through fairly • Optional: Obtain deep snow; Lynx Loan Box from • Ptarmigan are light enough your local DOW to move on top of snow. Pine Marten Regional Office

Front 5. Talk about using snowshoes again. Explain that using snowshoes reduces a person’s foot loading. Foot loading ratios Lesson 4: Built-in Snowshoes are an approximation of the pressure a walking animal places on snow, and as a result, the animal’s sinking depth. The deeper an animal sinks, the more energy it must expend to move through the snow.

Return Of The Snow Cat 51 9. Check that students understand the Assessment example for estimating the area of a footprint. Make sure that students have properly Have students determine their own foot calculated the scale of their graph paper, loading ratios with and without snowshoes which may be different than the example or skis. shown. 10. To save time and to avoid frustrating the students, have each student calculate the foot Extensions loading for just one animal. Randomly assign a species to each student. Since there will • Investigate a Colorado Precipitation Map for probably be more than one student calcu- areas of highest snowfall or investigate lating the ratio for each species, they should snow monitoring stations—SNOTEL sites be able to compare their answers. If students (for SNOwpack TELemetry). The Natural have wildly different answers for a species, Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) they can work through the calculations again installs, operates, and maintains this to find ratios they can agree on. extensive, automated system to collect 11. Compile the ratios in a visible place. Ask snowpack and related climatic data in the students to complete their Foot Loading Western United States. The system evolved tables before answering the questions. from NRCS’s Congressional mandate in the mid-1930’s “to measure snowpack in the 12. Discuss answers to the questions. mountains of the West and forecast the water supply.” SNOTEL sites can be located at this Web site: http://www.wcc.nrcs. usda.gov/factpub/sntlfct1.html. Red Squirrel • Examine real tracks in snow. • Compare the sinking depth of an area of untrammeled snow to an area of packed snow (like a ski trail or snowmobile trail).

Pine Marten

Lesson 4: Built-in Snowshoes

52 Return Of The Snow Cat Student Activity Answer Keys

FOOT LOADING FOR VARIOUS WILDLIFE SPECIES (English Measurements) Front Feet Surface Hind Feet Surface Foot Loading Wildlife Species Weight (lbs) Area (area of one Area (area of one Total Surface Area of Feet (in2) lbs/in2 foot in in2) x 2 foot in in2) x 2 Snowshoe Hare 3 1.80 x 2 = 3.6 12.8 x 2 = 24.16 27.76 0.11 Pine Marten 1.5 3.12 x 2 = 6.24 3.24 x 2 = 6.48 12.72 0.12 Red Squirrel 0.5 0.56 x 2 = 1.12 0.88 x 2 = 1.76 2.88 0.17 Eastern Cottontail 1 0.80 x 2 = 1.60 2.16 x 2 = 4.32 5.92 0.17 Lynx 22 11.92 x 2 = 23.84 11.64 x 2 = 23.28 47.12 0.47 Wolverine 35 9.52 x 2 = 19.04 10.4 x 2 = 20.8 39.84 0.88 Red Fox 10.5 2.72 x 2 = 5.44 2.32 x 2 = 4.64 10.08 1.04 Bobcat 17 3.12 x 2 = 6.24 3.04 x 2 = 6.08 12.32 1.38 Coyote 23 4.36 x 2 = 8.72 3.28 x 2 = 6.56 15.28 1.51

Mountain Lion 145 9.72 x 2 = 19.44 6.80 x 2 = 13.6 33.04 4.39 Lesson 4: Built-in Snowshoes

Return Of The Snow Cat 53 Student Activity Answer Keys (cont.)

FOOT LOADING FOR VARIOUS WILDLIFE SPECIES (Metric Measurements) Front Feet Surface Hind Feet Surface Foot Loading Wildlife Species Weight (in grams) Area (area of one Area (area of one Total Surface Area of Feet (cm2) (g/cm2) foot in cm2) x 2 foot in cm2) x 2 Snowshoe Hare 1,400 11.61 x 2 = 23.22 77.94 x 2 = 155.88 179.1 7.82 Pine Marten 750 20.13 x 2 = 40.26 20.90 x 2 = 41.8 82.06 9.14 Red Squirrel 225 3.61 x 2 = 7.22 5.68 x 2 = 11.36 18.58 12.11 Eastern Cottontail 500 5.16 x 2 = 10.32 13.94 x 2 = 27.88 38.2 13.09 Lynx 10,000 76.90 x 2 = 153.8 75.10 x 2 = 150.2 304 32.89 Wolverine 16,000 61.42 x 2 = 122.84 67.1 x 2 = 134.2 257.04 62.25 Red Fox 5,000 17.55 x 2 = 35.10 14.97 x 2 = 29.94 65.04 76.88 Bobcat 8,000 20.13 x 2 = 40.26 19.61 x 2 = 39.22 79.48 100.65 Coyote 10,000 28.13 x 2 = 56.26 21.16 x 2 = 42.32 98.58 101.44 Mountain Lion 66,000 62.71 x 2 = 125.42 43.87 x 2 = 87.74 213.16 309.63

Lesson 4: Built-in Snowshoes

54 Return Of The Snow Cat 1. What does 1.5 lbs/in2 as a measure of foot 4. The red fox weighs half that of a lynx, yet, loading actually mean? A foot loading ratio its foot loading ratio is more than two times of 1.5 lbs/in2 means that every square inch greater than the lynx. Why? The red fox has of the animal’s sole supports 1.5 pounds of very small feet, so despite its light weight, body weight. The higher the number, the its foot loading is high. more pounds of body weight each square 5. All of the predators listed would love to inch supports—and the more the animal eat a snowshoe hare for a winter’s meal, but will sink into the snow. only one likely will. Why? Most of the 2. The bobcat and the lynx have nearly the predators listed have such high foot same average body weight, yet the lynx has a loading ratios that they would likely expend much lower foot loading ratio. Why? How too many calories moving through the might that influence the use of Colorado deep snow to justify hunting a snowshoe habitats by these two cat species? The lynx hare. So, they avoid the very high has a much lower foot loading ratio mountain areas of Colorado in the winter. because the surface area of its feet is so Only the lynx is uniquely adapted for this large (47.12 in2). The surface area of the environment. The pine marten weighs quite bobcats’ feet is much smaller. During a bit less than a snowshoe hare, so is more winter months the lynx would have a likely to prey on small rodents. greater advantage in moving through the 6. Roads have expanded dramatically in the deep snow, while the bobcat would sink in high mountains during the last few decades. deeper and expend more energy moving Would roads help or harm the competitive around and probably could not catch their advantage that the lynx have compared to prey. Rather than starve, bobcats typically other predators in these areas? Explain. live in drier habitats than lynx, at least Roads make these areas more accessible during the winter months. to other predators. The competitive 3. The eastern cottontail rabbit’s foot loading advantage of the lynx is reduced. ratio is not as low as the snowshoe hare, but 7. Would a long-term drought help or harm it is lower than the lynx. Why doesn’t the the competitive advantage that lynx have in eastern cottontail rabbit live in the subalpine the high forests? Explain. Drought reduces forest? Species have many requirements snow fall, so less snow means more and many adaptations. The eastern predators have access to the forests. The cottontail does not have thick enough fur competitive advantage of lynx is reduced. and also cannot find the food it eats in the

subalpine forest. Lesson 4: Built-in Snowshoes

Coyote

Return Of The Snow Cat 55 Lesson 4 Student Pages Built-in Snowshoes

Colorado’s subalpine forests are snow cover is an obstacle to movement— found in very high-mountain environments requires some unique adaptations. with elevations over 9,000 feet. These Adaptations are anatomical, physio- forests contain most of the same tree logical, or behavioral changes that species found in Canada’s boreal forests. improve a population’s ability to survive. During the brief summer months, subalpine forests are pleasant places to Lynx, like other animals that stay in be. Maybe you have enjoyed summer subalpine forests year-round, have special camping or hiking in these areas and adaptations to move through or over viewing the various wildlife species that snow. Like coyotes, bobcats, and foxes, also frequent these forests in the summer. lynx are mesocarnivores—mid-sized Perhaps you’ve seen elk grazing in a high carnivores. They aren’t as heavy as larger meadow. Maybe your canine hiking carnivores like mountain lions or bears partner has picked up the scent of a hare and will not sink into deep snow as easily. and tugged hard on the leash. Certainly, Lynx also have unusually long legs you’ve enjoyed the antics of campground compared to other members of the cat chipmunks. There are predators nearby, family. These long legs are an advantage though you may not have noticed them: in the deep snow. But the most distinctive owls, coyotes, fox, cougar, bobcat and adaptation is the lynx’s unusually large maybe even lynx. feet. This activity focuses on the body weight to foot-surface ratio, called foot As winter approaches, these high loading, of the lynx and several other mountain forests become a harsh envi- mammals found in Colorado’s high ronment with fierce, icy winds and heavy mountains. The foot loading ratio is an snowfall. Additional snow is blown down approximation of the pressure a walking from the alpine and trapped by the narrow, animal places on snow, and as a result, densely packed trees, often forming snow the animal’s sinking depth. The deeper an depths of more than five feet. Most people animal sinks, the more energy it must and wild animals avoid these high expend to move through the snow. If an mountain areas during the long winter animal expends too much months. Elk migrate down to lower valley energy—the calories it bottoms, chipmunks hibernate, and many gets from food—it of the predators move to less extreme may starve. environments.

The lynx and its primary prey—the snowshoe hare—are among the few Mountain Lion animals that are active, year-round residents of subalpine forests. Living here in winter—where it is extremely cold and

Lesson 4: Built-in Snowshoes

56 Return Of The Snow Cat Determine the Foot Loadings of Some Colorado Wildlife. A. These are the body weights of ten mammals commonly found in Colorado’s subalpine forests.

Wildlife Body Weight Body Weight Species (grams) (pounds) Snowshoe Hare 1,400 3 Front Pine Marten 750 1.5 Red Squirrel 225 0.5 Eastern Cottontail 500 1 Lynx 10,000 22 Snowshoe Wolverine 16,000 35 Hare Red Fox 5,000 10.5 Bobcat 8,000 17

Coyote 10,000 23 Hind Mountain Lion 66,000 145

Body weights are average weights listed in Scats and Tracks of the Rocky Mountains, by James C. Halfpenny. ©1998 by Falcon Publishing, Inc., Helena, Montana.

B. The following pages contain the snow tracks, to scale, of each of these species. Track illus- trations are based on minimum outline measurements listed in Scats and Tracks of the Rocky Mountains, by James C. Halfpenny. ©1998 by Falcon Publishing, Inc.,

Helena, Montana. Lesson 4: Built-in Snowshoes

Return Of The Snow Cat 57 Pine Marten

Front

Hind

Eastern Cottontail

Front

Red Squirrel

Front

Hind Hind

Lesson 4: Built-in Snowshoes

58 Return Of The Snow Cat Lynx

Front Hind Lesson 4: Built-in Snowshoes

Return Of The Snow Cat 59 Wolverine

Front

Hind

Red Fox

Front

Lesson 4: Built-in Snowshoes

60 Return Of The Snow Cat Bobcat

Front

Hind

Coyote

Front

Hind

Hind Lesson 4: Built-in Snowshoes

Return Of The Snow Cat 61 Mountain Lion

Front

Hind

C. Use the snow track illustrations provided to determine the surface area of each species’ feet. 1. Get a piece of graph paper. Check the scale of the graph paper by measuring how many squares are found in one square inch or one square centimeter. In our example, there are 16 squares found in 1 square inch, so our scale is 1 1 2 2 square = ⁄16 in = 0.06 in . 2. Lay the graph paper over the track illustrations provided. Trace the track (do not include the claws) and count the number of squares (estimate partial squares) to determine the surface area. Be sure to do this for the front foot and hind foot.

Lesson 4: Built-in Snowshoes

62 Return Of The Snow Cat 3. Multiply the measurement of the front foot by two, to determine the total surface area for both front feet. Then multiply the measurement of the hind foot by two. Add the total for the front feet and the hind feet together to get the total surface area of all four feet. Here is an example of how to do this:

28 123 45678 123 91011121314 456 15 16 17 18 19 20 78910 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 11 12 13 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 14 15 16 76 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 17 18 19 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 20 21 22 27 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 23 24 25 56 57 58 59 60 61 26 62 63 64 65 66 67 77 68 69 70 71 72 Front Track 73 74 75

Hind Track 1 2 Scale = each square is ⁄16 in

Hind Track is approximately 77 Total surface area of tracks = squares (author’s estimate), 4.62 in2 x 2 = 9.24 in2

so 77 squares x 0.06 squares 1.68 in2 x 2 = 3.36 in2 Lesson 4: Built-in Snowshoes 2 per inch = 4.62 in 12.60 in2 Front Track is approximately 28 squares (author’s estimate), so 28 squares x 0.06 squares per inch = 1.68 in2

Return Of The Snow Cat 63 D. To determine the foot loading ratio for using metric units (grams of weight or each species, divide the average weight mass, and centimeters of surface area). by the surface area of all four feet. For our So, for our example: example, we’ll pretend our animal weighs 20 lbs/12.6 inch2 = 1.59 lbs/inch2 20 lbs. You can do the same calculations E. Complete this chart.

FOOT LOADING FOR VARIOUS WILDLIFE SPECIES Front Feet Surface Hind Feet Surface Weight Wildlife Species Area (measurement Area (measurement Total Surface Foot Loading in (in g or lbs) Area of Feet of one foot in cm2 of one foot in cm2 g/cm2 or lbs/in2 (in cm2 or in2) or in2) x 2 or in2) x 2 Snowshoe Hare Pine Marten Red Squirrel Eastern Cottontail Lynx Wolverine Red Fox Bobcat Coyote Mountain Lion

F. Construct a bar graph arranging the foot loading ratios from least to greatest.

Lesson 4: Built-in Snowshoes

64 Return Of The Snow Cat G. Discuss your results. 5. All of the predators listed would love to eat a snowshoe hare for a winter’s meal, 1. What does 1.5 lbs/in2 as a measure of foot loading actually mean? but only one likely will. Why? ______

2. The bobcat and the lynx have nearly 6. Roads have expanded dramatically in the same average body weight, yet the the high mountains during the last few lynx has a much lower foot loading ratio. decades. Would roads help or harm the Why? How might that influence the use of competitive advantage that the lynx have Colorado habitats by these two cat compared to other predators in these species? areas? Explain. ______

3. The eastern cottontail rabbit’s foot 7. Would a long-term drought help or loading ratio is not as low as that of the harm the competitive advantage that lynx snowshoe hare, but it is lower than the have in the high forests? Explain. lynx. Why doesn’t the eastern cottontail rabbit live in the subalpine forest? ______

4. The red fox weighs half that of a lynx, Wolverine yet, its foot loading ratio is more than two times greater than the lynx. Why? ______

______Lesson 4: Built-in Snowshoes ______

Return Of The Snow Cat 65 Lesson 5 Educator’s Overview Duration Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow Two 45-minute class periods Summary Vocabulary Student “research teams” evaluate snowshoe hare popu- lation cycle data and propose further investigations to Biotic potential understand these cycles. Browse Carnivore Carrying capacity Learning Objectives Scientific questions are open- Control group ended and cannot be answered Controlled After completing this activity, with a simple “yes or no.” Broad experiment students will be able to: questions such as “Why do snowshoe hare and lynx popu- Density • Write a testable scientific lations cycle?” are divided into question based on a given Dependent variable more specific testable questions scenario. Distribution that can be answered through Emigrate • Write a hypothesis that may research or experimentation. “Do Experimental group explain population phenomena. snowshoe hare populations crash Forbs • Communicate scientific obser- due to lack of food resources?” Generalist vations verbally, graphically, and in writing. This activity gives students Harvest data and observations about lynx Herbivore • Examine scientific data to and snowshoe hare ecology and Hypothesis describe and predict the inter- population dynamics. After eval- actions of populations and Immigrate uating the data or observations, ecosystems. student groups decide how best Independent to communicate that information variable • Design and defend a written plan for a scientific investi- to their peers. Groups then Leveret gation. generate questions for research Limiting factor that would explain the Model phenomena. Lastly, groups will Observation propose a hypothesis and an experimental design that could Pelt Background be used to answer one of the Population research questions. Population Scientific inquiry can be dynamics thought of as organized curiosity Population model about the physical world. Curious people ask questions about what Predator they see but do not understand. Teaching Strategies Prey The search for answers to these 1. Thoroughly read the student Size questions through experiments or activity for Hare Today, Gone Specialist research leads to new information Tomorrow. Synchronous and often, new questions. 2. Ask students to complete the Terrestrial reading Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow.

Lesson 5: Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow Lesson 5: Hare Today,

66 Return Of The Snow Cat 3. Introduce or review the that each of these graphs is used scientific process. If useful, give in a particular situation: students a copy of Stages of Bar graphs are designed to Scientific Research. Explain that make comparisons of data. This research is cyclical in nature, and data represented in bar graphs that new information often leads are not necessarily dependent on to new questions. The new any other variables. For example, questions lead to new bar graphs can be used to hypotheses and new investi- compare the populations of gations. different countries or the number Materials and 4. Discuss the reading and point of people who buy certain types Preparation out the stages of the scientific of cars. process. First, many observations Line graphs show trends, • Student Pages: Hare Today, Gone were made about snowshoe such as how things change Tomorrow, one hares. These observations were over time. They are the best type photocopy per collected over time. People asked of graphs to use to show how student questions about these obser- one factor affects another factor. vations. Scientists made They are typically used to • Student Page: What are the predictions about the rela- express the relationship Lynx-Hare between independent and tionships between snowshoe Population hares and lynx. They noticed that dependent variables. For Dynamics?, one further observations did not example, a line graph would be photocopy per support their simple used to show a baby’s increase in student predator/prey model. length (dependent variable) over • Research Team time (independent variable). 5. Discuss the graph showing “X”—Observations the snowshoe hare and lynx pelt sheet, one data over time. Over 90 years of Sometimes on line graphs, photocopy per data are displayed in this graph. scientists show results that use group of students Ask students to imagine what it different scales of measurement, or one for each would be like to make sense of all and need to use both y-axes to student in the group the numbers if they were only demonstrate these results. For shown in a large data table! example, if scientists were • Optional: Make Graphs quickly show concepts measuring both the population (in an acetate trans- that would need very lengthy #’s) of cats in a city and the parency of the written descriptions. percentage of those cats that page: Stages of were female over a ten year Scientific 6. Explain that graphs take many period, the graph might look like: Research or forms. Students provide photo- may be familiar 1,000 100% copies for with many types of 900 90% students

graphs, but most 800 80% • Optional: Butcher Lesson 5: Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow often, scientists Percentage of Females paper or acetate 700 70% use line graphs transparencies and bar graphs. 600 60% and markers

Explain to students 500 50%

400 40% Number of Cats

300 30%

200 20%

100 10%

0 0% 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 # of Cats Year % of Females

Return Of The Snow Cat 67 7. Explain the characteristics of an effective Extensions scientific question. 8. Explain to students that they will be • Include discussions of other population getting some additional observations or data concepts: exponential growth, S-curves, about lynx or snowshoe hare ecology. Then J-curves, growth rates, density-dependent divide the students into six research teams. factors, and density-independent factors. 9. Give each group of students a What are • Students search the internet for current the Lynx-Hare Population Dynamics? and a phase (incline or decline) of snowshoe Research Team “X”—Observations sheet. hare/lynx cycles in Canada and Alaska. 10. The first task of each student research • Students examine whether lynx populations team is to interpret, based on what they have are synchronous worldwide. already learned, what these data/observations • Students could research other species mean. They will need to decide what original which exhibit cyclic population dynamics. question prompted the collection of this data. They will then decide how to present this information to their peers (verbally, graphically, written) and prepare a presentation. 11. The second task for student research Student Activity Answer Key teams is to determine what further questions Each research team has been given the information might pose to scientists. The different information and data. All teams were student research team should list these presented this same set of questions: questions, and then choose one that seems most interesting to them. The team should 1. What might be the original question pose a hypothesis and then design a that led scientists to collect this data? controlled investigation that could support 2. What does it mean? or disprove their predictions. They will present 3. What is the best way to present this this plan to their peers for critique. information to the other Research Teams? 12. Optional: You may want to give students 4. What new questions can be asked butcher paper or blank acetate sheets to about this data? prepare for their presentations. Choose one of these questions. 13. Give student teams enough time to Propose a hypothesis, and design an prepare their presentations (one class period). experiment that would prove or disprove 14. Ask student groups to share their your hypothesis. knowledge with the other research teams. Each team in the audience should be This is an open-ended inquiry activity, and, encouraged (respectfully!) to make in general, there is great latitude for response. suggestions to the presenting research team. For the first two questions, the responses should be similar to these:

Research Team A Assessment 1. What might be the original question that led scientists to collect this data? Does lack Student completion of the activity demon- of food or poor quality food cause the strates the ability to ask good questions, pose snowshoe hare population to crash? an explanation (hypothesis) for observed phenomena and design an experiment to test 2. What does it mean? While there may be a hypothesis. more hares with supplemental food or higher quality food, the snowshoe hare population still cycles.

Lesson 5: Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow Lesson 5: Hare Today,

68 Return Of The Snow Cat Research Team B 2. What does it mean? The snowshoe 1. What might be the original question that hare populations still cycled even when led scientists to collect this data? Do predators were excluded. The areas that snowshoe hare populations cycle had also been given supplemental food everywhere? Do snowshoe hare popu- had more hares, but even those hare lations cycle at the same time everywhere? populations cycled. 2. What does it mean? Snowshoe hare cycles tend to occur in near synchrony Research Team F across much of the boreal forests of 1. What might be the original question that Canada. led scientists to collect this data? Are snowshoe hare cycles in Montana the Research Team C same as those just to the north in Canada? 1. What might be the original question that 2. What does it mean? The peaks and led scientists to collect this data? Does valleys of the cycles appear to be nearly snowshoe hare population density synchronous. influence hare reproduction? 2. What does it mean? Reproduction rates What to Look for in Student Presentations decrease when there is a greater density of For their presentation, each research team snowshoe hares. should be able to construct a properly labeled graph of their data. Each graph should have a Research Team D title. The X-axis and Y-axis (or both y-axes) should describe the type of data presented 1. What might be the original question that and the units of measurement. Research led scientists to collect this data? How is the teams should also be able to demonstrate survival rate of snowshoe hares influenced that they understand the information in a by population density? verbal presentation to their peers. 2. What does it mean? Adult survival decreases when population density is high. Each research team should be able to explain how their “new” questions relate to the information they have collected. The team Research Team E should be able to choose one of these 1. What might be the original question that questions and describe the logic or thought led scientists to collect this data? Would process behind the investigation that they excluding predators keep the snowshoe have designed to answer the question. hare population from cycling? Would excluding predators and providing supplemental food keep the snowshoe hare population

from cycling? Lesson 5: Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow

Snowshoe Hare

Return Of The Snow Cat 69 Stages of Scientific Research

Collecting Observations

Asking Effective Questions • Open-ended—Cannot be answered with a simple yes or no. • Testable—A scientist can attempt to answer the question through research or experimentation.

Forming Hypotheses and Making Predictions • Hypotheses are explanations that might be true—they are statements that can be tested by additional observation or experimentation. • Predictions are the expected outcome of a test, assuming the hypothesis is correct.

Gathering Data • Scientific investigations are controlled experiments. • An experimental group (a group that receives some type of experi- mental treatment) is compared to a control group (which does not receive any treatment). • The experimental group and the control group are identical except for one factor or variable, the independent variable. • What is measured (the results) is the dependent variable.

Drawing Conclusions

Lesson 5: Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow Lesson 5: Hare Today,

70 Return Of The Snow Cat Notes ______Lesson 5: Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow ______

Return Of The Snow Cat 71 Lesson 5 Student Pages Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow

In 1831, the manager of a Hudson’s Lynx-Hare Population Cycles Bay Company post in northern Ontario, Canada, wrote to the head office in Since its beginning in 1671, Hudson’s London. Profits would be down, he Bay Company kept meticulous data of reported, because the local Ojibway every pelt (preserved animal skin/fur) of Indians were starving due to a scarcity of every species collected at each of their “rabbits.” The “rabbits” were actually trading posts in Canada. When snowshoe snowshoe hares. The Ojibway were unable hare pelt numbers were plotted on a to trap animals for fur for the company graph, it appeared that there was a popu- because they spent all their time fishing lation die-off approximately every ten and trying to survive. years. A very interesting pattern seemed to emerge when the lynx pelt numbers The Ojibway were not the only ones were added to the graph. The rise and fall starving. Every carnivore (meat eater) in in lynx numbers mirrored, with a slight the boreal forest eats snowshoe hare— time lag, the rise and fall of snowshoe including hawks, owls, eagles, coyotes, hare populations. foxes, wolves, fishers, martens, minks,

wolverines and lynx. Most of these 160 animals are generalist predators—they eat a wide variety of prey. When hares 140 are scarce, they quickly switch to other 120

sources of food, such as fish, squirrels, 100 or mice. Lynx, however, are specialist predators that feed almost exclusively 80

on snowshoe hares. Thousands 60

40 Snowshoe hare scarcity was reported regularly in 18th and 19th 20 century Canadian historical documents. 0 1845 1855 1865 1875 1885 1895 1905 1915 1925 1935 At other times, reports said snowshoe Year hares were so plentiful that “one could Lynx Hare hear continuous munching and crunching (Adapted from Odum, Fundamentals of Ecology, Saunders, 1953) of the rabbits eating any vegetation in Was there a direct cause and effect site.” Wildlife biologists began to examine relationship? Did other predator popu- these hare peaks and die-offs in the early lations rise and fall with the snowshoe hare 1900’s, using the fur trading records of cycles? Hudson’s Bay Company.

Lesson 5: Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow Lesson 5: Hare Today,

72 Return Of The Snow Cat Population Dynamics cycles seemed to predict the population dynamics of two closely tied predator and A population consists of all the indi- prey species. The lynx/hare graph is high- viduals of a species that live in a particular lighted in most biology and ecology place at a particular time. Populations are textbooks as one of the few examples of a constantly changing in response to envi- simple predator/prey model. ronmental conditions. They change in size (number of individuals), density (number of There are two hypotheses (expla- individuals in a certain area), and distri- nations) that could be supported by this bution (how individuals are arranged in an simple model. The first is the top-down area). These changes are called popu- control hypothesis. According to this lation dynamics. hypothesis, the predator populations control the prey populations. Lynx eat snowshoe A population grows when more indi- hares and the lynx population continues to viduals are born or move into the popu- grow. Gradually, there are so many lynx lation (immigrate) than die or move out eating hares that the hare population (emigrate) in a given period. Different crashes. Then, lacking food, the lynx starve. species populations grow at different This allows the snowshoe hare population rates—they have different biotic potential. to increase again, and the cycle starts over. For example, animals like the snowshoe hare start reproducing early in life, have In the bottom-up control hypothesis, the large litters and can have as many as four prey population controls the predator popu- litters each year. The lynx, on the other lation. The hare population continues to hand, has only one litter of one to three increase as long as there is plenty of vege- kittens each year. Therefore, hares have tation. There is more food for lynx, so the greater biotic potential than lynx. lynx population increases. Finally, the snowshoe hares are so numerous that they As a population grows, resources that eat themselves out of house and home (the the population needs may become vegetation is gone) and they begin to depleted. When this happens, the popu- starve. In turn, the lynx have nothing to eat, lation stops growing or declines. Anything and they starve. The vegetation begins to that limits the growth of the population is a recover, and the cycle starts over. limiting factor. All of the limiting factors acting on a species determine its carrying capacity, the number of individuals of a species that a given environment can Life is Never Simple support. Carrying capacity is not a fixed Things are never as simple in nature as quantity and is affected by many things— they first appear. First, someone noticed competition between and within species, that snowshoe hare populations continued catastrophic events, fluctuations in food to cycle even on an island where there were supply and other resources, climate no lynx. Then, another person noticed that changes and other factors. there was an area where snowshoe hare Lesson 5: Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow populations didn’t have dramatic booms and busts, even though there were lots of Modeling Population Dynamics predators. Yet another researcher noticed synchronous changes in hare populations When scientists try to predict how a that were far apart. The hare populations population will change, they make a popu- fluctuated at the same time in the same lation model. Models attempt to imitate manner. What was really behind all these the key characteristics of a real population. cycles? How could scientists find out? The spectacular lynx/snowshoe hare

Return Of The Snow Cat 73 What are the Lynx-Hare Population Dynamics? It can be pretty difficult to sort out what some type of experimental treatment) is is really happening in any population at any compared with a control group. The time. The natural starting place is collecting control group receives no experimental all the observations that have been made treatment. The control and experimental about the species and its environment. group are designed to be identical except Observations, particularly ones that for one factor or variable. The factor that is contradict each other, lead to questions. changed in an experiment is called the Scientists then try to form testable expla- independent variable. The variable that is nations that would answer the questions. A measured (like the change in population) is hypothesis is an explanation that might be called the dependent variable. true, and can be tested by additional observations or experimentation. As a member of the Lynx Reintroduction Team, you are trying to Compared to most scientists, wildlife fathom the mystery of the lynx-hare popu- biologists have it hard when it comes to lation cycles and how they may affect your designing experiments. It is really difficult reintroduction plan. You will be given a to conduct a controlled experiment in an collection of observations, and your task is ecosystem. In a controlled experiment, an to ask some questions and design an experimental group (a group that receives experiment to answer them.

Notes

______

Lesson 5: Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow Lesson 5: Hare Today,

74 Return Of The Snow Cat Research Team A—Observations Your research team gathered data Hares first excrete and then eat soft, and observations about snowshoe hare green pellets of partly digested food. In populations and their food. Your team much the same way as a cow chews and discovered that the diet of snowshoe digests its food twice, these pellets go hares changes with the seasons. In the back into the hare’s bag-like digestive spring and early summer, hares eat chamber. In the chamber, additional nutrient-rich plants which are just nutrients are extracted before hard, fully emerging—grasses, horse-tails, and newly digested pellets are eliminated. sprouted forbs (flowering plants) and shrubs. As the summer ends, the hares During your team’s literature search, begin to feed mostly on woody browse. you found this data table. What might be Woody browse that is heavily grazed the original question that led scientists to produces new shoots with high levels of collect this data? What does it mean? toxins, which are less digestible. In winter, What is the best way to present this infor- snowshoe hares feed primarily on tree mation to the other Research Teams? bark. Trees can tolerate some bark What new questions can be asked about gnawing, but when too many hares feed this data? Choose one of these questions. on the same tree, the tree retaliates and Propose a hypothesis, and design an defends itself. The tree makes sap that experiment that would prove or disprove covers the chewed area like a Band-Aid. your hypothesis. The sap contains phenols and turpentine which are poisonous to hares.

DENSITY OF SNOWSHOE HARES ON THREE DIFFERENT STUDY PLOTS DENSITY OF SNOWSHOE HARES PER HECTARE Year Control Food Fertilizer 1987 0.17 0.26 0.24 1988 0.53 1.03 0.61 1989 0.81 2.92 0.70 1990 1.58 3.49 2.11 1991 0.84 5.70 1.20 1992 0.30 1.56 0.24 1993 0.07 0.24 0.06

1994 0.06 0.25 0.55 Lesson 5: Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow

Control—There was no manipulation of this study plot. From Krebs, C.J., S. Boutin, R. Boonstra, A.R.E. Sinclair, J.N.M. Smith, M.R.T. Food—Year-round supplemental food was provided for snowshoe hares on Dale, K. Martin, and R. Turkington. 1995. Impact of food and predation on the this study plot. snowshoe hare cycle. Science 269: 1112–1115. Fertilizer—This study plot was fertilized to increase plant growth.

Return Of The Snow Cat 75 Research Team B—Observations Your research team gathered lynx What might be the original question that harvest data from three regions in Canada. led scientists to collect this data? What Eastern Canada includes the large province does it mean? What is the best way to of Quebec and extends to the Atlantic present this information to the other Ocean. The provinces of Saskatchewan, Research Teams? What new questions can Manitoba, and Ontario form the region of be asked about this data? Choose one of central Canada. Western Canada includes these questions. Propose a hypothesis, the provinces of Alberta and British and design an experiment that would prove Columbia and borders the Pacific Ocean. or disprove your hypothesis.

EASTERN CANADA CENTRAL CANADA WESTERN CANADA

Year Lynx Year Lynx Year Lynx

1955 1,200 1955 1,700 1955 3,000 1956 1,100 1956 1,700 1956 3,000 1957 1,200 1957 3,800 1957 2,000 1958 1,200 1958 8,000 1958 2,500 1959 2,500 1959 25,000 1959 12,000 1960 3,600 1960 19,000 1960 15,000 1961 3,400 1961 16,000 1961 27,000 1962 3,400 1962 16,000 1962 24,000 1963 3,800 1963 11,000 1963 16,000 1964 5,000 1964 3,700 1964 12,000 1965 4,000 1965 3,600 1965 3,000 1966 3,900 1966 3,600 1966 2,500 1967 2,500 1967 5,000 1967 6,000 1968 2,300 1968 11,000 1968 4,000 1969 2,400 1969 18,000 1969 10,000 1970 1,500 1970 17,500 1970 17,500 1971 1,600 1971 17,500 1971 27,000 1972 3,700 1972 1,760 1972 27,000 1973 6,200 1973 7,500 1973 17,000 1974 4,000 1974 3,700 1974 8,000 1975 2,600 1975 3,600 1975 5,000 1976 2,500 1976 5,500 1976 4,000 1977 2,700 1977 8,000 1977 5,000 1978 2,600 1978 10,500 1978 10,000 1979 2,600 1979 11,000 1979 15,000 1980 3,700 1980 8,500 1980 15,000 1981 3,800 1981 9,000 1981 20,000 1982 3,700 1982 6,000 1982 14,000 1983 1,500 1983 5,000 1983 5,000 1984 1,500 1984 1,000 1984 2,500 1985 1,200 1985 9,00 1985 2,000 1986 1,000 1986 1,000 1986 2,000 1987 900 1987 800 1987 1,900 1988 800 1988 900 1988 2,000 1989 800 1989 1,100 1989 2,500 1990 800 1990 1,200 1990 1,800 1991 700 1991 2,500 1991 3,500 1992 1,200 1992 2,000 1992 2,400 1993 1,000 1993 1,800 1993 1,200 1994 900 1994 1,800 1994 1,100

From McKelvey, K.S., K.B. Aubrey, and Y.K. Ortega. 2000. History and distribution of Ecology and Conservation of Lynx in the United States. Denver, CO: University lynx in the contiguous United States. Pages 207–264 in Ruggiero et al. eds. Press of Colorado.

Lesson 5: Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow Lesson 5: Hare Today,

76 Return Of The Snow Cat Research Team C—Observations Snowshoe hares begin to breed in the What does it mean? What is the best way spring when they are one year old. Each to present this information to the other female can have three or four litters in a Research Teams? What new questions summer, with an average of five leverets can be asked about this data? Choose (baby snowshoe hares) in a litter. Your one of these questions. Propose a team has gathered fifteen years of data hypothesis, and design an experiment that about snowshoe hare density and repro- would prove or disprove your hypothesis. duction in central Alberta, Canada.

What might be the original question that led scientists to collect this data?

DENSITY OF SNOWSHOE HARES/REPRODUCTION—CENTRAL ALBERTA, CANADA

Year Number of Leverets/Female Density (Number of Hares/Hectare)

1962 11 2.7 1963 8 1 1964 12 0.3 1965 16 0.2 1966 18 0.2 1967 16 0.3 1968 16 1 1969 15 1.5 1970 12 3.5 1971 9 5.1 1972 8 2.5 1973 7 0.8 1974 11 0.2 1975 14 0.05 1976 18 0.1

From Cary, J.R., and L.B. Keith. 1979. Reproductive change in the 10-year

cycle of snowshoe hares. Canadian Journal of Zoology 57: 375–390. Lesson 5: Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow

Return Of The Snow Cat 77 Research Team D—Observations Your team radio-collared adult What does it mean? What is the best way snowshoe hares for several years to see to present this information to the other what percent of them would survive for 30 Research Teams? What new questions can days. The cause of death (mortality) for be asked about this data? Choose one of each hare varies. these questions. Propose a hypothesis, and design an experiment that would What might be the original question prove or disprove your hypothesis. that led scientists to collect this data?

DENSITY OF SNOWSHOE HARES/30-DAY SURVIVAL RATE

Year Survival Rate Per 30 Days (%) Density (Number of Hares/Hectare)

1977 92 0.1 1978 88 0.6 1979 86 1.0 1980 82 2.4 1981 72 2.5 1982 76 0.7 1983 75 0.2 1984 83 0.2 1985–1987 Too few hares captured to 1985 = 0.2; 1986 = 0.1; 1987 = 0.2 estimate survival accurately 1988 90 0.5 1989 88 0.9 1990 84 1.5 1991 64 0.8 1992 77 0.3 1993 86 0.1 1994 86 0.1 1995 90 0.2

From Krebs, C.J., R. Boonstra, S. Boutin, and A.R.E. Sinclair. 2001. What drives the 10-year cycle of snowshoe hares? BioScience 51: 25–35.

Lesson 5: Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow Lesson 5: Hare Today,

78 Return Of The Snow Cat Research Team E—Observations Your research team has been studying What might be the original question snowshoe hare mortality. Your team has that led scientists to collect this data? found that almost all snowshoe hares die What does it mean? What is the best way of predation. The main predators of adult to present this information to the other snowshoe hares are coyotes, lynx, Research Teams? What new questions goshawks, and great horned owls. Leverets can be asked about this data? Choose are preyed upon by small raptors (boreal one of these questions. Propose a owls, Harlan’s hawks, kestrels, and hawk hypothesis, and design an experiment that owls) and small mammals (red squirrels, would prove or disprove your hypothesis. ground squirrels, weasels, and martens).

DENSITY OF SNOWSHOE HARES PER HECTARE

Year Control Predator Free Predator Free and Food

1988 0.53 0.75 0.11 1989 0.81 0.69 3.22 1990 1.58 1.72 5.50 1991 0.84 1.53 4.94 1992 0.30 0.39 4.08 1993 0.07 0.17 1.42 1994 0.06 0.25 0.86

Control—There was no manipulation of this study plot. From Krebs, C.J., S. Boutin, R. Boonstra, A.R.E. Sinclair, J.N.M. Smith, M.R.T. Predator Free—Electric fences kept all terrestrial (land) predators out of this Dale, K. Martin, and R. Turkington. 1995. Impact of food and predation on the study plot. snowshoe hare cycle. Science 269: 1112–1115. Predator Free and Food—Electric fences kept all terrestrial (land) predators

out of this study plot and supplemental food was provided for snowshoe hares. Lesson 5: Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow

Snowshoe Hare

Return Of The Snow Cat 79 Research Team F—Observations Your research team has compared it mean? What is the best way to present lynx harvest data (number of animals this information to the other Research taken by hunting or trapping) in Alberta Teams? What new questions can be and British Columbia, Canada with asked about this data? Choose one of harvest data from Montana, USA. What these questions. Propose a hypothesis, might be the original question that led and design an experiment that would scientists to collect this data? What does prove or disprove your hypothesis.

LYNX HARVEST COMPARISON

Year Alberta and British Columbia Montana

1950 3,000 5 1951 2,000 14 1952 6,000 10 1953 4,000 20 1954 6,000 18 1955 3,000 23 1956 3,000 40 1957 2,000 32 1958 2,500 28 1959 12,000 45 1960 15,000 40 1961 27,000 30 1962 24,000 75 1963 16,000 380 1964 12,000 150 1965 3,000 160 1966 2,500 100 1967 6,000 55 1968 4,000 45 1969 10,000 50 1970 17,500 45 1971 27,000 300 1972 27,000 260 1973 17,000 160 1974 8,,000 250 1975 5,000 35 1976 4,000 24 1977 5,000 23 1978 10,000 50 1979 15,000 30 1980 15,000 35 1981 20,000 50 1982 14,000 50 1983 5,000 135 1984 2,500 120 1985 2,000 100 1986 2,000 55 1987 1,900 40 1988 2,000 5 1989 2,500 2

From McKelvey, K.S., K.B. Aubrey, and Y.K. Ortega. 2000. History and distri- al. eds. Ecology and Conservation of Lynx in the United States. Denver, CO: bution of lynx in the contiguous United States. Pages 207–264 in Ruggiero et University Press of Colorado.

Lesson 5: Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow Lesson 5: Hare Today,

80 Return Of The Snow Cat Notes ______

______Lesson 5: Hare Today, Gone Tomorrow

Return Of The Snow Cat 81 Lesson 6 Educator’s Overview No Cat Is An Island

Summary Students use maps of the geographic distribution of lynx in North America as part of a simulation game that inves- Duration tigates ecological theories related to island biogeography. One to two 45-minute class periods Learning Objectives Teaching Strategies Students will be able to: 1. Thoroughly read the student activity No Cat Is An Island. Vocabulary • Describe the historic distri- bution of Canadian lynx in 2. As a review of previous Biogeography North America. activities, ask students which Biome • Define and give examples of habitat lynx prefer in Colorado. Boreal metapopulation species. Lynx prefer subalpine forests. Circumboreal • Describe the pattern of 3. Hand out the student pages: No Cat is an Island. Allow the Circumpolar dispersal and colonization common to metapopulation students some time to read the Colonization dynamics. handout. Dispersal • Graph changes in populations 4. Divide the class up into the Indigenous and infer the probable future same student groups that Island impact of a course of action— completed Lesson 3, Map That in this case, a reintroduction Cat (preferably). Metapopulation program. 5. Return the maps that were Peninsula completed in Lesson 3 to each Recolonization group. Recruitment 6. Show students the trans- Source Population Background parency: Distribution of Lynx in Subpopulation Biogeography is the science the Conterminous United States. Take a marker and loosely draw Succession that studies the distribution of life, past and present. This lines around the areas where Taiga activity looks at both the past there are high concentrations of and present distribution of lynx sightings (see diagram on Canadian lynx, and explores the following page). how a restoration program that mimics historic dispersal and colonization patterns may influence the species future presence in Colorado.

Lesson 6: No Cat Is An Island

82 Return Of The Snow Cat Materials and Preparation • Maps completed in Lesson 3, Map that Cat. • Acetate transparency: Distribution of Lynx in the Conterminous United States • Student Pages: No Cat Is An Island, one photocopy per student. • Student Pages: The Metapopulation Game, one photocopy per student. • Student Pages: 7. Ask students “What pattern The Metapopulation do you see”? Students should Game—Considering note a peninsular type shape Other Impacts, one extending from Canada photocopy per southward along the Rocky student Mountains. They should also note • Student Page: that the peninsula shape begins Metapopulation 10. Ask students to imagine filling to deteriorate at its southern- Game Charts, one up the low elevations with a giant most periphery, creating more photocopy per sea of water. Only the highest island-like features in Colorado, student elevations would remain dry. The parts of Utah and Wyoming. • Lynx tokens— Rocky Mountain Peninsula would photocopy one 8. Review the student reading really be evident. But what would sheet per student. and connect it to this map. students then notice about the Send these token mountains of central Colorado sheets home with 9. Explain to students that if and some parts of Utah and students the night they think of northern Canada’s Wyoming? They become prior to the lesson boreal forests as the “mainland of “islands” of lynx habitat, near to, to be cut apart— lynx,” then the Rocky Mountain but separate from the peninsula. or—enlist a student chain may be thought of as a Check that students understand aid to help cut these southern extension of that the terms population, source prior to the lesson. Lesson 6: No Cat Is An Island mainland; sort of like a peninsula. population, subpopulation, and This will save The “Rocky Mountain metapopulation. classroom time. Peninsula’s” high elevation allows • Coins (four per it to have similar vegetation, six-student group) climate, and lynx habitat to the • Graph paper boreal forests of Canada.

Return Of The Snow Cat 83 11. Now, give each student one copy of The Assessment Metapopulation Game and one copy of The Metapopulation Game Chart. Ask students, • How well did students answer questions in “Can you think of some reasons why a lynx either written or discussion format? would deliberately leave its local habitat and • How well did students graph lynx popu- travel in search of other habitat? Some possi- lations? bilities are that the lynx are hungry and looking for food; juveniles are leaving to find their own territory; or lynx are seeking mates.

12. Tell students they will be using their constructed maps for the metapopulation Extensions game, which will simulate the population • What other populations may follow some of cycles of lynx in these areas. They should the theories of metapopulations? (Spotted follow the directions and answer the owl, wolverine, frogs, prairie dogs) questions as they go along. They should feel free to ask for clarification of instructions if • What other species have healthy popu- needed. lations in mainland Canada and struggling metapopulations down the Rocky Mountain 13. After students have completed the simu- habitat peninsula? (Wolf, grizzly bear, lation game, review questions 10a through wolverine) Should Colorado try to rein- 10j. troduce those species? 14. Tell students that many changes in the • What is the status of the European Lynx? United States due to human activity or other Do some of the theories of metapopulations factors may have affected historical lynx apply there? Are there lynx reintroduction dispersal and recolonization to the island efforts in Europe? habitats. Ask students to brainstorm what • The ecology of island populations has long some of these activities might be. The list intrigued scientists. How did the Galapagos could include road construction, automobile Islands influence the development Darwin’s traffic, development, logging, agricultural evolutionary theories? conflicts, recreation, and the like.

15. Discuss the results of the game and the implications for Colorado’s lynx reintroduction program.

Lesson 6: No Cat Is An Island

84 Return Of The Snow Cat Key g. What was the effect of the lynx dispersal that occurred every 10 10. Your group should have played for a total years? Did it help to successfully of 30 years. Answer/discuss the following recolonize any of the islands? Lynx questions thoroughly: dispersal may help to recolonize the island. If an island is recolonized by a. Were any of the island populations a lynx, the lynx still has a 50/50 extirpated? At least one island chance of survival on the very next should go extinct; however, because coin flip. this is based on random events— flipped coins—more than one island h. In real life, could island recolonization or no islands may have gone extinct. occur with one lynx? Also, in real life, Distance from the peninsula is not a would a dispersing lynx automatically factor. travel to the island with the least number of lynx? No. A male and a b. Was that island extirpation due to female would be the necessary deliberate actions or by random minimum. Pregnant females are not chance? Random chance. likely to disperse. Lynx would not be c. Did any of the island populations ever able to know which island had the increase to over 10 lynx and maintain least number of lynx. that number for more than 10 years? i. In real life, how do you think distance At least one island should have would affect the probability of increased to over 10 lynx and main- successful dispersal and recolonization tained that number; however, of an island habitat? Can you relate because this is based on chance, that to Colorado’s position on the map sometimes more than one island or as related to the peninsula? The no islands may have experienced farther the island is from the this. peninsula, the less likely a d. If so, was that island’s successful successful recolonization will occur. population due to a sequence of The odds of a dispersing lynx deliberate actions or random chance? finding and recolonizing an island Random chance. decreases with distance. Colorado e. Did you find that once an island’s is the farthest island from the population reached 10 lynx that it was peninsula. not likely to later become extinct? j. Was the metapopulation extirpated? Generally that’s true. Once an island Hopefully not, though it is remotely population is large, it’s much more possible through random events. likely to withstand losses due to random events. (This has important implications in Colorado’s reintro- duction program). f. Was the peninsula population extirpated? Why or why not? No. It had a larger population to begin

with than the islands. Also, it is Lesson 6: No Cat Is An Island directly connected to Canada’s source population.

Return Of The Snow Cat 85 11. Construct a line graph showing all four populations over the 30-year period of time. Answers will vary.

12. Historical records show that Colorado had a small “island” population of resident lynx. Beginning in 1999, the Colorado Division of Wildlife has captured and released lynx from Canada and Alaska and reintroduced them into Colorado in an effort to bolster its native lynx and re-establish a permanent successfully reproducing population. How is Colorado’s lynx reintroduction program similar to, and different from, the metapopulation dispersal/recolonization ideas presented in this activity? In some ways Colorado’s lynx reintroduction program artificially mimics those processes. Modern human activities (like highways) and habitat loss may contribute to blocking the natural dispersal and recolonization that used to happen. Also, by augmenting the lynx population on the Colorado “island,” there is an increased probability that the population will survive random negative events.

Lesson 6: No Cat Is An Island

86 Return Of The Snow Cat Distribution of Lynx in the Conterminous United States From Ecology and Conversation of Lynx in the United States. Used with the

permission of Dr. Kevin S. McKelvey Lesson 6: No Cat Is An Island

Return Of The Snow Cat 87 Lesson 6: No Cat Is An Island

88 Return Of The Snow Cat Notes ______Lesson 6: No Cat Is An Island ______

Return Of The Snow Cat 89 Lesson 6 Student Pages No Cat Is An Island

Boreal Forests and Lynx—The Colorado’s Islands View from Space An island is an isolated body of land. While we tend to think of a patch of land Biomes are biological communities covered with palm trees and surrounded that cover large land areas and have by ocean as an island, many types of similar climate and vegetation. If you were islands exist on earth. An island could also to try to map all the different biomes from be a large park in the middle of a city, or space, you would notice something inter- meadow surrounded by forests. The esting. From a spaceship hovering over Rocky Mountains of the western U.S., the the North Pole, you would see a great ring Cascade Mountains in Oregon, and the of coniferous trees, mostly spruce and fir, Adirondacks Mountains of New England circling the globe. These forests cover all have peninsula-like extensions of vast areas of Eurasia and North America spruce/fir forests. More and more, the and need cold, wet climates to grow. This habitat in these areas is broken up by biome, one of the largest on Earth, is often human development such as highways, called by its Russian name, taiga, but we residential areas, snowmobile trails, cross- know it as the boreal forest. Fingers of country trails, and ski runs. The remaining these forests extend southward where patches of boreal forest are like small high mountains provide similar climate, islands located in a "sea" of land uses. conditions that are found in the Colorado Rocky Mountains In North America, the northern and western provinces of Canada have large Lynx are circumboreal—several and healthy lynx populations. However, in species are found throughout these high the peninsular or island-like southern latitude forests that circle the globe. The fringes like Colorado’s Rocky Mountains, Canada Lynx (Lynx canadensis) is found in lynx populations are much lower. Not North America. The Eurasian or Siberian much is known about the ecology of these Lynx (Lynx lynx) was once found in the populations of lynx, and they offer a forested areas throughout most of Europe, unique opportunity to research island the Middle East and Asia. Today the range biogeography—the study of the distri- of the cat has been drastically reduced bution and population changes of species and it is found primarily in Russia, Finland, in an isolated ecosystem. Sweden, Norway, and throughout northern Asia. The Eurasian Lynx is larger than the Island species are especially at risk of Canadian Lynx. The Iberian Lynx (Lynx extinction. Their smaller geographic range pardinus) is found in Portugal and Spain and low population numbers make them and—with less than 1,000 known animals more vulnerable to natural limiting factors in the wild—is critically endangered. such as disease, fire and normal popu- lation fluctuations. They are also more vulnerable to inbreeding, because there are fewer opportunities to get new genes.

Lesson 6: No Cat Is An Island

90 Return Of The Snow Cat Luckily, lynx in Colorado’s Rocky population (recruitment), through immi- Mountains are not completely isolated. gration or reproduction, the metapopu- These lynx are part of a lation as a whole survives. However, if all metapopulation—groups of subpopu- of the islands’ extirpation rate become lations of lynx living on habitat patches greater than the recolonization rate, the (islands) separated from a larger source entire metapopulation can face extirpation. population of lynx in Canada. Over time, an island subpopulation may go extinct, Lynx can disperse great distances, but be recolonized—reestablished—by sometimes leaving the comfort of their future dispersing (traveling) lynx from cool forests to cross roads, rivers, and other island or peninsula populations. warm, snowless terrain. However, for a lynx to successfully disperse from the Reintroduction as a wildlife source population to an island it needs to management tool imitates recolonization. be in good enough condition to survive In order to be successful, both reintro- the journey and it needs to travel in the duction and recolonization require right direction. It needs to avoid as many successful reproduction, not simply the obstacles, such as roads or other hazards, presence of a species there. As long as as possible. Generally, more than half of

more animals are added into an island dispersing animals die. Lesson 6: No Cat Is An Island

Return Of The Snow Cat 91 The Metapopulation Game 5. Upon the data recorder’s command, flip all four coins simultaneously. A heads You are going to be playing a game will represent an addition of one lynx to that mimics dispersion and recolonization. the population. A tails represents a loss of You will need the maps you constructed one lynx to the population. The banker will from Lesson 3, Map That Cat. distribute or collect lynx as needed and the data recorder will record the “yearly” 1. Using the map from Map That Cat, change (Each coin flip represents one place four lynx tokens on each of these year). three island habitats: • Central Colorado, 6. Continue as above for 10 years adding or removing the lynx tokens. Some • Northeastern Utah (Uintah Mountains), island populations may be extirpated. If and so, that member of the group should stop. • Northcentral Wyoming (Bighorn The other members may continue the Mountains). game as long as they have lynx in their These represent very low-density, frag- population. mented island populations with a very tenuous existence. 7. After ten years a unique event happens. Lynx in Canada are at the end of 2. Place 25 lynx tokens in the peninsula their cyclic high populations. Snowshoe created in Montana, Idaho, and north- hare populations are declining rapidly and western Wyoming. This represents the lynx are beginning to starve. Lynx begin to medium-density peninsula population of disperse. Dispersal behaviors begin lynx with stable numbers. Together with creating a ripple effect throughout the the island populations, these make up the entire continent! To demonstrate this, the lynx metapopulation in the United States. banker will add three lynx to the peninsula population; and three peninsular lynx will 3. Imagine hundreds of lynx tokens disperse southward. Most lynx dispersing placed in Canada. These would represent long distances die; but a few survive to the large, “mainland” population of lynx. find adequate habitat. To demonstrate The remainder of the lynx tokens can be this, two of the dispersing lynx die (and placed in this source population “bank.” get returned to the bank). One lynx survives and disperses to the island with the lowest number of lynx. 4. A flipped coin will be used to demon- strate the chance risks that these island and peninsula populations encounter in a 8. Continue playing the game for ten year. Four members of your group will more years. The data recorder needs to each adopt one of the four lynx popu- keep accurate records. At the end of ten lations: the peninsula and the three more years another cyclic dispersal event islands. Each will need a coin. One other occurs. Repeat the same procedure as #7 member of your group will be the data above. recorder and one other will be the banker. 9. Continue playing the game for another ten years and stop.

Lesson 6: No Cat Is An Island

92 Return Of The Snow Cat 10. Your group should have played for a f. Was the peninsula population total of 30 years. Answer/discuss the extirpated? Why or why not? following questions thoroughly: ______a. Were any of the island populations ______extirpated? ______g. What was the effect of the lynx dispersal that occurred every 10 ______years? Did it help to successfully ______recolonize any of the islands?

b. Was that island extirpation due to a ______sequence of deliberate actions or ______random chance? ______

c. Did any of the island populations h. In real life, could island recolo- ever increase to over 10 lynx and nization occur with one lynx? Also, maintain that number for more than in real life, would a dispersing lynx 10 years? automatically travel to the island with the least number of lynx? ______d. If so, was that island’s successful population due to a sequence of i. In real life, how do you think deliberate actions or random distance would affect the proba- chance? bility of successful dispersal and recolonization of an island habitat? ______Can you relate that to Colorado’s e. Did you find that once an island’s position on the map as related to population reached 10 lynx that it the peninsula? was not likely to later become ______extinct? ______

______Lesson 6: No Cat Is An Island j. Was the metapopulation extirpated? ______

Return Of The Snow Cat 93 11. Construct a line graph showing all four populations over the 30-year period of time.

12. Historical records show that Colorado ______had a small “island” population of resident lynx. Beginning in 1999, the Colorado ______Division of Wildlife has captured and ______released lynx from Canada and Alaska and ______reintroduced them into Colorado in an effort to bolster its native lynx and re- ______establish a permanent successfully repro- ______ducing population. How is Colorado’s lynx ______reintroduction program similar to, and different from, the metapopulation dispersal/recolonization ideas presented in this activity?

Lesson 6: No Cat Is An Island

94 Return Of The Snow Cat THE METAPOPULATON GAME CHART NUMBER OF LYNX Central Northeastern Northcentral Rocky Mountain Year Colorado Utah Wyoming Peninsula 14 4425 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

29 Lesson 6: No Cat Is An Island 30

Return Of The Snow Cat 95 Lesson 6: No Cat Is An Island

96 Return Of The Snow Cat Lesson 6: No Cat Is An Island

Return Of The Snow Cat 97 Lesson 6: No Cat Is An Island

98 Return Of The Snow Cat Notes ______Lesson 6: No Cat Is An Island ______

Return Of The Snow Cat 99 Lesson 7 Educator’s Overview It’s A Plot!

Summary Duration Student research teams construct habitat plots to Two 45-minute evaluate features important to lynx. They compare their data class periods to findings of DOW lynx researchers.

Learning Objectives why this information is critical to Vocabulary Colorado’s lynx reintroduction Aerial search After completing this activity, efforts. Aspect students will be able to: Backtrack • Describe the use of radio telemetry equipment in lynx Blowdown Teaching Strategies ecology research and DBH (Diameter at distinguish between various Note: To best approximate lynx Breast Height) transmitting and receiving habitat and field methods used by Deadfall systems. DOW biologist, this activity would be done in the winter in an Home range • Set up a habitat plot. Englemann spruce/subalpine fir Mean • Use appropriate tools, tech- forest. However, since few schools Mesic nologies, and measurement are located near these forests, units to gather, process, and and since field trips may not fit Mortality signal analyze habitat data. with school budgets or time Overstory • Use graphs to compare results constraints, this activity can take Protocol of their surveys with existing place any time of year in any wooded habitat. If school grounds Radio telemetry data. have no trees, try a local park or equipment open space. Receiving system 1. Thoroughly read the student Regenerating Background materials for It’s a Plot! Scat Most high school students 2. Before introducing the activity, Sign understand the importance of decide how many student Territory good wildlife habitat and can research teams you will have and “mock-up” a corresponding Transmitting system describe its basic components— food, water, shelter, and space number of field sites. Be sure you Understory arranged in a way that can choose an area where you can set adequately support healthy popu- up one 12 meter x 12 meter plot lations. This activity introduces for each student team, in the students to the technology and manner described in the student techniques that scientists use to materials. To do so, you can write get a deeper understanding of the down the “use” the lynx has for habitat needs of a particular that particular site on a card for species—lynx—and demonstrates the research team or you can get

Lesson 7: It’s A Plot! Lesson 7: It’s

100 Return Of The Snow Cat creative with this. Create an arti- later compare their findings with ficial track line in the snow or dirt, other lynx researchers. Ask each throw a stuffed-toy rabbit student team to gather the Materials and splattered with red food coloring materials they need to set up and Preparation on the ground, form a lynx bed, evaluate their plot: Tape measure • Wooded area, etc. with metric and English scale, in spruce/fir forest, pole or stick that is 150 cm in 3. Give each student a reading school grounds, park length or longer, 28 garden or local open space packet, but not the Habitat stakes or posts, compass, Analysis or Lynx Daily Tracking • Student reading pages hammer, calculator, and piece of Log and Site-Scale Habitat for It’s a Plot!, string, 65 meters in length. one per student Evaluation pages. 8. Take student teams to their • Student activity page 4. After giving students It’s a Plot! Habitat habitat sites and let each team sufficient reading time, review the Analysis, one set up their plot and record infor- material. Talk about the need for per student mation. various tracking technologies. • Student data form Lynx travel extremely long 9. After students complete the Lynx Daily Tracking distances in search of food or Lynx Daily Tracking Log and Site- Log and Site-Scale Habitat Evaluation, other needs. While satellite and Scale Habitat Evaluations form, one per student aerial tracking help locate lynx, give each student the It’s a Plot! these methods cannot give Habitat Analysis activity sheet. • Tape measure with metric and English researchers the information they Give students time to complete scale, one per need to understand how lynx use the activity and discuss the student team habitat. Only ground tracking and findings as a class. • Pole or stick that is habitat evaluation can give 150 cm in length or scientists information about longer, one per habitat features that are critical student team for lynx. Optional: If radio Assessment • Garden stakes or telemetry equipment is available, posts, 28 per demonstrate how the equipment • Students write a paragraph student team works. DOW staff may be able to discussing the importance of • Compass, one per assist you. using research protocols to student team 5. Discuss the importance of build a body of scientific • Hammer, one per student team protocol in habitat evaluation. If knowledge. each research assistant had a • String, 65 meters in different method of evaluating length, one per student team habitat and recording their findings, the data could not be • Calculator, one per Extensions student team put together in a way that makes sense. • Explore succession in the • Optional: Key to trees spruce/fir forest and relate and shrubs of the area 6. Divide students into research successional stages to lynx • Optional: teams of three to four students. habitat needs. Topographical map Tell each team that they are of the area • Modify the field exercise to tracking a unique lynx and have • Optional: “Props” of gather habitat information for a found a site that looks important various kinds, such as different species. stuffed toy rabbit, red

for lynx. Lesson 7: It’s A Plot! • Students can calculate the food coloring, etc. 7. Give each student a Lynx averages (means) of the class • Optional: If available Daily Tracking Log and Site-Scale findings and compare those to through your DOW Habitat Evaluation form. Tell the researchers’ results for year office, a radio trans- students that they will be eval- mitter and receiver three. uating the habitat site and will

Return Of The Snow Cat 101 Key f. What two trees are most commonly found in the habitat plots in year Completion of the Lynx Daily Tracking Log three? Engelmann spruce and and Site-Scale Habitat Evaluation form and subalpine fir. answers to questions 1 through 4 will vary, g. In general, were these young trees or since each habitat plot will be different. old trees? How do you know? They 5. a. What was the most common may be younger trees because the understory species in habitat used by DBH is generally small. However, lynx in year three? Engelmann Colorado has a dry, cold climate and spruce. trees do not grow as quickly or as big as in other places. The only way b. What was the most common to know for sure would be to do understory species in your habitat? core sampling of the trees. Varies. h. What were the two most common c. What was the most common overstory trees found in your habitat plot? species in the plots sampled by Varies. researchers in year three? Engelmann spruce. i. Why do researchers collect so much information about sites where lynx d. Which species, if present in a plot, hunt, rest, den, and mark territories? provided the most cover in a plot? How will they apply their findings to Lodgepole pine. management practices? Through e. What was the most common overstory careful analysis of this data, species in your habitat plot? Varies. researchers may be able to determine habitat characteristics that lynx prefer. As managers, they can work with private and public landholders to conserve important lynx habitat.

Engelmann Spruce Subalpine Fir

Lesson 7: It’s A Plot! Lesson 7: It’s

102 Return Of The Snow Cat Notes ______

______Lesson 7: It’s A Plot! ______

Return Of The Snow Cat 103 Lesson 7 Student Pages It’s A Plot!

In general, biologists know that lynx moisture, forest regeneration is slower live in spruce/fir forests and that those here. Lynx have been missing from forests have different dominant trees in Colorado for quite some time. The reintro- different regions (see Lesson 3, Map that duction provides researchers with a great Cat). Lynx are abundant in some of these opportunity to increase their knowledge, forests, and scarce in others. Even when and in turn, accurately define the the population goes bust in British management options that will enhance Columbia, lynx are not rare. Colorado, on lynx survival here. the other hand, has thousands of square miles of spruce/fir forests, yet historically, has never had huge populations of lynx. Why is that? What elements of the habitat Follow that Cat! are critical for lynx survival? So how in the world can a researcher find out how big a male lynx’s home range Most of what scientists know about is in Colorado? Or what its diet is? Or lynx ecology comes from research in the whether it has a mate? Is the researcher far northern part of its range, from Canada just supposed to follow the cat around day and Alaska. In these areas, lynx prefer and night? Yes, pretty much! regenerating forest stands more than 20 years old rather than mature forests. The Running after a lynx in deep snow dense understory of these stands provides would be pretty irritating to the cat, and food, cover, and protection for snowshoe exhausting, if not impossible, for the hare—the cat’s favorite food. In addition, researcher. Luckily, there is a technological lynx use blowdown and deadfall trees in solution to this problem. Animal this habitat for dens. Usually, males have a movements are determined through aerial larger home range (the area an animal or satellite monitoring and more detailed travels in the scope of its normal activities) information is gathered from on-the- than females. Both females and males set ground snow tracking. up territories—areas they defend against others of the same species. Breeding male Radio telemetry collars (VHF) have and female pairs have territories that been used on lynx since the first animals almost completely overlap, but lynx of the were released in February 1999. Radio same sex rarely share territory. telemetry equipment consists of two parts, a transmitting system and a Colorado’s habitat is not like Canada’s receiving system. The collar is the trans- or Alaska’s. Therefore, biologists do not mitting system, which includes a radio know if lynx have the same habitat needs transmitter, a power source (battery) and at the southern end of their range as in the antenna, all contained in one compact far north. Colorado spruce/fir forests are unit. Each collar has its own frequency higher in elevation, more isolated, and similar to a radio station frequency. The more mesic (drier). Since there is less

Lesson 7: It’s A Plot! Lesson 7: It’s

104 Return Of The Snow Cat collars are also equipped with motion vegetation, whether it is spruce/fir or sensors that tell researchers the cat is aspen or other vegetation, the elevation physically active. If the sensor detects that and which direction the slope faces. an animal has not moved for an extended period, usually four hours, a faster signal Then, the on-the-ground tracking is emitted by the transmitter. This is a efforts begin. The primary purpose of mortality signal, indicating that the animal ground tracking is to obtain information may be dead. that can’t be gathered through the aerial tracking efforts. By following lynx tracks, The receiving system includes both a researchers gather information about each directional antenna and a receiver. The animal’s day-to-day behavior and other receiver is set to a specific frequency, and important clues in discovering how lynx if the operator is within range, he or she are adapting to Colorado’s climate, and should hear a beeping signal. what habitat conditions and prey species they prefer. VHF collars require an aircraft to fly within a few miles of an individual cat to pick up its distinctive signal. This can be difficult because lynx cover so much Making Tracks ground. Sometimes the animal will go Winter is the best time to collect data down behind a ridge or in a canyon, which because lynx tracks are easy to identify in can make it difficult to pick up its signal. the snow. When tracking lynx on the Since April 2000, lynx were fitted with ground, the researcher must first locate collars that contain both tiny radio and the animal using an antenna and receiver. satellite transmitters. The satellite trans- After picking up a signal, she straps on mitters provide approximate lynx locations snowshoes and hikes through the dense on a weekly basis. The DOW can then forest to locate the lynx tracks. The DOW’s hone in on a specific lynx by airplane lynx tracker is careful not to get too close using the VHF radio signal broadcasted by to the lynx she is tracking. Once she spots the collar. its tracks, she backtracks—hikes along the tracks away from the cat. The tracker then documents any scat, fresh kills and Tuning in to LYNX 99.5 hunting beds. Typically, if she finds scat near the lynx tracks, she backtracks and In order to determine the exact looks for a day bed where the animal may location of a lynx, researchers begin with a have rested after making a kill. Just like broad aerial search. The single-engine humans, a lynx will eat, take a nap and DOW aircraft has an antenna mounted on then defecate. All of this information helps the outside to track each lynx signal and to further define the habitat requirements determine its approximate location. To and prey preferences for lynx in Colorado. locate a radio-collared lynx from the air, the pilot flies over suspected lynx territory If researchers pick up a mortality signal while the researcher listens for a signal. during the aerial search, ground trackers

When the researcher hears the beeps, the try to recover the animal as soon as Lesson 7: It’s A Plot! pilot will drop down and circle the area. possible. They search the immediate area From the air, the pilot and researcher on for signs of other predators and take a board will make a visual reading of the photograph of the carcass before moving

Return Of The Snow Cat 105 it. The researchers then take the dead lynx Following Protocol back to the lab to determine the cause of death. They keep detailed records of To be useful, the data that researchers mortalities and overall survival rates of the collect about the habitat in these areas reintroduced lynx. This information may has to be consistent—documented in the lead to changes in management efforts. same way each time. When each researcher follows the same protocol (plan) to collect and record data, the data can provide reliable information about lynx Signs ecology in Colorado. Lynx trackers become skilled at Every time researchers discover an reading tracks and other lynx sign (any important lynx habitat-use site, they indication of an animal’s passage through record information about that site. First, or use of an area). Some signs show lynx the researchers record general information just moving through. These might be scat about the site including: (feces) along a track or short duration beds (an indentation in the snow where a • Date and Time of the find. lynx would crouch or rest briefly). Other sites seem more important for lynx. • Lynx being tracked (each has its own Certain types of habitat use usually mean number) that there are features in the habitat that • Location (county, forest name, UTM or lynx select (prefer). These could include: latitude/longitude from a map) Hunting Behavior • Elevation (from map) • Start of Chases (both successful and • Slope unsuccessful) • Aspect (the direction of “downhill”— • Kills using a compass) • General Habitat Description (a Long Duration Beds description of the plants found at the site such as grasses and forbs, shrubs • (places where a lynx would have lain or seedlings, saplings, mature trees, etc.) long enough for its body heat to melt snow, usually a depression with ice at • Trackers (the names of the researchers) the bottom) • Habitat Use (what was found there— scat, bed, kill, etc.) Territory Marks • Other Animal Species (check if other • Scat (buried or placed in a prominent tracks or signs visible) place) • Human Activity (None if track was not • Scenting (spray) found off an existing snowmobile, ski, or snowshoe track and the distance to nearest human track is greater than 1.0 Road Crossings km; Low if track was found near low human activity such as existing snow- Dens mobile or ski track; Medium if track found near medium human activity where the presence of other people in

Lesson 7: It’s A Plot! Lesson 7: It’s

106 Return Of The Snow Cat the area was detected during tracking • Understory—This is measured holding a effort; or High if track found near high pole from the top of snow to 150 cm human activity including detecting above the snow. At each point, presence of many people nearby, near researchers record all species of shrubs, major road, or near housing). trees and coarse woody debris (CWD) that touch the pole (or are within 2 Then, researchers set up a habitat- inches of it) and are visible above the sampling plot. The plot is a 12 meter x 12 snow. This information is recorded for meter square with a series of 25 points each species at three different height placed in five rows of five. Each point is ranges (0–0.5 m, 0.51–1.0 m, 1.01–1.5 three meters apart. The object that m). Researchers use a two or three-letter triggered the habitat sampling, such as a code to identify the plant species. They bed or a kill, is at the very center point of list the code once for each height range the plot. like this:

1 6 11 16 21

ES, WI, CWD ES, AS ES, SF, AS

2 7 12 17 22

• Overstory—This is measured with a 3 8 x 18 23 sighting tube that is somewhat like a periscope. It is a curved piece of PVC pipe with a viewing end and a crosshair 4 9 14 19 24 made of wire on the other end. The objective is to record what species of

5 10 15 20 25 trees (branches) are directly above the point. If no special equipment is 12 m available, the biologist looks straight up. 15 m • Trees by DBH Class—Finally, all the trees in the habitat plot are recorded. Researchers take measurements at Both live and dead trees (snags) are each of the 25 points including: counted. The researcher records the species of tree and its diameter at breast • Snow depth (SD)—This is measured height (DBH). To be consistent, DBH is vertically in centimeters. measured at four feet above ground. DBH is measured in inches.

Plant Species CODE

ES 6 2 4 3 1 Englemann Spruce ES ES Snag 0 0 0 1 0 Subalpine Fir SF Willow WI

Aspen AS Lesson 7: It’s A Plot! Lodgepole Pine LO Coarse Woody Debris CWD

Return Of The Snow Cat 107 Summary: Human Activity: Other Animal Species: Habitat Use: Trackers: ______Elevation: ______Aspect: Description: General Habitat ______Slope: ______Time: ______Site Location: Lynx ID:______Date:______Atvt:______Activity: ______Activity: ______Activity: ______Activity: ______te,ls:______list: Other, ! ! ! ! ______Squirrel Moose Coyote Bobcat (H = High M = Medium L = Low N = None) (H = High M Medium L Low ! ! ! ! Weasel Deer Elk Fox Lynx Daily Tracking Log and Site-Scale Habitat Evaluation ! ! ! Mountain Lion Pine Marten Hare Snowshoe Comments: ______Species Point 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ______Depth (cm) A (0–6”) Snow 611” 1.–8) C (18.1–24”) C (12.1–18”) B (6.1–12”) –. .– 1–1.5 m 0.5–1 m 0–0.5 m Number of Trees by DBH Class # Understory Hits by Species/Height # Understory Overstory Overstory E ( > 24”) Species

Lesson 7: It’s A Plot! Lesson 7: It’s

108 Return Of The Snow Cat Habitat Analysis It’s A Plot!

While following lynx number ___, your 2. Analyze Understory Data research team has come across a site a. Determine the Percent that was used by the feline in a specific Occurrence of Understory way. Set up a study plot and complete Vegetation. To do this, add the Lynx Daily Tracking Log and Site- together the number of points that Scale Habitat Evaluation form. You may had an understory and divide that have other tree species than those listed, sum by the total points surveyed so feel free to make up your own two- (25). For example, if 5 of your 25 letter code for each species. points had understory, that would be 20 percent occurrence. After you have completed the habitat evaluation and completed the form, you b. Now, determine the Percent will need to analyze the information. Occurrence of Understory Vegetation by Plant Species for 1. Compute Average Snow Depth: each Height (low is 0–50 centimeters above ground or If your site had snow, determine the snow, medium is 0.51–1.0 meters average depth and the variance. above ground or snow, and high Average: Sum of all snow depths taken at is 1.1–1.5 meters above ground or each point ÷ 25 points snow). For example, let’s say that 10 of the 25 points had ______Engelmann spruce in the Variance: The shallowest and the deepest understory at low height (0–50 measurements cm), then the percent occurrence ______of Engelmann spruce at low height is 40 percent.

PERCENT OCCURRENCE OF UNDERSTORY VEGETATION BY SPECIES (SP)

Sp: Sp: Sp: Sp: Sp: Sp:

Low Height

Medium Height

High Height Lesson 7: It’s A Plot!

Return Of The Snow Cat 109 3. Analyze Overstory Data For each species, determine the Percent Occurrence of the Overstory Vegetation. To do this, sum the number of points that had an overstory of that species directly above the point and divide that sum by the total points surveyed (25). For example, if your research team could look up and see subalpine fir overstory directly above 16 out of 25 points, then the percent overstory occurrence of subalpine fir would be 64 percent.

PERCENT OCCURRENCE OF OVERSTORY VEGETATION BY SPECIES (SP)

Sp: Sp: Sp: Sp: Sp: Sp:

4. Analyze Tree Composition of Plots Tree Composition is the mix of trees that are actually growing in the study plot. Transfer the information from your Site- Scale Habitat Evaluation form to this table.

TREE COMPOSITION

Sp: Sp: Sp: Sp: Sp: Sp:

0–6” DBH

6.1–12” DBH

12.1–18” DBH

18.1–24” DBH

>24” DBH

Lesson 7: It’s A Plot! Lesson 7: It’s

110 Return Of The Snow Cat 5. Compare Your Results Overstory In year three of the lynx reintroduction, 100 researchers completed 473 site-scale 90 ES AS 80 ES Snag AS Snag habitat plot evaluations. They used their 70 SF WI information to compile several graphs: 60 SF Snag LO 50

Understory PERCENT 40 100 30 20 90 10 80 0 70 Low PERCENT PLOTS MEAN PERCENT COVER Medium WITH THESE SPECIES IF SPECIES PRESENT 60 High Percent plots with overstory tree species Engelmann spruce 50 (ES), subalpine fir (SF), willow (WI), aspen (AS), lodgepole pine 40 (LO), and coarse woody debris (CWD). Mean percent overstory cover if tree species present. PERCENT 30 20 c. What was the most common 10 overstory species in the plots 0 sampled by researchers in year ES SF CWD WI AS LO three? SPECIES Mean (average) percent cover of habitat plot by understory ______tree/shrub species Engelmann spruce (ES), subalpine fir (SF), willow (WI), aspen (AS), lodgepole pine (LO), and coarse woody d. Which species, if present in a plot, debris (CWD). Mean percent cover is estimated for 3 height levels above the snow. provided the most cover in a plot? ______a. What was the most common understory species in habitat used e. What was the most common by lynx in year three? overstory species in your habitat plot? ______b. What was the most common ______understory species in your habitat? ______

______Lesson 7: It’s A Plot!

Return Of The Snow Cat 111 Tree Composition g. In general, were these young trees 100 or old trees? How do you know? 90 0–6” DBH 80 6.1–12” DBH ______70 12.1–18” DBH ______60 18.1–24” DBH ______50 >24” DBH

PERCENT 40 ______30 20 h. What were the two most common 10 trees found in your habitat plot? 0 ES SF CWD WI AS LO ______SPECIES i. Why do researchers collect so Percent of habitat plots with tree species Engelmann spruce (ES), subalpine fire (SF), willow (WI), aspen (AS), lodgepole pine much information about sites (LO), and coarse woody debris (CWD) by diameter at breast where lynx hunt, rest, den, and height (DBH) size class. mark territories? How will they apply their findings to management f. What two trees are most commonly practices? found in the habitat plots in year ______three? ______

Subalpine Fir

Lesson 7: It’s A Plot! Lesson 7: It’s

112 Return Of The Snow Cat Notes ______

______Lesson 7: It’s A Plot!

Return Of The Snow Cat 113 Lesson 8 Educator’s Overview Seven Steps To Success

Summary Students retrieve new and archived information from the Colorado Division of Wildlife Web site to document achievements in lynx reintroduction efforts.

Learning Objectives Teaching Strategies After completing this activity, 1. Thoroughly read the student students will be able to: materials for Seven Steps to • Describe the seven indicators Success. of a successful species reintro- 2. Give each student a reading Duration duction program. and activity packet. • Provide evidence of milestones 3. After giving students One 45-minute towards lynx recovery. class period sufficient time to read the packet, • Present an overview of the lynx assign the questions to indi- reintroduction effort in a written viduals or groups. or oral format. 4. As a class, discuss the Vocabulary answers. Colorado’s efforts to Fidelity bring back the lynx are currently achieving many milestones. Recruitment Background Recommend that students check the Web site periodically to follow Since the lynx reintroduction this historic effort. effort is a current scientific 5. Revisit the questions that endeavor, new information is students developed for Lesson continually available on the Two, Planning the “Purrrfect” Colorado Division of Wildlife’s Comeback. Do students have Web site. In this activity, students any questions left unanswered? gather the latest data on the If so, ask students to check the project and discuss the status of DOW Web site again and answer the recovery effort. As the closing those questions. activity, students review what they have learned about lynx and the reintroduction effort and present an overview of the entire unit in a written or oral format.

Lesson 8: Seven Steps to Success

114 Return Of The Snow Cat Assessment 2. What is the current status of lynx in Colorado? Find the infor- • Students, as individuals or in mation on the Web site to groups, should present an complete these charts: Answers overview of all they have to charts will change each learned about the lynx reintro- year. Updates on lynx status duction in a written or oral are posted on the Colorado format. Division of Wildlife’s Web site. 3. What do the charts and other information posted on the Web site tell us about fidelity? Are Extensions most lynx staying in the research area? Most of the lynx known • Students can research other to be alive are in the research lynx reintroduction efforts, or area, so they have developed efforts to reintroduce other fidelity to the research area. species, and compare the 4. Has there been evidence of results of those efforts to the breeding or reproduction? If so, lynx project. complete this chart with the most Materials and current information: There is evidence of breeding and Preparation reproduction. The first kittens • Access to the Key were found in 2003. Answers to Internet (from the chart will change each classroom, school 1. Was the first lynx release year. Updates on lynx status computer center, protocol successful? Why or why are posted on the Colorado local library, not? If any changes were made, Division of Wildlife’s Web site. or home) what were they? In what year did 5. What evidence, if any, is there • Student Reading biologists have a successful and Activity Pages of recruitment of Colorado born release protocol? The first year, for Seven Steps kittens to the breeding popu- too many of the newly released to Success, one lation? 2005 is the first year lynx died of starvation. After photocopy that kittens born in Colorado carefully monitoring and per student. will be able to breed. Stay analyzing the situation, biol- tuned to the Web site for the ogists devised a new release latest news on this issue. protocol. Lynx now acclimate in pens in Colorado for at least 6. Is there a viable population of a month, they are well fed and lynx in Colorado? When do you their health is closely predict there will be? No, as of monitored. Release now occurs 2005, there is not a viable after April 1 when the lynx are breeding population of lynx in in peak condition and when Colorado. Predictions will vary. food sources are abundant and Look for a logical response. Lesson 8: Seven Steps to Success easily captured. The second year of the program, 2000, is considered the year when biol- ogists had a successful release protocol.

Return Of The Snow Cat 115 Lesson 8 Student Pages Seven Steps To Success

The Seven Steps to Success females to establish overlapping territories and be observed spending time together. It is said that a journey of a thousand The fifth step is reproduction—kittens are miles begins with a single step. The same born. If these kittens survive, mature, and thing can be said about species recovery. produce young of their own, they add to It can be a long and arduous process. the new lynx population—a term biologists Seven huge, important steps must be call recruitment. Finally, when lynx achieved before the lynx reintroduction in recruitment exceeds mortality, and there Colorado is considered successful. are enough breeding age lynx so that there is no need for wildlife managers to reintroduce any more lynx, the seventh VIABILITY step—viability—has been reached. RECRUITMENT Once a self-sustaining viable popu- lation of lynx roams Colorado, the species is considered recovered. REPRODUCTION

BREEDING BEHAVIOR Celebrating Success FIDELITY Biologists, and indeed many other Coloradans, celebrate each milestone on SURVIVAL the road to lynx recovery. Usually, they want the entire world to know all about it. Press releases are RELEASE sent out and usually tele- vision, radio, and news- papers broadcast the latest The first step is to develop successful achievement. release protocols that ensure the highest probability of survival for each individual Many of the seven steps have already lynx released. Next, introduced lynx must been achieved. You can track the progress be able to survive for extended periods in towards a viable lynx population on the the wild. Third, the lynx must develop Colorado Division of Wildlife’s Web site fidelity to a specific area—they have to http://wildlife.state.co.us using the same remain in the area where biologists want procedures you used in Lesson Two, to reestablish a population. Then, biol- Planning the “Purrfect” Comeback for ogists look for evidence of breeding Lynx. Scan the “News & Media” section to behavior. They look for males and answer the following questions.

Lesson 8: Seven Steps to Success

116 Return Of The Snow Cat 1. Was the first lynx release protocol 2. What is the current status of lynx in successful? Why or why not? If any Colorado? Find the information on the changes were made, what were they? In Web site to complete these charts: what year did biologists have a successful ______release protocol? ______CAUSE OF DEATH FOR ADULT LYNX ______RELEASED INTO SOUTHWESTERN ______COLORADO SINCE 1999 ______Cause of Death Number of Mortalities ______Unknown Starvation Hit by Vehicle Probable Hit by Vehicle Shot Probable Shot Probable Predation Other Human Caused Plague Illness Total Mortalities

STATUS OF ADULT LYNX REINTRODUCED TO COLORADO SINCE 1999

Females Males Unknown TOTALS

Released (-) Known Dead

(=) Possibly Dead Lesson 8: Seven Steps to Success Missing* Tracking

*Researchers cannot pick up radio signals from missing lynx and do not know the locations of these animals. Either their collar batteries have died or the collars are still functioning and the lynx have moved outside the research area.

Return Of The Snow Cat 117 3. What do the charts and other infor- 4. Has there been evidence of breeding mation posted on the Web site tell us or reproduction? If so, complete this chart about fidelity? Are most lynx staying in the with the most current information: research area? ______

Previous Litters Number of Kittens (Year/Number of Female ID Release Year Kittens) Males Females Total

Total

Lesson 8: Seven Steps to Success

118 Return Of The Snow Cat 5. What evidence, if any, is there of 6. Is there a viable population of lynx in recruitment of Colorado born kittens to the Colorado? When do you predict there will breeding population? be? ______

______Lesson 8: Seven Steps to Success

Return Of The Snow Cat 119 Lesson 8: Seven Steps to Success

120 Return Of The Snow Cat Glossary

Aerial search: a search for an animal using Colonization: to establish a population in a an aircraft new location Adaptation: anatomical, physiological, or Colorado Division of Wildlife (DOW): state behavioral changes that improve a popu- agency devoted to protecting and lation’s ability to survive preserving Colorado’s wildlife Backtrack: to hike along the animal tracks in Competition: rivalry between two animals the opposite direction that the animal is over demand for limited resources such moving as, territory, food, opposite sex Bag limit: legal allowance of a specified Control group: a group that receives no number of fish or animals that can be experimental treatment harvested within a certain time limit Controlled experiment: a scientific investi- Biogeography: the study of the distribution gation during which an experimental group and population changes of a species is compared to a control group Biome: a community with distinct vegetation Conterminous 48 States: all U.S. states and climate excluding Alaska and Hawaii Biotic potential: maximum rate at which the Cover type: type of plants found at a location population of a given species can increase Deadfall: dead trees that have fallen down in when there are no limiting factors the forest Blow down: trees pushed down by wind or Density: number of individuals in a certain storms area Boreal: the northern-most broad band of Dependent variable: variable that is mixed coniferous and deciduous trees that measured stretches across North America, Europe, and Asia Dispersal: to travel somewhere else Browse: twigs, leaves, and plants or shrubs Distribution: how individuals are arranged in that are fit for animals to eat an area Candidate species: federal designation for Emigrate: when individuals move out of a species that are at risk of becoming population threatened or endangered Endangered: at risk of becoming extinct Carnivore: meat eater Endangered Species Act (ESA): a federal Carry capacity: the number of individuals of a law passed in 1973 that seeks to prevent species that a given environment can plants and animals from becoming extinct support in this country Census method: a method used to count the Experimental group: a group that receives number of a certain population some type of experimental treatment Circumboreal: high latitude forests that circle Extirpated: missing from native range, but not the globe extinct

Circumpolar: circling the North Pole Extinct: no longer exists Glossary

Return Of The Snow Cat 121 Features: physical characteristics Metapopulation: groups of subpopulations of a species living on habitat patches Fidelity: staying in a particular area; estab- (islands) separated from a larger source lishing a home range population Foot loading: body weight to foot-surface Model: an imitation of the key characteristics area ratio of a real population Forbs: flowering plants Mortality signal: a signal on radio telemetry Game animal: animals that people can legally equipment that indicates that the animal hunt, trap, or fish being tracked has not moved in a given time period and may be dead Generalist: species which utilize a broad range of habitat components to meet their Natural resource: raw materials supplied by needs (such as eating a wide variety of the Earth and its processes such as, prey) minerals, state lands, parks, oil and gas, forests, water and wildlife Habitat: the arrangement of food, water, cover and space suitable to an animals Niche: the function of a species in an needs ecosystem Harvest: to take animals by hunting or Observation: information obtained by using trapping the senses Herbivore: plant eaters Overstory: the top forest layer formed by the leaves and branches of trees Home range: the area an animal travels in the scope of its normal activities Pelt: preserved animal skin or fur Hypothesis: an explanation that may be true, Peninsula: an extension of a specific and can be tested by additional obser- ecosystem, often surrounded on three vations or experimentation sides by dissimilar ecosystems Immigrate: when individuals move into a Population: all the individuals of a species population that live in a particular place at a particular time Independent variable: the factor that is changed in an experiment Population dynamics: changes in density, size, and dispersion of a population Indigenous: living or occurring naturally in an area; native to that area Population model: a model that allows scientists to predict how a population will Island: isolated body of land change Island biogeography: the study of the distri- Predator: an animal that kills and eats other bution and population changes of species animals in and isolated ecosystem Prey: animals that are hunted for food Leveret: baby snowshoe hare Protocol: a plan of how to do something Limiting factor: anything that limits the growth of the population Radio telemetry equipment: equipment used to track animals remotely Mesic: dry Receiving system: part of the radio telemetry Mesocarnivore: mid-sized meat eater equipment used by the operator, which is set to a specific frequency so that if the operator is in range of the animal, he or she should hear a signal from the trans- mitting system

Glossary

122 Return Of The Snow Cat Recolonization: the process of reestablishing Territories: areas animals defend against subpopulations in areas the species others of the same species previously occupied Threatened: species not in immediate peril of Recovered: populations large enough and extinction, but vulnerable because they healthy enough to be self-sustaining in the exist in small numbers or in such a limited wild range that they may become endangered Recovery plan: a plan developed to recover Transmitting system: a portion of the radio threatened or endangered species telemetry equipment that includes a radio transmitter, a battery, and an antenna all in Recruitment: animals being added to a one unit population Understory: the layer of shrubs, small trees, Regenerating: reproducing; re-establishing and other plants on the forest floor Reintroduction: an attempt to re-establish a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS): species in an area that was once part of the federal wildlife agency that manages its historical range, but from which it has marine mammals, and migratory species, been extirpated such as songbirds and waterfowl, because Scat: feces left by an animal they cross state or national boundaries Season: certain times of year people may Viable population: a population large enough hunt or fish to be self-sustaining Sign: any indication of an animal’s passage Wildlife management: the application of through or use of an area scientific knowledge and technical skills to protect, preserve, conserve, limit, enhance Size: number of individuals in a population or extend the value of wildlife and its Source population: an area where the main habitat concentrated population of a species resides. Animals may disperse from this area to other locations Specialist: a species that uses a narrow range of habitat components to meet its needs (i.e. may eat only one prey species) Species of special concern: Colorado’s designation for species that are at risk of becoming threatened or endangered Subalpine forest: forests found in very high- mountain environments with elevations over 9,000 feet, just below tree line Subpopulation: an identifiable portion of a larger population Succession: the gradual change in a living community (i.e. aging of trees, replacement of one species with another) Synchronous: an event happening at the same time in the same manner

Terrestrial: growing or living on land Glossary

Return Of The Snow Cat 123 Notes ______

Notes

124 Return Of The Snow Cat