MEMBER SOCIETIES

Member Societies and their Secretaries are responsible for seeing that the correct address for their society is up to date. Please send any change to both the Treasurer and the Editor at the addresses inside the back cover. The Annual Return as at October 31 should include telephone numbers for contact.

MEMBERS’ DUES for the current year were paid by the following Societies:

Alberni District Historical Society Box 284, Port Alberni, B.C. V9Y 7M7 Arrow Lakes Historical Society Box 584, Nakusp, B.C. VOB1RO AtlinHistorical Society Box 111, Atlin, B.C.VOW1A0 Burnaby Historical Society 6501 Deer Lake Avenue, Burnaby, B.C. V5G 3T6 Chemainus Valley Historical Society Box 172, Chemainus, B.C. VOR1KG Cowichan Historical Society P.O. Box 1014, Duncan, B.C. V9L 3Y2 District 69 Historical Society Box 1452, Parksville, B.C. V9P 2H4 East Kootenay Historical Association RD. Box 74, Cranbrook, B.C. Vi C 4H6 Gulf Islands Branch, BCHF do Charles llsley, RR1 Pender Island, B.C. VON2M0 Koksilah School Historical Society 5203 Trans Canada Highway, Koksilah, B.C. VOR 2C0 Kootenay Museum & Historical Society 402 Anderson Street, Nelson, B.C. Vi L 3Y3 Lantzville Historical Society do Box 274, Lantzville, B.C. VOR2H0 Nanaimo Historical Society RD. Box 933, Station A, Nanaimo, B.C. V9R 5N2 North Shore Historical Association 1541 Merlynn Crescent, North Vancouver, B.C. V7J 2X9 North Shuswap Historical Society Box 22, Celista, B.C. VOE1LO Princeton & District Museum &Archives Box 687, Princeton, B.C. VOXiWO Qualicum Beach Historical & Museum Society 587 Beach Road, Qualicum Beach, B.C. V9K 1K7 Salt Spring Island Historical Society 129 McPhillips Avenue, Salt Spring Island, B.C.V8K 2T6 Sidney & North Saanich Historical Society RD. Box 2404, Sidney, B.C. V8L 3Y3 Silvery Slocan Historical Society Box 301, New Denver, B.C. VOG 150 Surrey Historical Society 8811 — 152nd Street, Surrey, B.C. V3R 4E5 Trail Historical Society RD. Box 405, Trail, B.C. Vi R 4L7 Vancouver Historical Society RD. Box 3071, Vancouver, B.C. V6B 3X6 Victoria Historical Society RD. Box 43035, Victoria North, Victoria, B.C. V8X 3G2

AFFILIATED GROUPS

Boundary Historical Society Box 580, Grand Forks, B.C. VOH1HO Bowen Island Historians Box 97, Bowen Island, B.C. VON1GO Kamloops Museum Association 207 Seymour Street, Kamloops, B.C. V2C 2E7 Kootenay Lake Historical Society Box 537, Kaslo, B.C. VOG1MO Lasqueti Island Historical Society Lasqueti Island, B.C. VOR2JO Nanaimo District Museum Society 100 Cameron Road, Nanaimo, B.C. V9R 2X1 Okanagan Historical Society Box 313, Vernon, B.C. V1T 6M3

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Published winter, spring, summer and fall by British Columbia Historical Federation P.O. Box 5254, Station B Victoria, B.C. V8R 6N4 A Charitable Society recognized under the Income TaxAct. Institutional subscriptions $16 per year Individual (non-members) $12 per year Members of Member Societies $10 per year For addresses outside Canada, add $5 per year Back issues of the British Columbia Historical News are available in microform from Micromedia Limited, 20 Victoria Street, Toronto, Ontario M5C 2N8, phone (416) 362-5211, fax(416) 362-6161, toll free 1-800-387-2689. This publication is indexed in the Canadian Index published by Micromedia. Indexed in the Canadian Periodical Index. Publications Mail Registration Number 4447.

Financially assisted by the Ministry of Small Business, Tourism and Culture through the British Columbia Heritage Trust Fund. Bdtih Coknba ].•istoricai ]News Journal of the B.C. Historical Federation Volume 29, No. 1 Winter 1995/96 EDITORIAL CONTE NTS

WILLIAMS LAKE HO! FEATURES The Museum of the Cariboo-Chilcotin in Dear Editor Naomi Williams Lake is pleased to be the host of the 2 by Ernest BC Historical Federation’s 1996 Annual Con Hams ference on Friday, April26 to Sunday, April 28. The Alberni - Qualicum Indian Trail 4 Two workshops are planned for April 26. Re by A. C. (Fred) Rogers searching, Writing and Publishing will be Opening of Teit Gallery in Merritt 7 explained by panelists Jean Barman, Gordon by Esther Darlington Elliott and Howard White with moderator Helen Health Care Changes in the Early 1900s 8 Akrigg while Acquisitioning and Processing by Glennis Zilm and Ethel Warbinek of Gifts to Historical Societies and Small L.A. Hamilton: Surveyor, Alderman, Land Commissioner 15 Museums will be presented by Lee Boyko and by Leonard W Meyers Greg Evans, officers of the BC Museums As The Fairbridge Farm School 17 sociation. There are a limited number of by Helen Borrell spaces available at these workshops so those wishing to attend should contact Melva Dwyer Highway 16: Prince Rupert to Terrace 1944 - 1994 24 by at 2976 McBride Avenue, Surrey, B.C. V4A Dirk Septer 3G6 or phone (604) 535-3041 to reserve a James Cronin; Mining Pioneer 27 place at no extra cost. Deadline April 15, 1996. by Dirk Septer Saturday will feature guest speakers, the Schooling on Lasqueti 29 Annual General Meeting and the awards ban by Elda Mason quet while on Sunday, April 28, there will be a Making B.C. History: The Native Sons of British Columbia 30 bus tour to Likely and Quesnel Forks. by Robert Leece A warm welcome awaits BCHF members NEWS and NOTES 34 and non-members alike. This is a time when we should reach out to history buffs in interior BOOKSHELF and northern communities. Readers, please The Queen’s Law is Better Than Yours: International Homicide in Early B.C 35 invite your friends and acquaintances to par Review byJohn A. Cherrington The Road From Bute Island: ticipate in this April weekend. Obtain registra Crime & Colonial Identity in British Columbia 35 Review byJohn A. Cherrington tion forms after March 1st, 1996 from your local The Place Between 36 branch secretary or phone Lori Hudson-Fish Review by Gordon Elliott at (604) 398-5825. Deadline for registration is Blackouts to Bright Lights 37 April 15, 1996. Review by Phyllis Reeve Naomi Miller Becoming Canadians: Pioneer Silths in their own words 37 Review by Werner Kaschel Shaping Spokane 38 COVER CREDIT Review by Ron Weiwood The Accidental Airline 38 This picture taken at an agricultural fair in Vic Review byJack Meadows toria in 1936 shows a group of students from Canada’s Forgotten Highway 39 Fairbridge Farm School with their bovine Review by Philip Teece Time & Tide: A charges. These lads, in their suits with short History of Telegraph Cove 39 Review by Philip Teece pants, were members of the very first group The Institutionalized Cabinet: Governing the Western Provinces 40 to arrive at the residential school at Cowichan Review by Keith Ralston Station on Vancouver Island. See their story Children, Teachers and Schools in the History of British Columbia 40 on page 17. BCARS #A-06317. Review by Linda Hale

Manuscripts and correspondence to the editor are to be sent to P0. Box 105, Wasa, B.C. VOB 2K0. - Correspondence regarding subscriptions is to be directed to the Subscription Secretary (see inside back cover).

Printed in Canada by Kootenay Kwik Print Ltd. Dear Editor Naomi by ErnestA. Harris

Congratulations to you prove that immigrants who and your contributors for are courageous and capable the Summer 1995 B.C. His can put down roots in a new torical News. I read the land. Today Pemberton is an magazine from cover to agricultural community fa cover, something of an mous for its potatoes, but it achievement because my can be proud of its pioneers, eyesight is so bad that I can too, My personal recollection only read with a print en ofPemberton is limited to two larger - useful but cumber train trips. On the first, about some. However it was worth sixty years ago, one took a Un it! All articles had their own ion Steamship to Squamish special interests, but some and there boarded a Pacific struck chords of memories Great Eastern train of passen in my own recollection of ger and freight cars drawn by people, places and events ;: a steam locomotive (not the over the past 85 years. Royal Hudson). The PGE I was, of course, particu (Please Go Easy or Prince larly interested in Tom The only bridge across the Kokish River in 1929 before CanForc logging railway bridge George Eventually) had gone Barnett’s “Englewood Se about twenty years &tte bankrupt and had been taken quel”. He filled in some gaps All pictures courtesy the author over by the provincial govern for me for when I was at ment who operated the line to Englewood (1928-30). I did once visit Jessie Ades and her husband Marvin a temporary terminus at Quesnel. Because Camp 1 (as it was known then) near the Kullander’s diary recalled special memories for of its huge debt the PGE was regarded as a outlet of Nimpkish Lake via the Wood & me. I knew that Jessie was a teacher. Her fa white elephant. Some years later when the English railway. Later, with a friend, I hiked ther’s house was opposite the Burnett house railway had been extended at both ends and up the Kokish River to its source in Ida Lake. at Laurel Street and 18th Avenue. Dot renamed B.C. Rail I took a second trip. I But in the two years I was at Englewood I Burnett, also a teacher, later became my wife. boarded the Dayliner in North Vancouver, never even heard of Woss Lake. As Mr. In Jessie’s travels up the B.C. coast she men travelled along the scenic Howe Sound shore Barnett says when CanFor acquired the tim tions calling at Englewood and other ports line to Squamish. Then the train went ber limits it was a major decision to extend which, if I had never visited, I at least knew through a now more pastoral Pemberton, past the railway beyond Nimpkish Lake to cross by name. I recall travelling aboard the Union beautiful Anderson and Seton Lakes to the Kokish River and follow it to tidewater Steamship Chelosin in October 1921 seeing Lillooet and then high above the mighty at Beaver Cove. Though this logging rail Ocean Falls for the first time. The busy paper Fraser in to Clinton and -eventually- to way may still be operative I imagine the old plant and its steep adjoining townsite gleamed Prince George. steam locomotives with their bulky spark in the brilliance of electric light. Ocean Falls “Those Legendary Leasks” were immi catcher smokestacks have long since disap and other places Jessie mentions have now di grants of a different sort but none the less peared. minished or disappeared along with the remarkable. They were dreamers but not im coastal steamers that served them. practical. They were remote but within Congratulations to Chris Li for rowboat distance of a general store and post his prize winning essay regarding office. They built a house and storage shed, the Chinese contribution to the planted a garden and fruit trees, made a saw building of the Canadian Pacific mill and landing pier. They lived out their Railway. The era when the Chi active lives in the forest abode they had cre nese were treated as second class ated. Today little of it remains but their story citizens is now history, but we is well worth remembering. Orkney Island ,; should all remember democracy ers were no strangers to Canada. Because they depends on a firm basis of toler were inured to a rigorous climate and accus

4” ance and justice. tomed to handling boats, the Hudsons Bay The stories about Will Miller Company recruited Orkney men as crews to

Crossing Kokish River without bridge or boat - rapid water over and Annie Ronayne and their man the double-ender York boats that car slippery boulders (1929). families, “Pemberton Pioneers”, ried people and supplies from York Factory

2 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 have bogged down or slid off the road. Mo toring was always a bit ofan adventure in those days. Although I drove automobiles over B.C. roads for more than sixty years, my mechanical skills were marginal. I have nothing but admira tion for Henry Stevenson and his Paciftc Great Eastern (B.C Rail) bridge over theFraser River nearLilooet (1931). friend Alfred Vyse, while still teenagers, at the mouth ofthe Nelson River down Lake constructing a motor-car from bits and Winnipeg to Fort Garry and other settle pieces. That their car successfully passed all ments along the Red River. But that’s another the tests to drive safely on Nelson’s steep Model T(July 1, 1931) on the Fraser Canyon road story. streets was indeed an achievement! Henry somewhere between Boston Bar and Lytton. Winston Shilvock, in his article about Brit Stevenson’s well researched article about the ish Columbia’s roads, chose true words when wartime Japanese balloon bomb also had a women’s hats (always topical) with excellent miser he wrote, “For about two decades a Kootenay connection for me. I , at age 18, illustrations. I can recall a hat story which I able road called the Big Bend had followed had my first teaching job at Boulder (located first heard some 80 years ago and which my the Columbia River north from Golden to where Boulder Creek joins the Salmon River elders often re-told. It concerned a northern Mica Creek and south to Revelstoke. Only three miles north of Salmo.) Opposite Boul cannery manager named Mr. Gilmore. He the very hardy made the trip.” It was indeed der was a rugged pyramid shaped mountain; was a genial man but because of his deafness a rough, gravelly, round-about route. I drove on its far side Hidden Creek made its turbu he always spoke in a very loud voice. On an it in the summer of 1940. lent way through a deep cleft to join the occasion before WWI I he attended a mov I also felt a kinship ing picture show in Prince Rupert where he for the Robertsons was given a seat behind a woman wearing a and Wragges motor wide brimmed hat with flowery, feathery ing to the Cariboo in decorations. After a minute or so, Mr. G 1926. On the return turned to his neighbour and in a stentorian trip to Vancouver S whisper that boomed across the theater (si from Banff in 1940 lent pictures in those days) he remarked, “I we took the southern CAME HERE TO SEE A MOVIE NOT A route through Nel WOMAN’S HAT.” son, Rossland and over the hump to Bio Note: Ernest Harris has contributed sev Grand Forks. There eral delighful articles to the B. C. Historical was no obstruction News as well asproviding cartoon illustrations by fallen trees but I suited to the topic. AND be sentphotographs to counted thirty-nine illustrate this novel Letter-to-tbe-Editor hairpin bends. I seem Mountain opposite Boulder Mill on the Salmon Rive, 3 miles north of Salmo. to have duplicated Japanese balloon-bomb landed onforested north slope (left) above Hidden Creek their journey to the (1928photo). Cariboo when I drove up the tortuous road from Yale, Salmon River. On the north side of Hidden Spuzzum, Lytton, past Lillooet and on Creek a logging company blasted a rough through Clinton, 70 Mile, 100 Mile, 150 road to a camp deep in the forest. In the Mile Houses to Horsefly. The Robertson’s car spring of 1928 I walked up this road to visit appears to be a 1926 Model T Ford. Except the camp. On the way I may have given a for disc wheels it seems similar to mine. My passing thought to bears but the idea of trip was in July ‘31 so there was no ice or bombs never occurred to me. Therefore I was snow problem ... but it did rain hard beyond surprised to learn from Stevenson’s article that Clinton turning the road to a slippery muddy a Japanese balloon bomb had landed in 1945 track. Fortunately I had been advised to take on the still rugged slopes of Hidden Creek. tire chains along; without them the car would Then there was the wonderful world of

3 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 The Alberni - Qualicum Indian Trail by A. C. (Fred) Rogers

Russians as well as the Spanish had made Young Adam Home was selected to lead landings on the West Coast exploring for gold this party for obvious reasons. He was a pow in the 1700’s. The English under Captain erful man about six feet three inches tall Cook made contact there in 1792. The weighing about 230 pounds. He was only Americans came a little later on fur trading twenty years of age when he first arrived in expeditions. But none of these ships it seems Victoria from the ship Princess Royal in explored the Alberni Inlet beyond Barkley 1851. He was put in charge of the company ..i J, Sound. The natives living on the shore of store in Nanaimo, and soon acquired some Somass River and tidewater had never faced skill in dealing with the natives and their cus a whiteman until 1855-6, when Adam Grant toms. He was known to be courageous and Home, an employee of the Hudson’s Bay not easily intimidated. Company was summoned by his officers in Home was sent to Victoria where his party Victoria to launch an expedition to explore were outfitted with a large Indian canoe and 1 i, the possibility of trading with these people provisions. His men included three Iroquois f I in Alberni. There were rumours that a trail Indians from Eastern Canada and another existed overland between Qualicum and local Indian from Victoria known as Cote. I., /1 . ff Alberni, and his mission was to locate and He was acting as interpreter and the others explore this route. To the best oftheir knowl were selected as skilled canoe handlers. edge, no white men had previously used this Their First Expedition North Adam GrantHome and wife Elizabeth. Note trail, so the feasibility of finding the trail and The explorers left Victoria early on the the two pistoic in his belt. the dangers the small party might encounter morning of Saturday, May 10, 1855. (There B.C.A.R.S. A-8365 were unknown. are conflicting reports about the date. An-

There are reasons to believe this historic Indian trail existed cen

turies before European white men LO RDAD———— N

explored Vancouver Island. Most WAIrvJAY 1)IOIAIJ TRAIL 05Db of the native tribes on the island BY .Afl4)5 Adam Grant Home’s Historic Expedition lived in isolated bands close to 1856 CAMP SIrE tidewater or rivers near tidewater ROW 2.11) LADp MCE where salmon could be easily har (73Ro CAMP CITe vested. Some of these bands were 11)1) CAMP 31CC on friendly terms with other tribal bands who did a little trading or visitation for many reasons. There existed however, other groups of natives known to be fearful war 4 riors and of a savage nature, liv ing on the northern mainland and Map drafted by AC. (Fred,) Rogers the Queen Charlotte Islands. For 1995 reasons only known to them selves, they occasionally em (0 barked on voyages to make war with other tribes living a more N peaceftil existence. The natives liv ing in the Alberni Valley were not ‘ plagued to such a degree by war \ N N like northern Indians. The aboriginal first nation peo ple living on the West Coast of Vancouver Island often made contact with white traders. The

4 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 other source claimed it was The afternoon was hard work 856.) The group made their from the head of the lake while first stopover by a little island climbing the steep mountain. near Saltspring Island. They They made camp again and didn’t light a campfire for fear Adam Home posted two men to of a possible attack from the stand guard, alternating every Cowichan natives. Their next four hours. They were not tak landing was on Newcastle Island ing chances of being discovered near Nanaimo, and no campfires by wandering natives. The next were made. On the third day, a morning they continued the good breeze and a small sail hard climb and reached the sum brought the men to Qualicum, mit of the pass about noon. but a gale forced a landing about From there they had a view of a mile south of the Qualicum the Alberni Valley. After hiding River. (Big Qualicum). Once more supplies for the return trip, again they concealed themselves A view to the bead ofHorne Lake. The dottedline shows approximately the route of they started down the mountain. in the forest that evening with the oki traiL Home described this trail as ex Photo courtesy of author their canoe. Home had Cote ceedingly steep, with many posted to stand guard with a loaded musket walking south hoping to find a trail. This rocky bluffs where they eased their way down for fear of attack. These precautions paid off was slow, hard work, but four hours later, by holding onto bush. From the foot of the Near daybreak, one of the guards woke they came upon a trail. It went in a north mountain, the trail went directly to an In Home who was sleeping. A large group of westerly direction so they followed it. (There dian village on the Somass River. Indians in about twenty huge canoes each was no mention about crossing the river so holding about twenty or more men were clos we can assume the trail was on the north side Contact With The Indians ing in towards the mouth of the river. This of the river.) The arrival of Home’s party produced great turn of events caused considerable delay. In It was late that evening when they came alarm and excitement. Most of them had due time, the Haida warriors were seen leav upon a large lake. As they were dead tired, never met a white man before. They ran into ing the river, and when well out of sight, the they made camp in the forest away from the the forest shouting to each other. None were group proceeded to the river. Large columns trail to avoid any contact with other Indians in sight but they stayed nearby and an arrow of smoke were rising above the forest, and that might be passing through. Their evening struck a tree close to Home’s head. Cote ad the men feared the band of Indians known was occupied by Core who related to Home, vised them to keep under cover in the forest. to be living up the river had been attacked. some of the old woman’s last words before Most of the tribe were on the far side of the A short distance upstream, the men came she died. She said their band was related to river. When the alarm subsided, Cote and upon a most frightful scene. They had noted the Cape Mudge band, and some time ago, Adam paddled over with some gifts and bis many warriors leaving the river were stand the Haida’s attempted to steal the Chief’s cuits where they met the Chief. He was quite ing and chanting while holding the heads of daughter. During the battle, some Haida men a fearsome looking man that Cote didn’t victims as trophies. The village was still burn were killed and this battle was for revenge. trust. He was given a blanket, a knife and ing, while scattered around were the head The Haidas deemed it unwise to attack Cape some biscuits they placed on the ground, and less nude bodies of women and men. It Mudge knowing it was guarded, so they qui they then retreated to a safer distance at the appeared there were no survivors, but one of etly paddled up the Qualicum River unde foot of the mountain to make camp where the men heard a faint sound near the river tected and out of sight to make a surprise they had the first good meal that day. and found an old woman hiding under the raid. Another meeting was arranged, and a roots of a large tree. She had somehow es The explorer’s night was most unpleasant. young Indian from the Nitinat Tribe near caped in the turmoil but was badly wounded. They were disturbed by the howling ofwolves Victoria who was held as a slave wanted to They did what they could to help but she nearby about midnight and the screech of a return to his own people. Adam bargained was failing away They learned the warriors cougar. Cote then stood guard until the with the Chief to release the youth for two had taken some young girls and boys as pris wolves were gone for they feared their food blankets which he accepted. The Chiefhow oners, and she was the lone survivor. Home might be found. They discovered nothing was ever came forward with the boy and now de was hoping she could tell them if a trail ex disturbed that night but two large wolves manded three blankets. Home refused and a isted and where it started, but she soon passed were still near their camp. dangerous situation prevailed. When the away. Home’s men begged him to abandon The trail alternately followed the lakeshore Chief took the boy away, Home took hold this dangerous mission, but he was deter or in the forest. They noted the beach was of him and tossed the two blankets at the mined to fulfill his commission. marked with spoors of bears, deer and elk. Chief’s feet. Adam Home broke the dead

The trail itself ran helter - skelter in the for lock by firing his musket; that alarmed the Searching For The Trail est with many needless detours around wind natives who ran off leaving the two blankets. From the mouth of the river, the men pad falls that with a little work could be by-passed. The party then hastily broke camp before the dled about two miles north and cached their Home shot a young elk that morning to sup Chief returned with a war party. They as canoe and some provisions for the return trip. plement their diet with fresh meat, and they cended the mountain to a safe distance and They entered the heavy forest and began carefully cached the rest for the return trip. posted guards around their camp. They left

5 B.C. Historical News - Winter 19956 insult to the Chief on their first visit. Home displayed great cour age by returning to the Somass River knowing his head would be a prized trophy. Adam Grant Home was born at Kirkwall, Orkney Island, and at a later date, was the owner of a store in Nanaimo for many years. He was married on February 22, 1859, to Elizabeth (nee Bate) in Nanaimo. He died on August 10, 1901. Dr. John Sebastian Helmcken of Victoria interviewed Adam Home and wrote an essay about his historic trek across the Van couver Island trail. In Dr John Helmcken. B.C.A.R.S. later years, George Bird of Port Alberni before dawn, and when near the summit, a published some of Mrs. Nicholas and her children walked over the Indian trail in 1886. few Indians were seen in the forest. They had Adam Home’s adven Alberni Valley Museum-PN 745 a quick breakfast there and found their cache tures in the Alberni untouched. newspaper, West Coast Advocate from Dr. Indians moving, for they stopped for the

They arrived at the lake again, shot some Helmcken’s book - Stories of Early British slightest reasons. One man complained his mallards for supper and left early the next Columbia. feet were hurting him and wanted some morning, after another tense restless night In October of 1856, James Douglas, Gov boots. He was given boots but he didn’t wear where they kept a fire to ward off the howl ernor of the colony ofVancouver Island and them. He carried the boots on his pack. For ing wolves. manager of the Hudson’s Bay Company, or some unknown reason, the Indians had never The group planned to follow the trail to ganized another expedition to explore the used this route they were blazing through. the Qualicum River massacre site, for they country Adam Home had travelled. This They had no knowledge of Cameron Lake didn’t want to repeat the trip through the group was supervised by Joseph Despard or the country they travelled through. The pathless forest. When they figured they were Pemberton, the H.B. Co. surveyor. He new trail was eventually upgraded and in near the village site, they called a halt and crossed over the same trail used by Home. 1890 a wagon road was built over the route. sent a scout to check things out. He returned He made another crossing again the follow It followed the north shore ofCameron Lake stating that he had found no living soul, ca ing year. and not where the present highway exists. noes, or people out on the sea. It appeared In 1859, Adam Home and Capt. George Many pioneers and travellers used the no one had been there after they left. Some Henry Richards made another trip from original Qualicum Alberni trail. Every group timbers were still smouldering and the bod Qualicum River to Alberni for the purpose that went through did improvement work ies had been partially eaten by animals. of opening a road. He reported the moun to shorten the trail. In 1874, Father Brabant Adam Home’s return trip was uneventful. tains were too steep and the route could never wrote in his diary that he walked over this They were relieved to find their canoe and be used for a roadway. trail which was greatly improved. And Mis cache intact, They kept close to shore while In 1861, Lieutenant Richard Charles sionary Father Eussen walked the trail in win going south, keeping a watchful eye for fear Mayne, RN., was instructed to find another ter with an Indian who carried his blankets of the Haida warriors. Home was enthusias route if one existed through the mountains and rifle. He made the trip in 1884 and tically greeted when he reached Victoria. He from Alberni to Nanaimo, His party started walked from Qualicum to Nanaimo. made a full report to his staff but what his out from Alberni on April 29. The trip took Other travellers include C.A. Cox who report contained was probably not published. seven days ofhard travel without the benefit used the trail in May, 1884. Other pioneers The old trail and plans oftrading were left of a trail. He had a crew of six Indians for who came to Alberni in 1886 were Edmund for a while, but Adam Home made a number guiding and packing as well as William E. Gill; John Love; and John Fisher. And John of other trips over this route at a later date. It Banfield and one Royal Marine from H.M.S. C. Mollet came through in 1886 with his is not known how his group appeased the Hecate. The men had trouble keeping the mother and father.

6 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 The most daring adventure was made by a ofthe mill hands Walter Underwood decided Bio Note: The author makes his home in woman, Mrs. Sarah Nicholas with her four to stay after the mill closed a few years later. Qualicum Beach. He describes bimsef alter young children, Bertha, Ette, Alfred and He married a native woman and they had a nately as a marine historian or thepublisher of William. Her husband had left Australia in son also named Walter who later got the con two books about biking trail, one referring to trails in the Qualicum-Parksville area, the other 1885 to join his uncle, Peter Merrifield who tract to carry the mail over the trail twice a highlighting trails in theAlberni andNanaimo was in poor health. helping After his uncle month. “Watty”, as he was known, first districts. build a house, Nicholas decided to stay and walked the trail until he got a horse. His route sent a message to Australia for his wife and crossed over the little Qualicum River and References The Alberni Advocate. May & June, 1946. A detailed the four children to join him. In the mean the big Qualicum River just below the lake account of Adam Grant Home’s exploration of the time he built his own house for the family. in the canyon. He had a large log for a bridge Qualicum-Albemni Indian trail by George Bird. It was located beside the trail where the with handrail, The A. Home family history by Olga Blanche Owen—i 980 a and his horse often used the in the Port Alberni Museum. present-day hydro powerlines are located just bridge during high water. The Nicholas Family by Margaret Trebett: Available in the north of the golf course. She walked the trail When the new wagon road was opened Port Alberni Museum. Personal interview with Mrs. Lil Swanson (granddaughter of with the help of her brother-in-law William for travel around Cameron Lake in 1890, the the pioneer Nicholas family), Port Alberni, 1995. Nicholas in 1886. The trail had been greatly old trail was abandoned. The author could The Albernis, a history ofAlberni Valley by Jan Peterson. Qualicum Beach - A history ofVancouver Island’s improved by then and a boat was established find no evidence of the original trail despite Best Kept Secrets, by Brad Wylie. on Home Lake to avoid a six-mile walk. One extensive searching of the area from Home of the children, Alfred, oniy four years old Lake to Alberni. The area was logged by rail died not long thereafter. way in the 1920’s and 30’s, and the trail de An Indian who was known as Qualicum stroyed. But hiking the area is possible by Joe of Qualicum established a boat on the following old logging roads and the use of a lake to assist travellers and the man who car good detailed map. But be cautious. You ried the mail from Qualicum to Alberni. could get lost, for there are many old roads When the Anderson sawmill was built by to confuse those not familiar. Capt. Edward Stamp in Alberni in 1864, one

Opening of Teit Gallery in Merritt by Esther Darlington A new wing in the Teit, a gun case, and a camera. Other arti Anthropology in London when he discov Nicola Valley Mu facts include a variety of coiled pots and trays, ered Teit’s work, said the work was a revela seum in Merritt cooking utensils, tools, clothing, photographs tion to him. Absent ofjargon, comprehensive commemorating the and a mural by Susan Stevenson, depicting and true in its interpretation, Bruce said, “It invaluable life’s work Teit as a chronicler of native life, language was a real person, talking about real people of one of North and traditions. in a real place. You could understand it”. America’s foremost The Teit Gallery is the newest addition of Native spokeswoman, Carol Michel, said, anthropologists, the Nicola Valley Museum. Most ofthe arti “It is important to Indians to see what Teit James A. Teit, is ‘A facts in the gallery were donated byTeit’s son, collected. The song recordings made byTeit start”, says his son Sigurd. were the beginning of the collections made Sigurd Teit. The Launching the new gallery July 31, 1995 Courtesy Esther Darlingion later”. opening is long over were a number of civic and provincial gov Don Moses said, “We are indebted to Teit. due. ernment officials, including the Mayor, Clara To me, the man really adopted the Indian Teit’s almost life-long absorption of native Nygaard; The Honorable Bill Barlee, Minis ways, otherwise he would never have been Indian cultures and languages, provided the ter of Small Business, Tourism and Culture; able to collect what he collected”. meat and bones of studies by famous anthro MLA Harry Lalli; native elder Mary Coutlee; Professor Sprague said, “Many years ago, pologists such as Franz Boaz. Boaz’s historic Linguist Mandy Jimmie; former chief Don as a graduate student working with a profes meeting with Teit near Spences Bridge is a Moses; Professor Rod Sprague, University of sor Alex Smith, I was told by him, “Begin theme sought by the Nicola Valley Museum Idaho; Dan Bruce of Kelowna Museum; with the Thompson Indians by James A. Archives Association and a number of dis David Scheffel, University College of the Teit”. tinguished researchers across North America Cariboo; and others. All acknowledge Teit’s “It is the start of recognition of James A. to be commemorated in a postage stamp. An invaluable contribution to the preservation Teit”, said Sigurd Teit at the end of the cer application and supportive material was sent of native Indian cultures of several tribes; emony. “When we grew up, nobody knew to Canada Post, Ottawa, last year. Thompson, Shuswap, Lillooet, and who James Teit was, and something like this The new wing includes artifacts and writ Okanagan. is very important.” ten work by Teit, a buckskin shirt worn by Dan Bruce, who was doing a degree in

7 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 Health Care Changes in the Early 1900s by Glennis Zilm and Ethel Warbinek

in particular were of fered. Payment for most health care in the l9lOs and 1920s was the responsibility of the individual pa tient or family; medi cal and nursing care insurance was almost non-existent. Private plans, such as Metro politan Health Insur ance, were just beginning to be set up, although many early nursing leaders advocated govern ment-run insurance University ofBritish Columbia at Fairview site on groundc of Vancouver General Hospital, circa 1919. The three-storey stone building was usedfor classes and is mrvounded by the wooden buildings that gave rise to the name “Fairview Sbacks” programs. Most Courtesy Special Collections UBC Library graduate nurses were paid by their patients Health, in the early I 900s, was a challenge. school, oversee sanitary measures, and assist for bedside care in the home. However, in Just being healthy and remaining so was dif in providing maternal and child nursing care. many communities and rural areas, a nurse ficult. Typhoid, cholera, and tuberculosis The call was for university education for was the only health worker available and were still common causes ofdeath, especially nurses, especially for those nurses who would some communities arranged for the nurse to in cities, where sewage systems were often carry out new public health duties and those do teaching and health promotion. inadequate and where unpaved, muddy who would be teaching in nursing programs. Organization of public health services in streets were littered with refuse and manure In response, the first degree program in nurs B.C. began in 1893 with establishment of from horse-drawn vehicles. Home sanitation ing in Canada opened at the University of the Provincial Board of Health. Dr. C.J. measures about clean food and water re British Columbia in the fall of 1919. As with Fagan, secretary of the Board, was soon urg mained problems for the general populace. all such innovations, this event occurred in ing that nurses should visit schools and homes Despite increases in scientific knowledge and response to a variety of contemporary social to educate the public about better infant and introduction of new vaccines, infectious dis pressures. For example, at this time, nurses child care and to assist in reducing the inci eases such as smallpox, whooping cough were prepared only in hospital schools of dence of tuberculosis and other communi (pertussis), measles, scarlet fever, and infan nursing and their programs concentrated on cable diseases. The first “school nurse” in tile paralysis (poliomyelitis) remained major preparing young women to carry out bed— Vancouver was appointed in 1910 by the city killers. Workplace accidents killed many side care. Nursing leaders and enlightened to help supervise the health of 9,800 chil heads of the households, leaving families fa public health officials recognized that better dren in Vancouver’s 16 schools.2 In 1911, a therless. Puerperal fever was a common killer educated nurses would be able to do much provincial act to provide for medical inspec ofwomen following childbirth, leaving fami more than bedside care and would be able to tion in schools was passed, but as few physi lies motherless. Large families were the norm, introduce measures to deal with the appall cians were available to carry out this work, but one of four newborns was likely to die ing health problems of the day. the provincial authorities called for use of before the second birthday. Medical knowl During the “golden years” of 1900 to 1914, “school nurses” throughout the province. edge had expanded but, generally speaking, Vancouver’s population had quadrupled from Despite this start, however, in 1914, the death statistics on sickness (morbidity) and death 27,000 to more than 113,000.’ Despite eco rate in children under age two was 25%. Dr. (mortality) were not noticeably improving. nomic fluctuations, the province became Henry Esson Young, minister of education The public health movement of the early more industrialized and urbanized, with a and responsible for the provincial board of 1 900s in British Columbia set out to change growing affluent middle class. This period health, called for better educated nurses who all that. The main impetus called for educa of growth and prosperity also was a factor in could provide more comprehensive public • tion of public health nurses, who were to prompting the major changes in the ways health care, including family health teaching. introduce health instruction in home and health care in general and education ofnurses

8 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 education, and nursing leaders were calling men serving overseas. The numbers of for university programs. Hospital nursing women, however, was evidence of another education programs prepared graduates only trend of the time. for bedside work in hospital settings. Illness prevention, family education, and community leadership were not taught, despite the fact that once nursing students graduated almost all worked as private duty nurses in patients’ homes. The move to university preparation for nurses had be gun in Scotland in 1893, when students at the Glasgow Infir mary received short courses in theory at St. Mungo’s College before they began their practi cal work at the hospital.7 In the United States, the first univer D Henry Ecson Young minister ofeducation and sity course for graduate nurses responsiblefor theprovincial board ofhealth. He had opened at Teachers Col was responsible for guiding through legisletion lege, Columbia University, caiingfor medical inspections ofallschools in the New York, in 1899. Canada province. After he retiredfrompolitics, he became the head of the provincial board ofhealth, letter was not far behind. the provincial health department. This portrait Nurses, like other women’s was taken in 1911. groups, were forming organi BCARS #A-02547 zations to promote better care for the public and better edu Emphasis on Education cation for themselves. A gradu British Columbia already had a strong ate nurses’ association had commitment to improved education in many been formed in B.C. in 1912, fields. B.C.’s public school system had been with Scharley Wright (later co-educational since its inception in the Mrs. Bryce Brown), a school EthelJohns,first head ofthe department ofnursing at the University 1 850s, but with increased prosperity in the nurse in New Westminster, as ofBritish Columbia, 1919-1925. province, high school education was becom its first president. This associa Courtesy of UBC School of Nursing Archives ing the norm. A Provincial Normal School, tion secured provincial legisla for education of teachers, had opened in Van tion for registration in 191 8. The legislation A Growing Feminism couver in 1899 with 50 students.4 ensured registered nurses met proper stand The Women’s Movement had emerged in Training schools for nurses had been ards and thus protected the public from un the late 1 800s and early 1 900s. This early among the first higher-level educational in qualified practitioners; it also established the feminism was another important social pres stitutions in B.C. The first Canadian nurs first minimum standards for training schools. sure. British Columbia women had joined ing program to be based on the educational The public interest in education had led the agitation for suffrage and obtained the model developed by Florence Nightingale to the opening of the University of British vote in 1917, with B.C. the fourth province had opened in St. Catharine’s, Ontario, in Columbia (UBC) in 1915. The first classes to gain the franchise. The Canada Election 1874. Nightingale’s far-reaching influence for the 379 registrants were held in a three Act of 1918 gave women voting rights in fed had caused many changes in nursing educa storey former hospital building located on eral elections. tion, but one outcome was that it had be the Fairview property of the Vancouver Gen Several women’s organizations developed come largely a female occupation. B.C.’s first eral Hospital (the “Fairview Shacks”). Al around the turn of the century so women Nightingale-based nursing program opened though a site at Point Grey had been allocated could support one another and make their at Victoria’s Royal Jubilee Hospital in 1891 by the provincial government, Canada’s en collective voices heard in their demands for and by 1899 Vancouver had its first nursing try into World War Tin August 1914 turned better educational, employment, and politi school.6 attention and funds away from grand uni cal opportunities. The National Council of Changes in health care, new scientific ad versity plans. Despite the war, by 1918 the Women was formed in 1895, with one of its vances, and increased emphasis on public student population in the three faculties of goals the improvement of the health of education and prevention of illness made the time (Arts, Agriculture, and Applied Sci women during the childbearing period. The public health nursing a potentially appeal ence) was 273 females and 265 males.10 This local councils were particularly interested in ing and rewarding career. Nurses recognized, predominance of women was considered the development of schools of nursing and however, that such a career required advanced “temporary” because ofthe numbers ofyoung improvements in public health nursing care.

9 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 When Countess Ishbel Ab public health nurses could erdeen, wife of Canada’s eL!1!!s!1 Director__j fill the new role of public Governor-General and a health inspectors.13 founder of the National In February 1919, the Council, was in Vancouver UBC Senate considered a in 1896, the idea of a visit letter from Dr. Malcolm T ing nursing service, mod MacEachern, medical su elled on a British service, perintendent of the Van was suggested to her by two couver General Hospital, Vancouver women.11’ 12 asking the University to This sparked the establish take over instruction of ment in 1897 of the Victo nursing students through a nan Order of Nurses Department or Chair of (VON) for Canada to Nursing. Dr. MacEachern bring nursing services to was an internationally women in poor, rural, and known administrator who isolated areas and so reduce was especially concerned the high maternal and child about standards of care and mortality rates. he believed strongly that all nursing education should EthelJohns,first bead ofthe department ofnursing. with the ten students enrolled in the UBC Development of UBC’s degreeprogram in 1921. be in universities. He pro Nursing Program Courtesy of UBC School of Nursing Archives posed UBC should control All these factors contrib all nursing education in the uted to the demands in B.C. for a univer every school child in the province to have a province, with various approved hospitals sity-based nursing education program. As physical examination every year. He and Dr. used for practical experience. Dr. Robert well, the heroic activities of nurses during Fagan had appointed the first provincial McKechnie, chancellor of UBC and chair of World War I and in the care of the Spanish school nurse in 1913 and soon most centres the Senate meeting, was a close working col flu victims in the post-war, world-wide epi also had school nurses (either under the pro league of Dr. MacEachern and also supported demic of 1918-1919 had imparted a glorifi vincial department or through a local school these views. cation of nurses. Nurses had served board). As well, he believed well qualified After much deliberation, the Senate and magnificently in field hospitals, often near Board of Governors approved the idea of a the front lines, and were icons to be emu Department of Nursing14 under the Faculty lated. Even women’s fashions were influenced ofApplied Science, and the stage was set for by the shorter, more practical length of the the first baccalaureate nursing degree pro skirts of nurses’ uniforms. gram in Canada to open in the fall of 1919. Authorities had also recognized that the The Board of Governors had been advised young men called up for military duty could that Vancouver General Hospital would pay have benefited from better health education the salary of the head of the nursing depart during their early years. Many had failed the ment, and approval was thus given on the physical exam and evinced a lack of nutri grounds that the University would have no tion and health education during infancy and financial responsibility. The approved pro childhood years. Following the war, the gram called for two years ofuniversity courses League of Red Cross Societies called on the (at least one ofwhich must be at UBC), two national associations to put their peace-time years in an approved hospital program, and efforts into prevention of disease (especially a final year at UBC. tuberculosis, venereal diseases, and malaria) Ethel Johns became the first director, ap and promotion of health. pointed in August of 1919 to be both Super The influenza epidemic, which killed more intendent of Nurses at Vancouver General than 50 million people world-wide and Hospital and head of the newly approved 50,000 in Canada, also brought home to the UBC Department ofNursing. A graduate of public the need for better health care gener the Winnipeg General Hospital School of ally. Authorities awakened to the fact that Nursing with a year in the university pro such care could be provided by well-prepared gram at Teachers College, she was a strong, public health nurses. dynamic leader. She had been instrumental The influential Dr. Young definitely in urging university nursing education in favored advanced education in public health. Mary Ar€L MacKenzie was instructor ofpublic Canada. She had the foresight to see that a As minister responsible for school health, he health nursing in the UBCDepartsnent ofPublic strong, science-based, liberal education for Health funded by the Red Cross from 1920 to had promoted the School Medical Inspec 1923. nurses belonged in a university system, paid tion Act of 1911. This legislation called for Courtesy of UBC School of Nursing Archives for from educational, rather than health care,

10 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 good enough.”16 recalled, “Well, you looked at all the admin The fact that the UBC istrators and you didn’t want that. “19 All four program succeeded is a of the first students chose public health. tribute both to her skills It was not surprising that they elected the and to the enthusiasm public health option; public health nursing and support she received was the glamor and growth industry for from nurses and from women at the time. The Canadian Red Cross medical and public lead Society had taken as its goal improvement in ers who supported these public health and, in 1920, to achieve these goals. It is also a tribute ends several of its provincial branches offered to the dedication of the special subsidies to universities to establish young graduates of the post-graduate short courses for registered The Saanicb Health Centre, opened in 1919, was the first provincial program who went into nurses so they could take up public health public health department. the communities and nursing.19 Courtesy of Canadian Public Health Association changed the way health UBC was offered one of these subsidies by budgets. She accepted the challenges of try care was delivered. Their contributions have the B.C. Red Cross Branch. The Red Cross ing to bring such a program into being. not been adequately reported or acknowl proposed to pay up to $5,000 a year for three She arrived in Vancouver from Manitoba, edged in histories over the years, but change years for the salary of a professor appointed where she had been head of the Winnipeg health care they did. to a Red Cross Chair of Public Health, start Children’s Hospital, and began her new role ing in April 1920.20 Dr. R.H. Mullin, head on October 1, 1919. She remained only six of the Department of years, a turbulent time during which she set Bacteriology, head of a secure foundation for the UBC Nursing the Provincial Labora Program. She left to become field director of tories, and on the nursing programs in Europe for the medical staff of the Rockefeller Foundation and to fill a variety Vancouver General, of influential positions in the United States. was considered the She returned to Canada in 1933 to become logical choice to take editor ofThe Canadian Nurse, a professional the Chair, but he journal established in 1904 and still pub elected to share his lished for all nurses in Canada. salary with a nurse to Her tenure with the UBC Nursing Depart ensure the course was ment, from 1919 to 1925, reflected the so truly a nursing course. cial, economic, educational, cultural, A Department of political, scientific, and technological cli The Cowichan Health Centre opened in 1920 in Duncan andprovided office, Public Health, sepa mates of the period. However, she and the clinic space, and living quartersforpublic health nurses. rate from the Depart young women who entered the first Cana Courtesy of Canadian Public Health Association ment ofNursing, was dian degree programs during this period also The First Students set up under the Faculty of Arts, with Dr. helped shape the events for the following One of Ethel Johns’ first acts was to meet Mullin as its head. decades. with and interview four young women — The nurse chosen to design and teach the Ethel Johns summarized her views on nurs Marion Fisher, Margaret Healy, Beatrice first special 14-week public health nursing ing education in an address to a mass meet Johnson, and Esther Naden — who were course was Mary Ardcronie MacKenzie, who ing when she became director of nursing at interested in the nursing degree program and had been Chief Superintendent of the Vic the 1,200-bed Vancouver General Hospital whose educational backgrounds made it pos torian Order of Nurses from 1908 to 1917. in 191 915 She explained that when she served sible for them to be enrolled in the second Miss MacKenzie was well qualified for the on Manitoba’s Royal Commission on Public year of the university course. The program UBC position. Born in Toronto in 1869, she Welfare she found the politicians and the proved to be a hard and demanding one for received a bachelor of arts at the University public were looking to nurses for leadership these young women. ofToronto in 1892, and a “Higher School” in health questions, for teaching, and for a Bea Johnson reported much later that the Teacher Certificate with specialist standing vitalizing force in community life; unfortu 1919-1920 university year was heavy on the in modern languages in 1893. She taught in nately, the quality of nursing education in sciences and “was a very strenuous year.”7 high schools and was a principal of a high hospitals was not good enough to prepare As female students in this era usually tended school in Sherbrooke, Quebec, before enter such leaders. She stressed that educational in to take courses in the humanities rather than ing nursing. Later, she became the second stitutions would have to open their doors so the sciences, the nursing students had a president ofthe national nursing association. that nurses could take up the challenges of number of the science courses to make up so She had expanded the training programs in health care. “Do you think any preparation they would achieve the Senate’s goals. Dur district nursing initiated by the VON around too broad and deep for such a task as this?” ing this year, the students also were asked to the turn of the century, but recognized that she asked. “Do you think we can rest satis decide whether they wished to graduate in university programs should take over these fied with what we have? It is good, but not public health or administration. Bea Johnson programs.

11 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 UBC’s first short course in public health a generalist working to improve health of Muriel Harman won the $100 Red Cross nursing for graduate nurses started in No children and families. A major portion ofthe Prize given for the highest marks in the first vember 1920. Twenty-six nurses graduated work included infectious disease control, es course and after graduation went to work for with Certificates in Public Health Nursing pecially identification and control of tuber the VON in Burnaby. She established the first from the first course after six weeks of aca culosis. As well, the nurse would introduce well-baby clinic in that municipality. Like demic work on the Fairview campus followed well-baby clinics and school health programs public health nurses in other districts, she by eight weeks of field work.2’ Almost im that would allow greater education of the frequently offered nursing care in the home, mediately, a decision was made to lengthen public. including a 24-hour service for maternity care the course, and it became a full academic year following home deliveries. A few years later, by the time the degree students she became a nurse-missionary in the Bel reached their graduating year so gian Congo (later Zaire) where, after 37 years both groups of students took as a nurse and teacher, she was captured by much the same course. forces opposed to independence and ma The aim of the course was to chine-gunned to death in 1964.24 prepare qualified graduate nurses Winnifred Ehlers, whose grandmother had to deal with problems of sanita been a Red Cross nurse during the Ameri tion, economics, and education can Revolution, went to Eagle Bay in the in local communities. Students Shuswap area northeast of Kamloops, one received classes from some 20 of eight nursing stations set up by the Red well-known and prestigious spe Cross in B.C. ‘s isolated districts.25 Although cialists, including Dr. Young and the Red Cross provided cars for nurses in Esther Naden, charge nurse at the Saanicb Health Centre, circa 1925, Dr. ET. Underhill, Vancouver is shown with the deparhnent car. some districts, Nurse Ehiers used horse and medical health officer. One im Courtesy ot Canadian Public Health Association buggy in the summer and horse and cutter portant lecturer was Judge Helen in winter, even crossing the lake on the ice Gregory MacGill ofthe B.C. Juvenile Court, Early Public Health Nursing in B.C. when it was frozen over. One woman later the first woman appointed as a judge in the A look at the early careers of some of the recalled: province. Dr. L.S. Klinck, president of UBC, graduates of the first certificate class reflects As a small child in Blind Bay, I remember and Mr. M.E Angus of the Department of how these youngwomen spread out through Nurse Winnie Ehlers making her regular vis Economics, UBC, also gave lectures to the the province taking health care to the people its to the school. Knowing that some of the nurses as did Dr. MacEachern and Ethel of B.C. children were unable to buy toothbrushes and Johns and a host ofother nurses, social work Louise Buckley graduated from the course paste, she told us how to clean our teeth with ers, and economists. Field work was taken at with first-class honors and joined the School a clean cloth and salt. She lectured the pu local branches of the Victorian Order of Health Department in Saanich. The small pils on personal hygiene — how to wash our Nurses in Vancouver, the Rotary Institute for community of Saanich, later a part of the hands and keep our fingernails clean. She also Chest Diseases in Vancouver, the Vancouver Greater Victoria area, was a model for the showed, using a doll, the correct way to care School Board and City Health Department, rest of the province. In an interview in the for and hold a baby. This was useful infor and the Social Service Department run by early 1 980s, Louise Buckley recalled that she mation for older children with newborn sib the Women’s Auxiliary of the Vancouver had introduced hot lunches in Saanich lings. She showed parents how to deal with General Hospital and in Saanich and schools, a “first” in ensuring that students headlice (sic) and how to control ringworm Colwood. received at least one hot, healthful meal a day. with a solution made by soaking coppers The latter were selected for field work ex She recalled the necessity of learning to (pennies) in vinegar. It left a nasty brown perience because they were B.C.’s first pro change tires on the department’s Model-T stain, I recall. I remember when goitres were vincially-run health centres. Saanich opened Ford, which was rather a high technology a common problem, and for nine days each in 199, with financing from local taxes and item for the nursing staff as horses-and-bug month for a period of three months, we were grants from the Provincial Board of Health. gies were still much more common on the given a glass of water and an iodine capsule In 1920, the Cowichan Health Centre at roads than cars. first thing in the school day.26 Duncan and the Rural Esquimalt Nursing Margaret Griffin also went as a public This same author notes that the nurse District at Langford (near Victoria) were es health nurse to Saanich and recalled that she made a monthly visit to the school, check tablished.22 received $43 a month and her board; the ing for head lice, goitres, bad teeth, infec The province-wide public health service wage came partly through money from the tious rashes, ringworm, and enlarged tonsils. became a network of health centres in local municipality and partly through donations One month Nurse Ehlers examined this districts throughout the province through and fees. Saanich public health nurses lived young girl’s throat and made a note to ask which these nurses would work. Each dis in a comfortable home built by the munici the doctor, on his annual visit, to check the trict set up a community board to adminis pality as a war memorial health centre, with tonsils, which the doctor then said must be ter the service. In some districts, part of the a married couple hired to cook and main removed. The youngster, whose mother had funds came from the Provincial Department tain the grounds. With such amenities, the died, was accompanied on “the biggest ad of Education, which had agreed to pay the Saanich Health Unit soon became a highly venture of my life” by Nurse Ehlers; the two same grant for a public health nurse as for a desirable area for field work for UBC’s nurs had to travel to the rail line on the mail truck teacher.23 The public health nurse was to be ing students. when the mail carrier made his weekly visit,

12 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 then by train (of which the youngster had The boys remained throughout their young seen only pictures) to Kamloops where she childhood with Meg Thatcher and, although was fascinated by sidewalks, street lamps, and this was unusual for a single woman to do in a “box on the wall” into which the nurse this era, she eventually adopted them about talked. Following the operation and return six years later and raised them as her own.31 journey, the youngster was a celebrity as “the The other degree students also practiced first in the family to see the wonders of ‘out primarily in public health after graduation. side’. “27 Esther Naden, who had entered the program Another member of the first public health in 1919, had taken a leave because of a seri certificate class, Christina West Thom, was ous illness of her mother and did not gradu hired following graduation by the Red Cross ate until 1924. Bea Johnson took a job with in Kamloops. The Kamloops Junior Red the Victorian Order of Nurses in Montreal, Cross Auxiliary had been formed during the where she was primarily involved with ma War and, after a short hiatus, re-formed to ternity care, helped with home deliveries, assist in health education; it welcomed the and gave new mothers advice about baby idea of a Red Cross nurse and paid half the care. At the community centre, she lectured initial annual salary of $166.72, while the on nutrition and care of babies, using a doll city agreed to pay the other half29 By May to demonstrate bathing and handling. Dur of 1921, Christina Thom had opened a ing her stay in Montreal, she made several weekly well-baby clinic, a new idea for which Home - Uniform trips to New York to see stage productions the mothers at first had to be convinced of Photograph showing thepublic health home visiting and renewed her friendship with Freddy the concept of a clinic for well babies, not uniform worn during the 1920s. Wood, a young professor she had met while sick ones. She also began classes in home Courtesy of UBC School of Nursing Archives a member of the Players Club at UBC. At nursing and hygiene, offered in the high his urging, she returned to Vancouver, where school to teenage girls and through evening Services, a position she held with distinction she became the nurse in charge of the emer classes to adults. Christina Thom also vis until retirement in 1948.29 During her ca gency department until their marriage. Then, ited the schools giving classes and weighing reer, she saw many changes as tuberculosis as was typical of the time, she gave up her and measuring more than 6,800 students in care improved. nursing career, returning only for briefstints 1922; underweight children received home Tuberculosis was an everyday menace in as a volunteer. visits and had their diets supplemented with the 1 920s, and overworked nurses frequently Marion Fisher joined the public health cod-liver oil at school. contracted it. A generally accepted maxim in nursing unit in Kamloops after she recovered Josephine (Jo) Peters was another of the schools of nursing in the early part of the from her bout with tuberculosis. She was graduates of the first certificate class to join century was that one nurse from every class there for 10 months and did school nursing. the provincial public health service. After likely would die from TB. Marion Fisher, one There she met a young man and was soon receiving her certificate, she worked for the of the first nurses in the degree program, went married and they went to China as mission Rotary Clinic in Vancouver, a position spon to the TB San at Tranquille as a patient im aries for several years. sored by the Rotary Clubs to help provide mediately following graduation in 1923. She By the end of the 1923-1924 academic care for tuberculosis patients. Tuberculosis had been diagnosed early and was not an year, the Department had taken root. The was a leading cause of death, with one in 10 advanced case; after about a year she went to first degree students had graduated, the di deaths attributed to consumption or “the Gabriola Island to complete her recovery. ploma programs had proven strong enough white plague,” as it was frequently called. By Esther Naden, also one of the first degree to continue despite the end of the Red Cross the late 1 920s, however, its spread was com nurses, recalled that she had five close friends funding, and the graduates were being wel ing under control through good public health — two nurses and three non-nurses — die comed throughout the province. The UBC nursing measures. The Provincial Board of ofTB in the early l920s: “It was very preva Senate and Board of Governors sanctioned Health held clinics throughout the province lent at the time. Bone and joint TB was com the Department of Nursing and undertook to identif,i patients and their contacts, and a mon because of the unpasteurized milk. its funding. central province-wide registry was estab Tremendous numbers of children had scars lished. Seriously ill patients were admitted on their necks from tuberculous glands.”3° Summary to special TB wards or to the Tranquille Sana Margaret Allan Thatcher, a certificate The nursing degree program offered torium, near Kamloops, which had become graduate in 1922, had a more rewarding per through the University of British Columbia, a provincial institution in 1921. The local sonal experience with the family tragedies which began in 1919, was the first in Canada, public health nurses followed up patient care that could result from TB contacts. In 1924, and marked a recognition of a need for bet for those at home and for all contacts, teach a young mother had to be admitted to ter educational preparation for nurses. As ing them about infection control, rest, nu Tranquille, leaving two small twin babies Ethel Johns, the director ofthe program, said trition, and personal care. In 1924, thanks behind. A child welfare worker asked Meg of this movement into university settings: to funding assistance from the Anti-Tuber Thatcher, who was at home caring for her ill “We are building here for the future [... and] culosis Societies, Jo Peters was appointed first father at the time, to take in the twin boys as we earnestly hope that the foundation will as Travelling Nurse then as Tuberculosis foster children because they were TB con be well and truly laid.”32 Nursing Supervisor for the Provincial Health tacts, malnourished, and needing special care. The foundations were “well and truly laid,”

13 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 public health care once again Vancouver General Hospital School of Nursing. Vancouver: Evergreen Press, 1973, p. 6. a priority. And nurses are once 7. Lavinia L. Dock & Isabel Maitland Stewart. A short again being seen as the main history of nursing from the earliest times to the primary health present day (3rd ed.). New York: CR Putnam’s Sons, providers for 1931, p. 175. care. 8. Margaret Kerr. Brief history of the Registered Nurses’ Association of British Columbia. Unpublished manuscript, 1944. Available RNABC Library This article is adapted from Vancouver. the early chapters of Legacy: 9. Registered Nurses Act. Statutes of British Columbia 1918. Chapter 65. History of Nursing Educa 10. Lee Stewart. “It’s up to you”: Women at UBC in the non at the University ofBrit early years. Vancouven UBC Press, 1990, p. 93. 11. J. M. Gibbon. TheVictorian Order of Nurses for ish Columbia 1919-1994, by Canada’s 50th Anniversary 1897-1947. Montreal: Glennis Zilm and Ethel Southam Press, 1947, p. I. Marg McPbee, public health nurse, as shown weighing an infant at a Warbinek. (Vancouver: UBC 12. Doris French. Ishbel and the empire: A biography of well-baby clinic. Lady Aberdeen. Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1988, P. 223. Courtesy of Canadian Public Health Association School of Nursing I UBC 13. Green, 1984, pp. 8-9. Press, 1994.) Copies of the 14. Board of Governors Minutes, May 26, 1919. 15. Ethel Johns. The university in relation to nursing but the future has been a long time coming. book may be obtained for $35 (includes ship education (Reprint). The Modern Hospital, 1920, 15 When the UBC program began, far-sighted ping and GST) through UBC Press, 6344 (2). [Reprint original in the Ethel Johns papers, UBC Memorial Road, Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1Z2. Special Collections] leaders saw this as a first step to get nursing 16. Johns, 1920, P.7. education out of hospitals, where student 17. Beatrice Fordham Johnson Wood. Interview by Sheila Vancouver: RNABC Oral History nurses were exploited for service needs at the Bio: GlennisZilm is afreelance writer and edi Zerr, Mar. 20, 1991. tor on nursing andhealth care. Ethel Warbinek Collection. expense of educational goals. It was not un 18. Beatrice Fordham Johnson Wood. Interview by Beth is an assistantprofrssor emerita ofnursingfrom til 1989 that all hospital schools of nursing McCann, Feb. 22, 1981. Vancouver: UBC School of the UBC School ofNursing. They are the au Nursing Archival Collection. [Transcript available] in B.C. closed their doors and nurses received thors ofLegacy: History ofNursing Education 19. J.M. Gibbon & M.S. Mathewson. Three centuries of their education either in colleges or univer Canadian nursing. Toronto: Macmillan, 1947, p. 342. at the University ofBritish Columbia 1919- 20. IJBC Senate Minutes, Tuesday, April 20, 1920, pp. 145- sities. The baccalaureate degree as the edu 1994 and are active members ofthe B. C. His 146. cational foundatIon for nursing is still the tory ofNursing Profrssionai Practice Group. 21. UBC Calendar, 7th Session, 1921-1922, p. 185. goal of most nurses’ associations, but remains 22. Green, 1984, p. 12. 23. Green, 1984 ‘p. 14. elusive. References 24. Pearson, 1985, pp. 49-50. 1.Anne Kloppenborg, Alice Niwinski, Eve Johnson, & Robert The founding principles of the UBC 25. May Buckingham Smith. The history of the Red Cross Greuetter (Eds.) Vancouver’s first cenwrv A city nurses in B.C. Schuswap Chronicles, 1990a, 3,38-39. course continue to be appropriate, given album 1860-1960. Vancouver:J.J. Douglas. 1977, p. [Celista, BC: North Schuswap Historical Society.l 49. 1990s changes proposed by the provincial 26. Smith, l990b, p. 38. 2.Monica M. Green. Through the years with public health 27. May Buckingham Smith. My experience with the Red government to bring health care “closer to nursings A history of public health nursing in the Cross nurse. Schuswap Chronicles, I 990b 3, 39-40. home.” Health care is once again being seen provincial government jurisdiction British Columbia. [Celista, BC: North Schuswap Historical Society.] Ottawa: Canadian Public Health Association, 1984, p. 7. 28. Susan Cross. The Red Cross in Kamloops: Almost 80 as an individual responsibility, and the need 3. Green, 1984, p. 5. years of service. The Kamloups Daily News, Oct. 19, for health promotion and health education 4. AM. Ross, The romance of Vancouver’s schools (from The 1991, p. Bl5. British Columbia Magazine, VII (6), 443-453). In in the community has never been greater. 29. Green, 1984, p. 32. James M. Sandison (Ed.), Schools of old Vancouver 30. Esther Naden Gardom. Interview by Mary Richmond, Such changes as the growing population of (Occasional Paper #2). Vancouver: Vancouver Historical Nov. 24, 1987. Vancouver: RNABC Oral History seniors, the rise of new diseases such as AIDS, Society, 1971, p. 23. Collection. 5. Anne Pearson. The Royal Jubilee Hospital School of 31. Esther Paulson. (1988). Interview by Natalie Bland, July and the development of treatment-resistant Nursing 1891-1982. Victoria: Alumnae Association of 12, 1988. Vancouver: UBC School of Nursing Archival strains of bacteria and viruses are making the Royal Jubilee School of Nursing, 1985, p. 1. Collection. 6. Nora Kelly. Quest for a profession: The history of the 32. Johns, 1920, p. 3.

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14 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 L.A. Hamilton: Surveyor: Alderman, Land Commissioner by Leonard W. Meyers

In 1887 the newly constructed transcon AND COMMENCED TO MEASURE tinental Canadian Pacific Railway reached its THE STREETS OF VANCOUVER.” The western terminus, Vancouver, formerly plaque is firmly mounted on a building on Granville and Gastown. The first train ar the southwest corner of Hastings and Ham rived May 23rd of the same year. ilton Streets at Victory Square in downtown With the building ofWilliam Van Home’s Vancouver. The plaque was designed and railway, Lauchian Alexander Hamilton also dedicated under the auspices of J.S. arrived in the newly incorporated and newly Matthews, City Archivist, and unveiled on named city ofVancouver. A surveyor by pro April 20, 1953. fession, Mr. Hamilton was also appointed the Lauchlan Alexander Hamilton was born C.RR.’s land commissioner for the area, as in eastern Canada in 1852. He graduated as the railway was deeded large tracts of land a civil engineer. As such, he carried out im grants comprising almost half of the portant duties for the C.RR. surveying the peninsula on which the present city of Van towns of Regina, Moose Jaw, Swift Current, couver stands as part ofthe railway construc Calgary and Vancouver. His Vancouver sur tion deal extending the line to Coal Harbour veys commenced in 1885, a year before the instead of Port Moody, the earlier proposed great fire. terminus. As a sidelight to that disastrous conflagra Possibly the first historical incident that tion which also destroyed Vancouver’s first helped L.A. Hamilton achieve a measure of makeshift city hall, Hamilton described the recognition toward posterity was when Van aftermath in these words: “In all history, no Home earlier visited the proposed Vancou City Hall had been built more rapidly than ver - as yet unnamed - terminus, and as a the one I erected in five minutes the morn bronze plaque mounted in Pioneer Square ing after “The Fire.” We got a tent. I was recorded the historic meeting between the Lauchlan Alexander Hamilton, Dominion land senior Alderman. I got a can ofpaint, a brush surveyor and C.BR. land commüsionei two men in these words: “Here, in the si Vancouver City Archives Port. N. 1065, Port. P 147 and a piece of board, and labelled it CITY lence of the forest covering the C.P.R. HALL. We held council meetings in it, a townsite stood Van Home, Vice President of magistrate’s court sat there, at the foot of Canadian Pacific Railway and L.A. Hamil ton, land commissioner. Van Home ex Carrali Street at Water Street.” claimed “Hamilton! Hamilton! As L.A. Hamilton began his 1885 survey This is destined to be a great he drove a nail into a sturdy wooden stake at city. Perhaps the greatest in the corner of Hastings and Hamilton Streets. Canada, and we must see to it As a result of the great fire, he was compelled that it has a name commensu to again retrace his original survey. A diffi rate with its destiny and impor cult task, as many of his first markings were tance. And Vancouver it shall obliterated by the fire. be if I have the ultimate deci L.A. Hamilton was a man of many parts slon. and talents: civil engineer, Dominion land To further enshrine surveyor, an Alderman in Vancouver’s first this noteworthy event, years city council, visionary, and an amateur artist later a bronze plaque was of no mean talent. One of his water-color erected to commemorate L.A. paintings of a lush Vancouver forest scene Hamilton, surveyor for the hangs in the third floor foyer of Vancouver’s C.RR. The inscription reads: city hail.

“1885 - IN THE SILENT Hamilton surveyed Stanley Park’s first From a l936painting byJohn Innes. Vancouver’mfirst council meeting SOLITUDE OF THE PRI roads. And the perimeter road around the in 1886 and the &yc first mayor, Malcolm A. MacLean standing at MEVAL FOREST, HE park is virtually identical with his original head oftabIe Alderman LA. Hamilton seated infront rowfifthfrom kft DROVE A WOODEN survey. Vancouver City Archives P34, N.22 STAKE IN THE EARTH Lauchlan Hamilton was a man endowed

15 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 with considerable fore Van Home cautioned Hamilton, the C.ER. sight and he was firmly land commissioner “to keep his eyes open convinced that Van when doing business with the people ofVan couver was destined to couver.” become a great city, a L.A. Hamilton also distinguished himself vision shared by by designing the new city ofVancouver’s first William Cornelius Van coat of arms bearing the motto “By Sea and Home, builder of the Land We Prosper.” As well, he also helped spectacular Canadian to define the 49th parallel between the Pacific Railway. It was Rockies and the Lake of the Woods. this vision that moti Not too much is known about the private vated senior Alderman life of Lauclilan Alexander Hamilton, his Hamilton to seek the family, where he lived in Vancouver, special support of the rest of interests, etc. We do know that Hamilton the Aldermen to pro Street in downtown Vancouver commemo cure what was then a rates his name in perpetuity. The imprint federal military reserve his talents left on Vancouver, many plans (today’s Stanley Park) S carried out on a rather grand scale for that and to see it turned over early era, indicate his forward looking vision. to the young city of Bank ofHamilton buiUinç.i leftforeground where surveyorL.A. Hamilton drove These are as evident today as when he drove Vancouver on a long- thefirst stake on the corner ofHastings and Hamilton Streets commencing the his survey stakes delineating the streets and term lease basis for park survey of the city of Vancouver in 1885. Photo circa 1905. Note the forest of blocks in a burgeoning young city, one with purposes. telepbone poles. a dynamic future, as Hamilton so clearly Vancouver City Archives STR R308, N. 259 The idea of procur foresaw. ing the old military reserve for city parkiand And at the end of the day, L.A. Hamilton grew out ofa letter Hamilton, the C.PR. land The original city of Vancouver was much chose to leave the thriving young city he commissioner, received from Van Home on smaller than the area of the present city. It helped to spawn for future generations, and January 12, 1885 informing him that the comprised an area from the south shore of moved to sunny Florida, outliving his hectic railway company had asked the Dominion Burrard Inlet to roughly 16th Avenue; on the Vancouver pioneering days and many of his government for that portion of the military east it was bounded by Nanaimo Street and compatriots in city building and planning, reserve south of a line drawn from Second its western boundary was Trafalgar Street. and died in 1941, aged 89. Beach to Lumberman’s Arch. When Hamilton first surveyed the south In the mind of Hamilton, however, was shore of False Creek, he was so impressed by the intention of acquiring the entire reserve the view, that he named the area Fairview. for city parkiand. As a result, city council, Hamilton was also given the preroga led by Alderman Hamilton, on June 23, tive ofnaming the streets he surveyed and 1886, petitioned the Secretary of State for laid out in the new Vancouver. He subse transfer of the reserve to the City as a park. quently adopted the modern system of The Dominion government, after some naming the avenues running east and west procrastination and reserving the right to the in numerical order and the streets running use of the park for military purposes, should north and south with suitable names, an emergency arise, turned the former mili some after trees, such as Oak, Laurel, Wil tary reserve over to the City of Vancouver low, Ash, Spruce, Alder, Hemlock, Fir, for park purposes on the basis of a perpetual Pine, Cypress, Maple, Yew, Balsam, Vine, 99-year lease for the princely sum of$1 .00 a Larch, etc. But because of some clerical year. mix-up they did not appear in alphabeti As senior alderman in the young city of cal order. To other streets he gave the Vancouver, he impressed on City Council his names of famous battles, hence views as follows: “I took the ground in the Balaclava, Blenheim, Waterloo, etc. A council that we must lay our plans on a gen number of others were named after C.PR. erous scale, and so I laid out and established officials, others still, after British naval he streets far beyond what seemed necessary for roes such as Hastings, Howe, Hornby, our wants The mayor and council obvi Pender, Richards, Jervis, Broughton, etc. ously concurred. Around the turn of the century a great The layout and names ofstreets which exist real estate boom began to thrive in the to this day truly reflect L.A. Hamilton’s fore young city of Vancouver, and often un Sir William Cornelius Van Home, builders general sight and provide historical insight into an scrupulous real estate agents were turn managen later president (1888 to 1889) and chairman important part of Vancouver’s early history. ing up everywhere to such an extent that (1899 to 1910) ofthe Canadian Pacific Railway. C.RR. photo

16 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 The Fairbridge Farm School by Helen Borrell

“They are fine chil workhouses) spring dren, as mischievous ing up in every man- as little imps, but it’s hungry corner of the all because everything Empire. I saw little is so new to them,” children who’d had the four cottage no opportunities “mothers” said affec stretching their legs tionately. “They are and minds amid the wonderfully bright thousand interests of and healthy, so it’s dif the farm. ficult to curb them, “I saw unneeded but they are catching humanity converted on much more to the husbandry of quickly than we ex unpeopled areas.”5 pected.”1 But the building A great relief for of such farm schools their guardians! This required large invest young, city-bred ments of capital by group of British emi wealthy, influential patrons. So grants were excitedly 1936. Boys who arrivedatFairbridge Farm School, Duncan, in 1936 Displaying their cows at anAgricultural exploring the woods Fair in Victoria, B.C Fairbridge’s hope and fields, the nearby BCARS#A06317 burned in his brain Koksilah River, and all the other country de cities, and the caged lives of many working- until, in 1909, he won an elite prize, a Cecil lights of their new home, “the Prince ofWales class families. In those years, low wages and Rhodes scholarship at Oxford. There he Fairbridge School Farm, formerly the 1,000- Britain’s rigid castes locked most children of gained interested friends at the Colonial acre estate of E B. Pemberton.”2 Its site was unskilled workers into subsistence factory Club; and what he called “an Imperial Par near Cowichan Station, Vancouver Island, jobs and ugly, crowded tenements. Nearly all liament of fifty independent members from British Columbia. The year was 1935. orphanages for destitute children were ruled all parts of the Empire” 6 founded the Child Wards of the Child Emigration Society and like army barracks. Emigration Society. drawn from the Tyneside, Birmingham and Returning to his own veldt, Fairbridge saw They raised £2,000 and, in 1913, London sections of England by the London it poetically as: “The unending immensity Fairbridge and his young bride established committee of that organization, they had The smokeless, gardenless wealth of the the first Farm School on 160 acres at Pinjarra, arrived at their destination in the last week desert, The rivers unfished and the valleys near Perth, Australia. Of the thirty-four chil

of September - twenty-seven boys and four unhunted, An empire people” (in Britain’s dren trained there, the boys all became suc

teen girls, ranging in age from five to thir industrial cities) “with nothing ... A coun cessful farmers in Australia; the girls became teen and one-half years.3 try abandoned to emptiness, yearning for skilled homemakers. Beside the carefully selected teachers and people.” The emptiness of his own land, he When the Great War was declared in 1914, cottage mothers, in spirit, was the founder knew, was shared by the other Dominions: Fairbridge hastened to volunteer for the of this and similar farm education schools in Australia, New Zealand and Canada.4 But Army, but was not accepted because he had other British Dominions. Sadly, Kingsley adults who had never been beyond brick walls a medical history of malaria. Which exemp Fairbridge did not live to see the Canadian wouldn’t know how to pioneer on farm lands. tion was fortunate for his boys; together they Farm School, one of those he had envisioned. Who could be best trained? Children, for made their farmland produce bountifully. For the story of his envisioned rural schools, whom he would create homes on commu And Fairbridge wrote to his Oxford friend, we must go back fifty years, and hal6.vay nity farms. He wrote how this plan appeared Harry Logan, who had become a Professor round the world to Southern Rhodesia, to him: of Classics at the fledgling University of Brit where Kingsley Ogilvie Fairbridge was born “It was one of those fiercely hot summer ish Columbia: in 1885. days, when one closes one’s eyes against the “I have long thought that the Child Emi A fourth-generation Rhodesian, he grew glare that beats off the road and the iron gration Society should establish our second up as a farm boy on the spacious, thinly set houses, and as I walked, I ruminated. One farm school in British Columbia. From what tled veldt. When, in his teens, he first vis sees things that have remained half hidden I saw there, you have room for towns ofthou ited England, he was shocked and depressed at the back of one’s brain.. sands of budding farmers. As thanksgiving by her huge, densely packed, smoke-clouded “I saw great Colleges of Agriculture (not for our far-flung Empire, I think a good farm

17 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 school in B.C. would be far more reverent, To be accepted, of course, the children had other skilled trades; some might even ven beautiful and lastingly recognized than some to be in excellent health and able to live co ture to invest their savings in a small busi artistic creation that only tends to congest operatively on a large mixed farm, truly a ness. Young people with such aptitudes would traffic in a main thoroughfare.” A practical New World for them! The most promising be free to seek the jobs they hoped for, ifthese man, Kingsley Fairbridge. “Training other young emigrants were finally chosen for the were available in the work-scarce 1930’s. wise homeless young In March, 1935, sters to be fine, the Fairbridge Farm upstanding and Schools Society pur honorable men and chased the Pemberlea women can in its way estate on Vancouver be quite as fine as the Island. About one- Parliament House in quarter of it was al Victoria.”7 ready cultivated; and In 1919, Kingsley John J. Brown, the Fairbridge took a pro farm manager, was motional trip to Eng employed perma land and his Society nently by the Victo raised enough funds •ria committee in to rebuild the Pinjarra charge of the Farm school. But his years School. Woods bor of hard work and his dered the fields; and problem with malaria the fertile soil of the broke down Koksilah River bank Fairbridge’s health; was ideal for inten and in July 1924, he sive crop planting.8 died at the untimely First, the School’s age of 39. Fairbridge boys were hosted to aparty in Canada House, London, Englandjustprior to saiingfor Canada in managers built four But his service con 1938. FormerPrimeMinisterR.B. Benneti right, was High Commissionerfbr Canada at that time. The other homes for their chil group ofyoungsters The ad behind Greenc right in the happy adults were Mr. Green and? who traveiled with this cheerful dren, separate ones tinued shoulder is Ken Bennett currentpresident ofthe Old Fairbridgians Association. and productive lives BCARS#H02740 for boys and girls. of his adopted family. Each cottage was ac During the Great Depression, the plight of Vancouver Island farm school. tually a half-timbered, spacious two-storey

Britain’s unemployed always had the con These future farmers and farm homemak house as attractive as the landscape - roomy cerned sympathy ofEdward, Prince ofWales ers would be given the same home care and kitchen, dining-room and “mothers” sitting- (the future Duke of Windsor). In 1934, he training that had proved successful in the room downstairs; her bedroom and a large, and Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin cam Australian Fairbridge School. Each group of airy dormitory upstairs. The children had paigned for funds to establish a Farm Edu fourteen would live as a family in a cottage their main meal in the central dining-hall; cation school in British Columbia. They under an experienced house mother. They other meals were served to each family unit received $500,000 of which the Prince of would share all the activities of farmlife, and in its home. Wales donated $5,000. The next objective have the academic schooling required by The School’s first Principal was 43-year- was to find and purchase a farming estate suit B.C.’s Ministry ofEducation until they were old Major Maurice Trew, who had graduated able for the school, and to recruit qualified sixteen years of age. Then for two years the from Cambridge University with an Honors teachers and substitute parents for the child boys would learn all types ofagriculture, and degree and served in the Coldstream Guards emigrants chosen by their Emigration Soci the girls would learn domestic science and from 1916 to 1934. Appointed as Principal ety, soon renamed the Fairbridge Farm the chores of a farmer’s wife. When fully of the Vancouver Island school in 1934, he Schools Society. trained, the young people would be placed visited the first Fairbridge School in Australia Between seven and twelve years was the in approved jobs; the boys on farms, girls in for five weeks and learned all the details of most adaptable age range, the children’s households. The Fairbridge staff members its organization. Then, working with the guardians thought. Some of the Society’s would look after their welfare and bank half committee appointed for the new Fairbridge wards were orphans. Others came from large the earnings of their boys and girls, wards of School in British Columbia, he was fully oc families whose fathers had few job prospects Fairbridge Society until they came of age at cupied from April, 1935, in preparing the when their cities’ chief industries became 21 years. Each graduate would then have a Vancouver Island farming estate for the first Depression casualties. England had no va nest egg with which to start living independ group of thrilled English lads and lasses, the cant farmland. To live and be educated in a ently. September arrivals.9

children’s community farm in Canada! - a Most ofthe Fairbridge graduates would set Two young men teachers, experienced in prized opportunity for their children, many tle on the land; food production, upon which country schools, divided their dialect-chat unemployed parents knew. Thus the everyone depends, needs skilled farmers. But, tering pupils into one class for those of six to Fairbridge Schools Society had many appli Fairbridge School’s officers realized, some of ten years, and another class for those of ten cations. their wards would prefer, and be suited for to thirteen and one-half years. School sub-

18 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 jects for each year’s grade were those of the Vancouver Island Farm School. A Rhodes There was an active program of sports - bas British Columbia education curriculum. Scholar at Oxford, England, he had been a ketball, cricket, soccer, rugby and boxing. (As When the children streamed joyously into friend and supporter of Kingsley Fairbridge. a Rhodes Scholar, Kingsley Fairbridge had

the central dining room and to meals in their “A genius with children - firm, kindly, un won the Oxford Blue for boxing.) The girls cottages, the valued services of the two cooks derstanding and inspiring,”13 he led the Farm went for hikes and treasure hunts. In June, and the farm assistants were noisily rewarded. School until June, 1945. Then he was trans 1938, Mr. William Garnett, Assistant Prin The farm manager’s wife, cipal, with his colleagues’ Mrs. Brown, was famed for help, directed the boys’ cot

her delicious cake. Outdoor tages - the Maroons, Blacks, sports were new delights for Blues and Greens. Each cot the youngsters, who feasted tage had a House Master, and heartily. Fortunate that “po under him two Prefects, a tatoes, vegetables, milk, but senior and a junior sports ter, eggs, mutton and pork captain, and a sports adviser. were produced on the es The girls’ cottages also had tate.”10 Prefects. The Prefects formed The orchard already had the Boys’ and Girls’ Councils. 200 fruit trees, and more They kept score ofthe marks were planted later. earned each week for house The children were happy duties, and rewarded those to settle into a secure, well who had won the highest organized routine. After number of marks.’6 making their own beds, they In 1938 the Fairbridge took turns at doing complete This is apostcard showing some ofthe school buildings in the 194Oc Courtesy Cowichan Valley Museum #987-02-1-27 Junior Girls’ Basketball team jobs assigned by the cottage won the Vancouver Island mothers on a rotating basis. Two children ferred to the Fairbridge School Society’s Lon Basketball Championship. And on May 23, waxed and polished the dormitory floor, don head office, to supervise the farm home 1939, there was a Lower Island Rural Schools while others did household chores. After in England where boys and girls were pre Sports Meet. Fairbridge School won second school came another hour of chores. As the pared for life in the Farm Schools. place, and its Horace Skelton, with four Firsts cottages had wood stoves, the boys were busy Tn October, 1936, the Municipal Chapter and one Second, won the cup for the chopping and stacking wood. But the chil of the I.O.D.E. (Imperial Order of Daugh Fairbridge pupil who had the highest number dren were work equals - girls did their share ters of the Empire) arranged the start of a of points.’7 of milking, and often came home to meals library at Fairbridge School. Each primary Fairbridge School, over the years, attracted cooked by the boys. There were always sports chapter was asked to donate one new book, many generous patrons. Long remembered activities in the evenings.1’ more if possible. And in February; 1937, Mrs. was Captain J.C. Dun-Waters, the “Laird of Kingsley Fairbridge’s plan had been to peo Maud Douglas-Pennant, a wealthy English Fintry”, with his 2,500 acre cattle ranch on pie the far-flung British possessions with woman, bequeathed $5,000 to build another the west side of B.C.’s Okanagan Lake. In hard-working young Britishers. In 1935, cottage at Fairbridge. She also left $150,000 July, 1938, he donated this self-contained Canada and the other Dominions were in to be divided among the three schools.’4 estate to the Cowichan Fairbridge School. dependent nations in the British Common Such was the success of the Farm Schools “Only one example of the generosity which wealth; but England’s rulers liked to think of in training skilled farmers and their future had marked his life.”8 The Scottish stock them as adult members of the family. The helpmates that in May, 1937, Sir John breeder and fruit grower, then in his 70’s, and poet and story-teller of the British Empire, Siddeley, Chairman of Great Britain’s known for his community services, had come Rudyard Kipling, died in April, 1936. Hav Armstrong Siddeley Motors Ltd. and several to Canada and purchased the ranch in 1909. ing provided for his wife and daughter, he other prominent industrial companies, en His herd of Ayrshire purebred dairy cattle had bequeathed the remainder of his estate, dowed the Fairbridge Schools with a Coro had won many high milk production records. valued at $775,000, to be divided among the nation gift of $493,000. (King George VT Fintry Ranch had, besides range land and three Fairbridge Schools. The third had been was crowned in that year.) Col. Harry Logan, orchards, a sanctuary for mountain goats and opened in Australia, that year. This generous Principal of the Prince of Wales School, gave deer. It had its own water system and an elec gift enabled the Directors to build four more a brief summary of its growth and its man tric power plant which harnessed the power cottages at the Canadian Farm School for the date to a meeting of the Vancouver Lions from Fintry’s waterfall. Off went a group of two parties of children who arrived in 1936; Club, in September, 1937. Jobs would be senior Fairbridge boys at once to Fintry also, a new dining hall and a four-room available for all Fairbridge graduates for the Ranch, where they would learn all-round school building.12 The long-time farm man next five years at least, he assured his inter farming. ager, John Brown, was provided with his own ested listeners. At that time there were 57 The four Fairbridge Schools could accom house. boys and 41 girls in his school, and more were modate 1,200 children and accept 250 each On August 1, 1936, Colonel Harry Logan, expected from Britain.’5 year. So Gordon Green, Executive Secretary, Professor at the University ofBritish Colum The Fairbridge School near Cowichan was told the Society’s Annual General Meeting bia, succeeded Major Trew as Principal ofthe managed like a British residential school. in London, in July, 1938.’ Trainees for staff

19 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 at Fair- For Sharon Elizabeth Plows. bridge 3. Cottage mothers at Fairbridge agree School to To prepare for the homecoming soon future Ca to be, nadians. In Hanging sheets on the line November, For that sweet Valentine, Hon. G.M. Miss Sharon Elizabeth Plows.” Weir, B.C. In March, 1939, staff and pupils of Minister of Fairbridge Farm School welcomed as visitors Education, Canada’s Governor-General, Lord S announced Tweedsmuir, and his wife. Lady Tweedsmuir that the had been a member of the Farm School So ] Provincial ciety in London. At the Duncan school, she School and dormitories. Fairbridge Farm G o v e r n - awarded the Girl Guide Badge of Fortitude BCARS #H 02745 ment had to 15-year-old Isabel Blatchford for her cour would, as far as possible, be Rhodes Schol paid grants amounting to $27.44 per pupil age during a long illness.25 The B.C. Gov ars, and would go to all the schools and be for 1937-38, and also given $500 for the pur ernment had given Lady Tweedsmuir Sphinx on call to fill in for regular faculty during chase of new equipment for Fairbridge’s Island in the Strait of Georgia. She donated their illnesses or holidays. home economics class.23 it to Fairbridge School, whose staff could In September, 1938, the Cowichan In February, 1939, the first issue of a build a summer camp there for the Fairbridge Fairbridge School opened with an enrolment monthly newsletter, the Fairbridge Gazette, boys.26 of 180 pupils, of whom 11 were Trainees, was typed and mimeographed. It was thus In May, 1939, King George VI and Queen receiving their practical training - boys on prepared until, in June, 1943, a local news Elizabeth, during their Canadian tour, vis the farms, girls in home economics. Proud paper, The Cowichan Leader, took over the ited Victoria. The lucky Fairbridge boy who of being first class homemakers, the type-setting and printing of this school news saw them wrote a prize winning essay of his Fairbridge girls learned everything involved paper. It featured sports and farm news, re trip. To commemorate the Royal tour an in home management - cleaning rugs and car ports of the Boys’ and Girls’ Councils, and of anonymous English M.P, later identified as pets, polishing silver, and cleaning uphol visitors, and editorials. There were also let Captain Richard Porritt, founded a $23,400 stered furniture. And they shared in the ters from Old Fairbridgians, who needed no trust fund to aid the four Fairbridge schools.27 baking and cooking at the school, and waited encouragement to keep in touch with their In September, 1939, B.C.’s Lieutenant- on the staff tables. Wildflowers and daffo home school.24 The first editor, Jim Lally, re Governor, Eric Hamber, laid the cornerstone dils were on the dining-room tables, which mained in that job until he joined the Navy for the Fairbridge chapel, which was com were “polished and shining like the battle in August, 1940. For twenty-two months pleted in April, 1940. A historic clock had ship linoleum on the floors.”20 The girls also during World War II, Jim was a prisoner-of- been donated for the new church. Andy served teas to the school’s distinguished visi war in Germany. All their lives, the secretary Anderson, a fifteen-year-old pupil, won sec tors. of the Fairbridge Alumni Association wrote ond prize in the school’s Christmas Card The September, 1938, term opened at later, the graduates affectionately remembered Competition for his drawing of the Fairhridge with three new teachers, and new and were delighted to meet their “cottage Fairbridge chapel.28

courses - farm mechanics and manual courses Mums.” For the staffand pupils of the Farm School, for the boys, and a detailed home economics We must return to the sequence of school the only sorrow in 1939 was the death that program for the girls. The necessary new history. The design for the paper’s title was a autumn of their great-hearted benefactor, buildings nearly doubled the size of the farm Canadian beaver on a wreath of British oak Captain Dun-Waters. Fintry, his donated school.21 The Trainee Club was started in leaves, and the motto, “Industria et Veritate” ranch, was an invaluable training school for

October. - With Industry and Truth. 1939 was an the Fairbridge farmers-to-be. Three boys who At first, church services at Fairbridge had eventful year. In February; the first Fairbridge had “apprenticed” there had gone to selected been held in a screened-offsection ofthe din baby was born. Her Dad was Mr. A.H. Plows, jobs; three girls were working in house ing hall. In October, 1938, an English visi Day School Principal and basketball coach. holds.29 The ladies of Victoria, “a small sec tor, who wished to be anonymous, donated Two Day School staff members composed, ond England”, knew that the Fairbridge girls $20,000 for the building of a chapel on the and the March Gazette published this poem: would have British pride in giving skilled school site. Plans were drawn up for a one The First Fairbridge Baby homemaking service. The School’s After-Care storey frame building, 85 by 45 feet, with 1. Folks at Fairbridge are all in a whirl, Officer kept in touch with the graduates and central heating, a seating capacity of400, and For the Plows family have a baby girl, banked halfof their earnings, until they came an outdoor pulpit.22 Later, a magnificent or It’s their first big event of age at 21 years. gan from the English Halsway Manor House and they proudly present Although this was the legal age of major was donated for this church. The late hus Miss Sharon Elizabeth Plows. ity, young people could join the Armed band of the donor, Mrs. Mitchell, had given 2. The Old Man is swelling with pride, Forces at 18. During the routine, well-or funds for the school’s Assembly Hall. To reveal what he’s feeling inside dered lives of the Fairbridge Schools, the Yes, 1938 was the year that wealthy pa He passed round fat cigars, wholly evil Nazi regime had driven Europe trons endowed the fine training being given Thanking his lucky stars to a second Great War. In May, 1940, thirty

20 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 children who at first had been sent to Eng of Finance, announced that the Provincial up the patients for the night, and I usually lish country homes, to be away from bombed Government would contribute $12,000 an get back to my cottage about 6:30 p.m.” districts, arrived at the Duncan Fairbridge nually to Fairbridge School; and R.W. In September, 1940, the Fairbridge boys School. Like all who came from England, Mayhew, Liberal M.P and Chairman of the entered samples of their vegetable and gar they were awed to find “Canada’s such a B.C. Fairbridge Committee, considered a den produce at the annual British Columbia whacking big country.” “We saw Indians, we similar donation. The hard-pressed Govern Fall Fair, and won several prizes.36 In June, saw Mounted Police,” said an eleven-year- ment ofGreat Britain would contribute what 1941, Fairbridge School was “both host and old lad from Tyneside, “but where’s the rov it could. Problems of war exchange of ster victor in the yearly Lower Island rural schools’ ing buffalo?”30 In June, Sports Meet.”37 1940, the Secretary of “Philip Tipler, Fairbridge Farm Soci Fairbridge athlete, ety, L.A. Grogan, of came first in the fered to the class “B” 100 yards Governments of B.C. race, the high jump and Australia all the and the broad overseas schools’ facili jump. He also ties, if needed, to pro starred first in the vide for Britain’s winning relay team. possible child evacu Fairbridge won five ees.31 Great Britain was out of six relay now a lone outpost of events, pushing the war zone. their record up to But in the secure ha the winning 63 1/2 ven of the Duncan points.” Fairbridge School, the But some Old first wedding was held Fairbridge boys had in the new chapel. left sports for seri George Warnock, a ous service in war. house master, married Principal Logan Catherine Murray, also Junior Girls’ Basketball Team, B.C. Championships 1945, Fairbridge Farm SchooL told a tour party of BCARS #H 03354 a staff person. The B.C. Ayrshire proud school choir wore blue cassocks and ling currency had curtailed donations from Breeders’ Association that one boy graduate white surplices; then came the joyful recep British sponsors.34 was in England with the Canadian Army, one tion in the dining hall.32 Trainee girls who hoped to be nurses now was in the navy, one was with the Canadian In August, 1940, the Directors and admin had the chance ofhelping in the school’s own Armoured Division in Eastern Canada, and istrators of Seaboard Lumber Sales Co. - 32 hospital. Molly White wrote an account of another had applied for the RCAE More than men - donated $12,500 for the construction this in the Fairbridge Gazette:35 “A Day with fifty boys and girls, graduates of Fairbridge, of a hospital for the Duncan Fairbridge Farm the Nurse. Every Trainee girl spends some had farm and domestic jobs on the home School complex. Each officer also gave $150 time working in the hospital. At 6:15 we light front.38 annually for the support of one Fairbridge the fire and prepare the breakfasts trays. Be “The earnings of the 95 graduates of pupil, to whom he would be a godparent.33 sides cleaning and some cooking, we learn Fairbridge School this year” (1942) “will This first practical expression of Canadian how to take temperatures and make poul equal the entire cost of the school’s opera interest in Fairbridge School was doubly wel tices. We also learn something about diets tion in 1942,” Principal Logan told the Vic come because the children’s English godpar for certain patients; and how to make dress toria Gyro Club in December, 1942. “31 ents were having problems in sending help ings and sterilize them. After Nurse has seen of the boys who have graduated are in the to the young Canadians-to-be. Great Britain the children in the clinic, I clean it up and Armed Forces.” “Our boys have a trans-At needed every resource at home for the now may help to disinfect the laundry or fill cod lantic viewpoint,” he later told the Lions total war. Later tactful appeals by Principal liver oil bottles for the cottages. At 4 p.m. I Club, in May, 1943.° “We encourage them Logan brought more godparents for his stu start taking the afternoon temperatures and to remember their ancestry, the sacrifices their dents. help Nurse give extra nourishment to some families have made, but also to take on their On April 1st, 1941, the completed hospi children who come especially for this. Then job in Canada of helping to build this coun tal was officially opened by Canada’s Gover I start preparing supper, served about 5 p.m. try.” As British children, they were glad to nor-General, the Earl ofAthione. Much like We’re likely to have someone come in with a join the Services and help defend England. the nations of the British Commonwealth, cut foot, a splinter in the hand or a pain, But, as one boy wrote from there: “When the independent Canadian immigrants at while supper is being prepared; and these the war is over I want to return to Canada. Fairbridge maintained friendly contacts with children must then be attended to. After sup I find that I am now Canadianized.” their country of birth. At the hospital cer per I wash the dishes and clean up while In July, 1942, an Old Fairbridgians’ Asso emonies, Hon. John Hart, B.C.’s Minister Nurse does treatments in the clinic. We fix ciation was planned; the first meeting was in

21 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 August.41Officers were elected, including a turned to Fairbridge School. Twenty-seven Fairbridge property on Vancouver Island reporter and an overseas reporter; for this club pupils arrived at Fairbridge from Britain in until the current class graduated, and as hoped to edit an Old Fairbridgians’ Gazette. August, 1945. homes for the children not otherwise pro “United We Stand” was the chosen motto; In September, 1946, the school’s faculty vided for, Mr. Plows, who had climbed the and in the were: W’illiam faculty ranks to become Principal, would stay December Garnett, Prin to look after them, assisted by Miss Armitage. meeting the cipal; G.C. The Canadian Pacific Railway Company 20-plus Old Warnock, his came to the rescue. Its administrators pro Boys and assistant; posed, and the London Fairbridge Society’s Girls dis W i n o n a Executive Secretary agreed, that the C.RR. cussed find Armitage, Su lease the Vancouver Island estate and bring ing space for perintendent selected British farm families there, under its visiting Old of Child Care; Department of Immigration and Colon iza Fairbridgians, A.H. Plows, tion.50 These settlers would have to have the and their senior After- minimum transferable funds, and would hope for one Care Officer; agree to farm the Fairbridge property for three day building EE. Lamder, years. a hostel for bursar; T.J. But the continuing financial problems in them. Hipp chap Britain prevented the parent Fairbridge So Because of lain; and John ciety from sending their wards to Canada, wartime dan J. Brown, and from re-opening a Farm School on the gers on the farm manager Vancouver Island estate. In March, 1950, it Atlantic, by for over 20 was rented by the B.C. dairy firm, Stevenson 1944 no Students bad to milk the cows morning and evening. years on the and McBryde,51 from the C.PR. The dairy more chil Courtesy Cowichan Valley Museum estate.45 The inherited from the capable administrators of dren were school was the Fairbridge School: 70 head of purebred sent from England to Canada’s Fairbridge now administered by a B.C. Board of Gov Ayrshire cattle (65 had brought top prices at School. By Januar 1945, it had only 100 ernors. an auction), a team of Clydesdale horses, sev residents, although there was room for twice “Well known for her work for Fairbridge eral tons of grain, plus farm machinery and that number. In May, 1949, George Pearson, School,”46 Mrs. W.N. Mitchell, who had household equipment.52 B.C. Provincial Secretary told the visiting given the chapel its fine organ, gave the school As citizens of Canada, the Fairbridge Chairman and General Secretary of the par “Dogwood Cottage” in October, 1947. This graduates repaid their godparents many times ent Fairbridge Schools Society that, while he was the new library; she had come daily to over. Some became successful contributors had no criticism of their management, the catalogue its 3,000 books. The boys happily to food production, basic and indispensable. Duncan school should be transferred to a cleaned and tidied these comfortable quar Girls were proud to be homemakers and be British Columbia Board of Governors, and ters; they would read by the fireplace in the loved wives and mothers. Other Old its courses should be directly under the B.C. spacious lounge. At the opening ceremony, Fairbridgians rose into business and the pro Department of Education.42 The London the girls gave Mrs. Mitchell sachet bags of fessions; the school’s well-rounded program officials agreed. The yearly Provincial grant farm-grown lavender; the boys’ present was and training in an efficient life-style was their of $12,500 would be resumed. Complete a leather bookmark with tooled replica, foundation. They had affectionate memories control ofthe Duncan Fairbridge School was “Dogwood Cottage”. of it; and are glad to attend reunions. The transferred to a committee ofprominent B.C. In September, 1947, a United Kingdom Fairbridge Alumni Association keeps them business men, chaired by R.W. Mayhew, Vic Timber Delegation, touring B.C., visited in touch with each other and their dear “Cot toria M.P Fairbridge, and gave the school 100 guineas tage Mums” it meets regularly, and edits a In June, 1945, Harry Logan was trans (about $422.) It was to be paid in sterling Gazette. To any Fairbridge School graduates: ferred to the parent Fairbridge Schools Soci when they returned to England, because of your Association would be pleased to hear ety, and given a post on its farm school near severe exchange restrictions on the amount from you! London, on which prospective pupils were offunds allowed out ofthe United Kingdom. prepared for farm work training.43 William British contributions to the Duncan Bio Note: Helen Borrell is a Vancouver lady who Garnett, Assistant Principal, succeeded him Fairbridge School had been larger than ever enjoys researcbingB. C. history and sharing her as Principal ofthe Duncan Fairbridge School. during the past two years, Principal Garnett findings with the readingpublic. 1948.48 English born, he had come to Vancouver Is stated in January, But they could not Footnotes: land when young, worked on farms and be sent to Canada because of these exchange 1. “Friendly Fairbridge Farm,” magazine Feature, Victoria Colonist, October 20, 1935. earned his way through Ontario Agricultural restrictions, so he feared that his school might 2. Ibid. College in Guelph. He graduated in 1933, have to be closed, at least temporarily. No 3. Ibid. and was Ontario’s Rhodes Scholar. He joined more children could be sent from Great Brit 4. “The Story of Kingsley Fairbridge, a Boy with an Idea”, The Recorder, a British newspaper, - September 18, the Duncan Fairbridge School faculty in ain, Sir Charles Hambro, Chairman of the 1948. 1938, and sen’ed there until he joined the parent Fairbridge Society announced in Au 5. Ibid. R.C.N.V.R. in 1942. As a veteran, he re gust, 1949. The Society would retain the

22 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 6. “Fairbridge Farm School and its Principal”, Vancouver Province, August, 1936. 7. “Fairbridge Farm School and its Principal,” Vancouver Province, August, 1936. 8. “Friendly Fairbridge Farm,” Victoria Colonist, October 20, 1935.

9. Vancouver Province, Page 3 - September 25, 1935.

10. “Friendly Fairbridge Farm,” Victoria Colonist - October20, 1935. 11. Letter from K.W Bennett, Fairbridge Alumni

President - March, 1995. 12. “Some Fairbridge Milestones,” Fairbridge Gazette, 1946. 13. “Fairbridge School and its Principal,” Vancouver Province, August, 1936. 14. Victoria Daily Colonist Page 9, February 25, 1937. 15. “School Builds Fine Citizens,” Vancouver Sun, Page 22, September 15, 1937. 16. Fairbridge Gazette, April, 1940. 17. Fairbridge Gazette, July, 1939. 18. “Laird of Finn-y”, Vancouver Sun, Page 4. July, 1938. 19. Vancouver Province, July 16, 1938. 20. “The Girls of Fairbridge,” Victoria Daily Colonist, magazine section, April 14, 1940. 21. Vancouver Sun, September 13, 1938. 22. Vancouver Sun, October24, 1938, p.2. Vancouver Sun, Page 6, Oct. 22, 1938. Victoria Colonist, Page 5, Oct. 23, 1938. 23. Vancouver Sun, Page 12, November 21, 1938. Victoria Colonist, Page 6, November 20, 1938. 24. Editor’s letter, Fairbridge Gazette, January, a 1947. if 25. Victoria Daily Colonist, Page 7. March 30, 1939. 26. Vancouver Sun, Page 1. April 13, 1939. The Children Arrive 27. Vancouver Province, Page 13, May31, 1939. 28. Fairbridge Gazette, December, 1939. 29. Fairbridge Gazette, December, 1939. GIRLS OUTFIT BOYS OUTFIT 30. Vancouver Province. Page 9, May 8, 1940. 31. Victoria Colonist, June 28, 1940. 1 pair thick pyjamas 1 coat (or raincoat) 32. Victoria Colonist, Page 7. July 28, 1940. 2 pairs thin pyjamas 2 vests 33. Victoria Colonist, Page 1. August 7, 1940. 2 vests 3 pairs pyjamas Vancouver Province, Page 1. August 6, 1940. 34. Vancouver Sun, Page 6. April 2, 1941. 2 pairs brown knickers 2 underpants 35. Fairbridge Gazette, January, 1942. 1 gym slip I belt 36. Victoria Colonist, Page 11. September 12, 1940. 1 thick skirt 1 pair khaki shorts 37. Vancouver Sun, Page 4. June 6, 1941. 38. Vancouver Province, Page 14, June 23, 1941. 1 woolen jumper 1 pair ordinary shorts Vancouver Sun, Page 6, June 26, 1941. 2 handkerchiefs 2 khaki shirts 39. Victoria Colonist, Page 18, December 8, 1942. 2 pairs socks 1 jersey 40. Victoria Colonist, Page 16, May 28, 1942. 41. Fairbridge Gazette, January, 1942. 2 towels 2 pairs socks 42. Vancouver Province, Page 3, May 28, 1945. and I kitbag 2 handkerchiefs Vancouver Province, Page 3, January 8, 1945. 1 brush and comb bag, and brush 2 towels 43. Vancouver Sun, Page 3, May 26, 1945. Sponge bag with face flannel, brush 45. Victoria Colonist, Page 18. September 18, 1946. toothpaste, 1 and comb bag, and brush 46. Victoria Colonist, Page 8. October 12, 1947. toothbrush and soap Sponge bag with face flannel, toothpaste 47. Vancouver Sun, Page 17, September 6, 1947. 1 pair sandals toothbrush and soap 48. Vancouver Sun, Page 5, January 24, 1948; and 2 cotton frocks and knickers Kitbag Page 4, January 31, 1948. 49. Victoria Colonist, Page 6, August 19, 1949. 1 Bible 1 pair sandals 50. Victoria Colonist, October 25, 1949; and 1 pair shorts and sports vest 1 Fairbridge tie Vancouver Sun, Page 10, November 10, 1949. Plus the clothing she is wearing 1 Bible 51. Victoria Colonist, Page 24, March 3, 1950. 52. Vancouver Sun, Page 33, March 27, 1950. Plus the clothing he is wearing Bibliography Newspapers: News accounts (dates given in footnotes) from: Victoria Daily Colonist, 2621 Douglas Street, Victoria, B.C. Vancouver Province, 2250 Granville Street, Vancouver, B.c. Vancouver Sun, 2250 Granville Street, Vancouver, B.C. “Prince of Wales Fairbridge Farm School”, in: British Also, I wish to thank the clerk at the Government “Friendly Fairbridge Farm,” Magazine section, Victoria Columbia Archives and Record Service, 655 Belleville Street, Publications section. Main Library, University of B.C. She Colonist, October 20, 1935. Victoria, B.C. was always obliging in locating the newspaper botes of “The Girls of Fairbridge,” Magazine section, Victoria Letter from K.W. Bennett, Fairbridge Alumni Association micro6lm spools, and in showing me how to operate the Colonist, April 14, 1940. Secretary, 6942 Gray Avenue, Burnaby, B.C. reading machines. The same thanks are due to the staff of the Fairbridge Gazette, published at Prince of Wales Fairbridge My warm thanks to the B.C. Archivist in the Victoria office Newspaper Room of the Vancouver Main Library. Farm School, Vancouver Island, for courteous service and help in locating the reference “The Fairbridge Farm School at Duncan, B.C.” Saturday material, and Ibe mailing photocopies of sections of the Night, April 23, 1938. Fairbridge School Gazette. “Makers of New Canadians”, Family Herald and Weekly star, August 6, 1947.

23 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96

24

B.C. News Historical 1995/96 Winter -

region. line Edward Port to then and the follow few rail- coming families out ihn or fishing for some

tographs taken, were the in ever first which this to direction Skirt next: take coast the Prince of Rupert. With a of the exception

but ful, the during flight pho aerial several lack A funds. of had decision be to made 15 Prudhomme Lake, some east km) (24 mi.

route. The reconnaissance o success not was stopped, by ag walls large halted and rock of the on a Skeena River tle at stalled Highway was

aerial reconnaissance flights find order a in Prudhomme There Lake. At construction outbreak the ofWorld progress II, War

partment Works Public of conducted its first more road miles were of ley, towards built and Skeena” lower the

2

the for highway. In September De the 1927, to h mainland. the other the On a side the of few mountains the between Val Kitimat

started a crew searching possible out ids. route 1930, bridge a Here in built was crossed across Alps, the a would traverse attempt not

1920’s, the In early a Public small Works shore east Island Kaien of to high. Rap Galloway am I that certain Napoleon, who

1970. in Rupert from Prince the limits city the along 5,000 climb to had passes at over least ft.

1951 and extensively rerouted repaved and gravel ing road through cut been the foot, had on bush travelling they but light, have would

than rather The road. a paved was road years a in several took It before wind narrow, country; the when seasons propitious, were

was places narrow a more pass” trail it a winding were fallacy.’ “Indian hunters traversed have may that

right way, along the tracks. railroad many In proved sively h reports the that a of to J.C. “hidden Brady: District opinion Engineer

Canadian National Railway (CNR) right-of photographs A River. of series G.S. taken conclu Andrews ester reconfirmed i previous his

stretches the of constructed were road the on Rupert te than other East the following Skeena route this that viable. not was Assistant For

as built was as quickly a Large possible. it determine to feasibility from route of 1937-1938 Prince Lands of ment during confirmed

a mediately. Being emergency war-time road, photo reconnaissance by undertaken were flights Depart the taken Branch Forests the of

Department, im construction began August almost 1929, DuringJuly the and more aerial to Kitimat aerial But Valley. photographs

guidance the of Engineering States United again. Skeena the River route across from sible Skeena lower the River

of case an Japanese. by Under invasion to pass the River Exstew the and tain preferred the to a one. down pos was Another option

back-up adroute land body to in troops that move ofwater, long their moun a over skirting Work Canal-Skeena be to seemed route City

built. U.S. The a for Skeena the of government via nel Channel. Work to pressed Then, after Lake- Arm. Denise Prudhomme The

the that Skeena was River Highway from inland go finally the considered was Tyee, and to Kloiya from or mouth Work to Bay Chan

a Japanese of invasion Edward. past to World during alternate An II War route tion Prudhomme via City: Port Lake, Edward Port via

twas It because only was perceived the of from reaching threat Phelan sta cleared, way between tion Galloway and Rapids Skeena

5 1928, British (8 mi. Columbia. During potential three for routes right-of- of km) highway the loca

Rupert the with 1935, of interior were there Around

the link city port Prince of the lakes. two

road 193O’c. late location River investigation under Map south on Note Skeena of shore a plated road building to to bush through pushed the

had ernments bumpy contem long road was gravel

and provincial a ally gov federal and rough narrow,

U,nt

y

and Prince the Rupert. Prudhomme Both Eventu lakes.

tablished Terrace and between on pushing Taylor to

a

Rupert, completed, link road and es rw were crews was

,

put to Bay was Cloyah through (Kloiya) Prince

RUp

PRIN road a after 1935, to railroad the July By been had

$ 30 1944, 3.20 day. than more eight-hour an for years

wage In of earning summer late the minimum a of

rotating a Rupert basis, working Terrace. and on

many highway between men, vided for work Prince

Works cØ’; program relief the pro construction the of

-

/ the has Public Depression an such had Years, as impact

1930’s, the In during the the Canada of rest overland, t(

was option chosen. linking Rupert Prince finally with

second The Skeena National) River? Railway dian

a towards the route new Pacific Trunk Cana (later

to bush the seek the the into left completion Grand of

to strike off road or tracks, No the from apart event,

Septer Dirk by

1944-1994

Terrace Rupert- Prince 1& Highway divided between 28 dumpsters and nine graders. E.J. Ryan Con Construction was severely hampered by a struction Co., large turnover of crews during the cold and Ltd. and Associ wet weather of the summer of 1943, with ated Engineering the average workman staying about 60 days Co, ofVancouver. on the job before quitting. One of the A Vancouver paper described the construc toughest stretches tion: of highway to be “Twenty-four hours a day, seven days a built was the week at sometimes in excess of $60,000 per 7 mi. (11.2 km) mile, eight contracting firms worked to put between Prud in a highway through one of the world’s homme Lake and toughest terrain of granite mountains...” Tyee. For 3 mi. On August 4, 1944, a month before the (4.8 km) there official opening, Private Buddy Bodzash had wasa600ft. (180 been the first person to drive a car over the Highway 16, 193Z Corduroy road west ofPrudhomme Lake. m) high corru new road from Prince Rupert to Terrace. Her All photographs courtesy: Ministry of Transportation & Highways -Terrace. gated rock sum passengers were Commanding Officer of mit, with cracks a swim on a warm day, the trail basically filled with muskeg, to 25 ft. (7.5 m) served no other purpose. deep in places. In some places the The actual construction of the Prince muskeg had to be shovelled out to Rupert to Hazelton highway was undertaken bedrock and then filled in with rock. at the request of the high military authori Construction of a road on the ties in the United States and Canada, at a north side of the Skeena River faced time when a Japanese attack upon the Pa many problems. On long sections cific Coast was a definite possibility. When the road would have to be built par early in 1942, the Americans started con allel to and right up against the rail structing military fortifications in the Prince way grade. A total of eight railway Rupert area, completion of the road to Ter crossings were necessary between race became top priority. Tyee and Terrace. In order to have Yellowbead 16 1937- PR. Rock work west ofPrudhomme Lake According to the instructions the road was these approved by the Board of to be completed as quickly as possible, the Transport, temporary and dangerous cross Prince Rupert Defences Colonel D.B. whole project to be completed in one year. ings had to be avoided. Railway officials had Martyrt and his wife, and Prince Rupert Never had there been a project of that size to agree to certain changes oftheir alignment mayor H.M. Daggett. completed in one year any place in Canada, where improvements would have to be made. On September 4, 1944 the “Skeena High even in normal times. The terrain between Tentative permission was granted to appro way” was officially opened. On that hot late Prince Rupert and Terrace was one of the priate CN R right-of-way wherever necessary summer day a cavalcade of more than 100 most rugged in the province. The climate was It was a “tight squeeze” to build the road military and civilian cars travelled the road unpredictable and devastating floods could from Tyee to Terrace, along a narrow shelf of to Terrace. occur during spring run-off or following land also occupied by the rail line. Rocks had The official ceremonies to mark the open heavy rains in fall. One estimate was to build to be poured in holes along the Skeena River, ing of the road were held at Terrace. Skeena the 68 mi. (108.8 km) of highway in 15 some of these 40 ft. (12 m) deep. When a MP Olof Hanson was on hand to cut the months. It would require about 18 fully section near Kwinitsa was being filled to make traditional blue ribbon. In her book “Road, equipped crews totalling about 2,300 men.3 a roadbed around a sheer rock bluff, a dump Rail and River”, Prince Rupert author and In March 1942, survey crews started lay truck toppled with its load into the river. historian Phylis Bowman quoted Hanson ing out the location for the new road. The Fortunately the driver jumped free. Eventu having said: exceptionally late and wet spring severely ally, with the aid of a diver, the truck was “1 came to Skeena Country 37 years ago hampered their progress. Early June 1942, recovered from a rocky pinnacle on which it with a packsack on my back and have worked the Department of Mines and Resources in had hung up some 50 ft. (15 m) below the all those years to get a highway. Now Pearl Ottawa awarded the contracts for the con surface. The river here was said to be between Harbour has brought it about”.5 struction of some 75 mi. (120 km) of high 80-100 ft. (24-30 m) deep.4 As soon as the highway officially opened, way between Prince Rupert and Terrace and The 45 bridges required for the project the Department of Mines and Resources re Cedarvale. Five sections ofthe highway were were pre-fabricated in Vancouver. Ten of fused any responsibility for winter mainte awarded in division between McNamara these were major spans of the wooden Howe nance of the road. This maintenance, Construction Co., Ltd., Rayner Construc Truss type. It was estimated that 78 trucks including snow-ploughing, was not deemed tion, Ltd., and Standard Paving, Ltd., all of were used in the construction, along with 25 justified on military grounds. Early in 1945, Toronto. The remaining three sections were bulldozers, 21 powershovels, 32 dump trucks, it was considered that the road had no longer

25 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 any military value since the 1976, Alex Fraser, Minister of threat of an invasion had been Highways and Public Works, removed. The amount of lo agreed that more work was cal traffic did not justify the needed on Highway 16 be cost ofkeeping the road open. tween Prince Rupert and Ter The Province was informed it race.’2 would be free to incorporate During the 1980’s the the road into its provincial Kasiks, Tyee and Esker railway highway system. overpasses were built as part However, Provincial Public of a long term effort to elimi STorks Minister Herbert nate all level rail crossings. Anscomb announced that the Now only two extremely haz Prince Rupert highway would ardous stretches of highway, not be considered a provincial Car Wash Rock and the sec responsibility. Since the high tion between Tyee and Khyex, way had been a war project, it remained. The latter was fi should be handled like the Highway 16, 193 between Galloway Rapids ó’ Skeena City. nally, almost 50 years after its Alaska Highway and remain out the service station and motel-restaurant original construction, brought under the jurisdiction of the federal govern complex “North Route” along Highway 16, up to standard. Besides widening the road ment. The word “highway” it was an overstate 28 mi. (44.8 km) west ofTerrace. The slide, and bringing away from the railway tracks, ment. The road was still only a rough and which buried the complex and several vehi the new highway would no longer go under narrow winding gravel trail, barely passable cles, killed seven people. neath the hydro tower just east of Tyee. in places, with many pull-outs for vehicles Over the years many politicians promised Car Wash, a rock bluff overhanging the to pass. Also, the jurisdiction affecting the improvements to the highway. In October, highway about 30 mi. (48 1cm) west of Ter portion of the highway running along the 1955, Highways Minister PA. Gaglardi wrote race gained new prominence when in March CNR right-of-way would have to be straight to Bruce Brown, MLA that a “considerable 1989 a motorist was killed there by a piece ened out. portion” would be included in the next year’s of falling ice. The Ministry of Transporta During the first years after the opening, it B.C. highway program to provide for pav tion and Highways has plans to bypass Car was considered that there was not sufficient ing of the road between Prince Rupert and Wash Rock within the next few years, but as traffic to warrant the expenditure to keep this Terrace.8 In April, 1965, Premier WA.C. usual, the time frame will depend on fund highway open during the winter months. It Bennett announced in Prince Rupert that ing available. wasn’t until the winter of 195 1-52, that the during that year the reconstruction of the Since its construction, the highway be highway was kept open during the winter highway between Prince Rupert and Terrace tween Prince Rupert and Terrace has been months. Snow removal on the highway was would begin, with the first 25 mi. (40 km) upgraded, repaired, re-routed, paved, wid a problem not easily solved. The highway between Prince Rupert and Tyee. Early Sep ened, straightened, improved with overpasses runs through the Coast Mountain Range tember 1969, after returning to office in the and curbing until it was practically rebuilt. along the northern side of the Skeena River. provincial election, Skeena MLA Dudley Lit Today, 50 years after the official opening, Snowfall is very heavy and a good portion of tle stated that he would work for the com the original highway has almost been totally the road has a rock cut on one side with the pletion of Highway 16 as uppermost on his rebuilt. It is almost impossible to recognize railroad on the other. The highway in the list of priorities for the riding.9 On June 20, the narrow, winding roadway constructed Terrace-Tyee area is traversed by 42 avalanche 1974, in a meeting of the Inter-Provincial during the war years. Some old-time residents paths.6 For a distance of about 60 mi. (96 Yellowhead Association, the Deputy Minis still wonder whether this road would have been km) the highway parallels the railroad. ter of Highways H. Sturroch, agreed that the through had there not been World War II. The heaviest snowfalls and longest road Prince Rupert to Terrace section of Highway Bio: The author who resides near Telkwa, re closures occurred in January-February 1972. 16 should receive priority. 10 On January Early February, “the Blizzard of the Decade” searches local history and Canadian aviation 17, 1975, addressing more than 135 people history. dumped 42 in. (1.07 m) more snow in two attending the 67th Annual Meeting of the days. The highway had been closed 22 times Prince Rupert Chamber of Commerce, 1. Annual Report 1929-30 District Engineer Prince Rupert to during the winter. Some closures had lasted Chief Engineer, November 14, 1930, p. 2; Highways Minister Graham Lee promised to 2. Letter,July2, 1938, G.S.AndrewstoJ.C. Brady; only a matter of hours, while others lasted get Highway 16 in shape before too many 3. Letter, March 14, 1942, District Engineer Prince Rupert to for two weeks. Chief Engineer; years. He stated that to bring up to standard 4. Omineca Herald, June 1950; A total of 107 snow slides came down on 9, the particularly difficult 35 mile (56 km) sec 5. Bowman, Phylis. 1981. Road, Rail and River; Highway 16. The biggest one came down in tion between Prince Rupert and Terrace 6. Ministry of Transportation and Highways. 1980. Snow February, measuring a width of 0.3 mi. (480 avalanche atlas Terrace-Tyee; would cost $50 million now, $75 million 7. The Herald, March 9, 1972; m). In places it covered the highway to a tomorrow, and who knows after that. Where 8. Prince Rupert Daily News, October 22, 1955; height up to 75 ft. (22.5 m).The total snow 9. Terrace Omineca Herald, September 3, 1969 upon a voice from the opposite side of the 10. The Daily News, June 21, 1974; winter fall that fell on the road during the hall called out: “Then fix it NOW!”. This 11. The Daily News, January20, 1975; 12 The Daily News, July 12, 1976. reached a total of48 ft. (14.4 m)7 drew much applause and laughter.11 In July On January 22, 1974, a snow slide wiped

26 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 James Cronin: Mining Pioneer by Dirk Septer

For many years, Cronin and Babine about 30 km, the Moricetown Trail was Bonanza have been well known names abandoned in favour of the Driftwood in the mining world. James Cronin, Trail. On the request of a number of who made his home in Spokane, Wash., other prospectors owning mining was well known for his pioneer mining claims in the area, the provincial gov work in both Canada and the U.S. Born ernment upgraded the old Indian trail in Bantry, Ireland, Cronin came to into a good trail up to the head ofDrift America at the age of 18. Soon after ar wood Creek in 1910. To get to the riving in New York in 1870, he moved Babine Bonanza property, an old In out west. In the Nevada silver mines he dian trail had to be followed to the learned all there was to be learned in Babine Range Divide. Here within a the mining trade. There was not much distance ofabout 1200 m the elevation about a mine, underground or above, increases about 500 m. From this point, that Cronin did not know. He could still quite a bit of road work was re build a shaft or timber a mine, and he quired to get a passable trail to the prop was his own draftsman and mining en erty. Though the mountain side is very gineer. His judgement on the value of steep, the soft material allowed easy ore bodies was uncanny. building of a number of switchbacks In the 1890’s, Cronin came up north whose grades had to assure safe foot to Alaska and British Columbia. Dur hold for the horses. Following the east ing one of these exploration trips in the slope of the mountain for the distance East Kootenay, he located the St. Eugene of about 3 km, the trail towards the Mine near Moyie Lake, B.C. The dis mine required some patching-up work. covery of this mine would establish This would bring it to a point from Cronin’s lasting fame in the mining Mr. and Mrs. James Cronin at the main portal of the SL Eugene which several other trails diverged to world. The actual discovery was made Mine. different properties. byan Indian named Peter, who brought Courtesy Cominco Magazine, May 1961 There is only one known low pass some samples to Father Coccola at the which cuts the Babine Range, about 8 St. Eugene Mission. Cronin happened to stop eral claims in 1907. This property is situated km southeast of the Driftwood Creek Pass in at that mission and was shown the sam in the Babine mountains, some 45 km north and cuts the mountain some 650 m lower. ples. Subsequently he was taken out to the east of Smithers, B.C. It was located in 1906 The Driftwood Trail as described above, showing, and the St. Eugene, St. James, and by M.J. Brewer and Jas. Dibble. For the next was only a packtrail. Due to deep snow con St. Paul claims were staked. 15 years, Cronin would spend considerable ditions during most of the year, it could only This property would turn into one of the effort in the development and promotion of be used for horse travel about three or four biggest lead and silver mines in British Co this property. In 1909, the claims of the months a year. lumbia. Around $25 million (1925 prices) Babine Bonanza Mining and Milling Co., of It would take Cronin much lobbying be worth of ore was taken out of the St. Eugene which Cronin was general manager and ma fore the provincial government put up some mine. jor shareholder, were Crown Granted. money to build a sleigh- and later wagon road Soon after that, Cronin rediscovered the For many years access to the mine was via to the mine. War Eagle and Centre Star mines near the Moricetown Trail. This trail started from In 1917, Cronin proposed a novel method Rossland, B.C. These properties had been the Telkwa High Road south of Moricetown of transporting from the mountain to the abandoned, but thanks to Cronin, 18 years and ran almost straight west, just north of railroad. It was towards the end ofWorld War of production were added to the life of the the 55th parallel. I and the price of metals was very high. In a War Eagle and many million dollars worth The arrival of the Grand Trunk Pacific letter to Sir Richard McBride, one of Cronin’s of ore was taken out. brought many changes to the Bulkley Valley. investors and at one time premier of British Just after the turn of the century, Cronin Until the summer of 1914, Hazelton had Columbia, Cronin expressed interest in ob began exploring northern British Columbia. been the supply town for the Babine mine. taining one of the German Zeppelins cap He explored the Stewart River and the lakes On completion of the railway, Smithers be tured in England. “Transportation of ore was in that area to their source, and also the came the nearest town carrying mine sup the only thing these machines were good for” Nechako. plies. Consequently this town was picked as and then no roads would be required. ‘With his partner Charles Theis, Cronin the supply centre for the mine. The battle to raise money for development bought the Babine-Bonanza group of mm- In order to cut the distance to the mine by work was never ending. Cronin sank much

27 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 of his own money into the mine. In 1920, Cronin had two men and the cook left. right sale. Through an option this company he was even forced to lose some 3,000 acres He decided to drive the face at least another gained a 51 percent control in the Babine of land he owned elsewhere in British Co 10 feet. He reasoned that if they should hap Bonanza Company. But again the constant lumbia due to his inability to pay the taxes. pen to be at the near end of an ore chute, it lack of money plagued further development However, he was a strong believer in the would take 10 feet or more to reach the av at the mine. Due to depressed metal prices potential of the property; and he never gave erage. If it proved to be nothing but a punch, and a continued lack of market improvement, up. In a letter to Sir Richard McBride he it would be better that they would find that Anglo London had extreme difficulties to wrote in 1915: out themselves than to have a stranger dis come up with more money; Besides the prob The opening of this mine has proved to be cover that. lem of not honouring financial commit the most tedious undertaking of my and He finishes his letter stating: ments, there were disagreements about how having staked everything on the finding of a With me it is a question of now or never I to run the mine. Consequently in Novem paying mine, the undertaking is also the most am not coming back to de more development ber 1930, Babine Bonanza cancelled the serious. Ifrel quite determined to stay with it work. There isplenty ofore developed here now Anglo London contract, something it had until thefill value oftheproperty isfairly de tojustj5’ the building ofa 100 ton mill. A time wanted to do for a long time. term med. will come when there will be a better market. With Cronin’s death we lost the last of the Four years later he states: Cronin felt that the work completed dur great mining pioneers of the Pacific coast, Th win in mining, the game must be played ing the summer of 1923 had proven the ex and his long association with the mining to afinish and this we are now trying to do. istence of enough ore to justify a mill. world came to an end. Despite all the setbacks, Cronin never lost Though already in his 70’s, he had hoped to Cronin was deeply religious; a man with his sense of humour. When in 1923 a local install the equipment and operate the mine high values and a good sense of humour. He newspaper inadvertently reported on the sale himself, but his plans were never realized. spent half his life in tents or cabins and was of the Babine Bonanza property, he wrote to Cronin never did return to the mine. In Au an expert cook and fisherman. Cronin was the editor: gust 1918, on the way out from the mine he very well liked by those who worked for him The reportedsale was an interesting surprise was thrown off his horse. The injury; though or with him. He believed in what he did, es to me. Ifyou should have occasion to sell the painful, did not seem serious and was for pecially in the potential of the Babine Bo property again, I wish you should let me in on gotten. The next couple of years he was of nanza mine. Unfortunately he never saw that the deal. ten in pain and underwent a successful mill working. His efforts finally paid off, but At the end of September 1923, Cronin was operation in November, 1921. In January it would take many years before his dreams plagued by the usual financial problems and 1924, he underwent another operation, and would be realized. In later years, a number lack of encouraging results. He finally de from then on his health was steadily on the of different outfits operated a small mine on cided one morning to close everything down. decline. He died on March 3, 1925. the site. The property is still considered a vi After laying off two of his men, he went to After the death of Cronin, it was decided able small scale option but it never became a examine the results of the blasting done the by the estate to sell the property; During the second St. Eugene. evening before. To his delight he discovered years 1925-28, many mining companies, some good ore. There were some broken agents and brokers were approached. How Bio: chunks and more on the hanging wall. At ever, it was not until the end of 1928 that Dirk Septei now living and working in the last he had a chance to quit and leave ore in there was a taker. The deal struck with Anglo Bulkley Valley, was framed in engineering in sight in the face of the drift! London Mining Company was not an out- the NetherlaniL He picked up the broken pieces of ore and put these back around the ore in place. A So,,. North few hours later he got a surprise visit from ,A the government district engineer. After look Srn9 8.y PoW,, ing over some other locations, they came to 9 the spot described above. The district engi neer started picking at the ore with his light Fwr.,9jI, V4W •• pick. 3 a.y bTp.) The ledge, being cracked during the blast -9- ing, did not stand up to this very long. Soon r8”

every piece that had an attractive appearance Cbo. 2-- —----- came down! In a letter to his partner Charles Theis a few days later, Cronin writes: I could see $50,000 disappear with hispick work and I shall always remember that it was — the greatest ejjhrt ofmy lf to hold mys4,fusing \COWMlA the pick on this man head In afrw minutes L all myprospects were spoiled and newplans were Lasqueti frrmedjust as quick. Island

28 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 Schooling on Lasqueti by Elda Mason

The article about rural school teachers in Christmas. a recent B.C. Historical News Magazine, After Christmas, Miss Florence Theresa

- Wright 26) in its Eagel came. She was also a very capable (Volume 28:1 Robert - p. bare bones simplicity; fills me with the de young woman and soon had the situation sire to recount the bright and tender memo in hand. Our education progressed. Com ries of my personal acquaintance with the position became more meaningful (the Life schooling of that era (the 1920’s). Story of the Pansy.) Math involved prob

Picture an island - Lasqueti - twelve miles lem solving with formal statements. Miss long; it is either timbered or recently logged; Eagel taught us music, the notes and the there are a few large meadows; the land is scales, the basis ofthe tonic sol-fa. For some surveyed into conventional quarter sections. of the children this was very boring but The settlers’ homes with their small clear for me and my sister, it was the best part of ings are seldom visible to each other. A few the day. people do have horses to ride, but most walk. Miss Eagel paid us three generous dol Wooden sleighs are used for freight as many lars a month to do the janitorial work. We Front: Bath Boldtben, Violet of the roads which often follow old logging Maple Grove SchooL 1924. cleaned the blackboards and brushes and Norrish, Bertha Cook, Edith Norrisb, Lucretia Copley, roads are not yet suitable for wagons; these Geneva Copley, Fred Cook. Middle: Beatrice Copley, swept the floors each day. She also encour are usually very muddy in winter. Many peo Dorothy Petsingell, Doris Reitz, Elda Copley, Jack White, aged sports. The older boys felled the al ple have boats which are very useful but com Maurice Reitz George Curran, Art White, Alfred Copley, ders and with the help of parents we were bebind Miss Florence Eagel and pletely subject to the weather. Frank White. Standing able to make our playground large enough Ren George Pringle. At the time I was five years old, the only to play ball. school was at the opposite end of the Island In the fall Miss Edith Kay came to Ma from my parents’ home. My father tried to About that time the settlers began building ple Grove. She brought her mandolin and con remedy this situation by teaching my sister a school for the end of the island where we tinued our musical education. Then on top and me to write and to know our letters. My lived. Upright logs and handsplit shakes kept of all the other duties of reading, writing mother helped us write letters to our grand the cost to a minimum. The Government sup (MacLean Method) and arithmetic she organ mother. She also taught us to sing while she plied shiplap and fir flooring as well as three ized a Christmas Concert and another con accompanied us on her guitar. We were en windows for the south wall. Of course these cert in the spring. Thus drama, singing and couraged to gather wild flowers and to call expenditures along with desks, chalk, new recitation became part of our experience. We them by name, however local these names books etc. were applied to the settlers’ taxes. continued playing baseball and the revenue might be. In 1923 when I was eleven, Lasqueti Island’s from our second concert was used to buy When I was eight years old, my parents and Maple Grove School officially opened. Miss sports equipment. a neighbouring family were able to arrange Madeline Elvira Nelems was the first teacher. These young teachers were respected mem with a retired teacher, Mrs. Katherine Grant, She was young, and to us children, very beau bers of the community. They were welcomed for their daughter and my sister and me, to tiful. She boarded with my Aunt and Uncle, to all social events and were entertained in go to her home for three hours each day. She Birdie and Fred Copley in their comfortable the homes. It is true that a few hearts beat provided us with instruction for several home beside the ocean. She had a separate faster with the prospect of dancing with the months. This wonderful lady introduced me bedroom but of course there was no indoor teacher or possibly taking her for a boat ride, to phonics. In a very short time I was reading plumbing. This was not expected in country but this was all part of the excitement of hav the first Primer; soon I was into the magic of homes. She walked the one mile to school with ing another young person with new ideas to

BOOKS. We began Arithmetic - the funda my cousins. enlighten our lives. mentals of adding, subtracting and simple Our school had eighteen pupils ranging in Thus, though these young teachers did not times tables. Mrs. Grant introduced us to art age from barely six to fourteen years. Very few have any letters after their names, though they

- the world around us, painting flowers and had ever attended a regular school. Miss were inexperienced and often had to make do butterflies with water colors. She taught us Nelems sorted us into workable grades and in difficult circumstances, their sincerity and the songs of her childhood, “Buttercups and organized janitorial duties. She read us fasci enthusiasm made up for it. They left a fine Daisies,” “The Sandman.” I am eternally nating stories and taught us to write short and priceless legacy for those of my genera grateful to my wonderful first teacher. compositions, emphasizing oral reading. We tion who had the benefit of their instruction. In time we took a Government Corre moved into multiplication and division; she E1d13 Mason now lives in Nanaimo. She recently spondence Course. Except for the grade two organized spelling bees; we began drawing still published Lasqueti Island, History and Reader, I remember very little. I am afraid we life (salal leaves). Many of us were in tears Memory. Ifany descendants ofMies Eagel read did not study very assiduously. when she told us she would be leaving at this, will they please contact Mrs. Mason.

29 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 Making B. C. History: The Native Sons ofBritish Columbia by Robert Leece

‘When the Native Sons of pioneers and the mutual eco British Columbia was first nomic benefit of its members formed in 1899, British Co as being among its primary lumbia was still in its infancy objects.8 as a province.1 Victoria, the Initially, the Victoria post provincial capital, had been ofthe Native Sons appears to founded fifty-six years before, have dominated the organi while Vancouver had been in sation, with the result that the existence for only thirteen Native Sons’ vision of the years. As the senior city, Vic province was Victoria’s vision toria was the province’s lead of the province.9 In respect ing force through its early to identity, Victoria presents history, it was here that the an interesting case as some of Native Sons was originally or the city’s leading citizens were ganised. In this initial forma the children of fur traders, tion, an identity for the some of whom had Aborigi province and its inhabitants nal or metis wives.’0 Though was recorded that reflected the it cannot be pursued here, it social dominance of Victoria. The Native Sons ofB.C entered thisfloat in the Victoria Day parade, May 19OO is possible that this aspect of Over the next generation, BCARS H2435 Victoria’s society influenced however, the Native Sons the course of self identifica would develop a new vision of the province phasis on representations of the province’s tion. In many respects there is no effort to and in doing so they would record the devel Aboriginal population..This emphasis reflects wards a distinctively British Columbian self opment of Vancouver as British Columbia’s the view that a vision of Self is dependent on identification in the early years ofthe organi social centre. An interesting feature of the the defining contrast represented by an sation. Outside of maintaining a memory of Native Sons is the visual records they have Other.3 In British Columbia, it was the Abo the pioneers and references to the Hudson’s left. Emblems, badges, paintings, and pho riginal population that would come to func Bay Company, the overwhelming measure of tographs provide useful additions to the writ tion as this Other. identity for the Victoria Native Sons was the ten records of the organisation. As a result, The Native Sons of British Columbia was connection to the British Empire. this exercise will include visual material in first formed following the model of the Na One particularly telling example of the association with written records in studying tive Sons of the Golden West, a California Native Sons’ early self image is their official the Native Sons vision of themselves and the organisation.4 In announcing details of the seal. Initially, this seal was medallion shaped province. formation of the Native Sons, the Daily and had at its centre a crown surmounted by While the Native Sons of British Colum Colonist reported that the objects of the or a lion, along with a wreath of oak and some bia was a small, secret organisation,2 its ac ganisation were “social and recreative and for other unidentified foliage. Circling the edge tivities were often reported in local mutual help.”5 A short time later, when the of the seal was the motto “Conjunctio newspapers. As a result, it can be argued that election of the officers ofthe organisation was Firmat” and the name “Native Sons of B.C.”. its members’ visions of a British Columbian reported, the Daily Colonist applauded the Aside from the inclusion of the name of the identity extended beyond the confines of use of Hudson’s Bay Company titles for the organisation, there is nothing to associate the their closed meetings. Also, as members of officers as “a happy and appropriate idea.”6 imagery of this seal with British Columbia, the community at large, the opinions of the Another aspect of the Native Sons was re though there is much to associate it with the community would have had their own in vealed when the Daily Colonist reported Empire. Similarly, the badge ofVictoria’s Post fluences on the members of the organisation. that the organisation was intended to “unite No. 1 fails to include much that would dis With this in mind, it is reasonable to suggest the young men of all nationalities, religious tinguish it as being British Columbian.” that the development of the Native Sons of convictions and political creeds under the Arranged on a red, white, and blue ribbon is British Columbia can be viewed as a model banner of love of the home province.”7 As the seal described above, the words “Justice of the developing identity of the Province for the Native Sons itself its original consti Mercy Humility”, the Union Jack and the itself. In considering evidence of this devel tution and by-laws listed the maintenance of Canadian Red Ensign, and a shield bearing oping identity there will be a particular em- an awareness of the accomplishments of the the pattern of the Union Jack. Both of these

30 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 objects speak of Britain and the Empire. The Sons, presented as exotic subjects of the ritual differs considerably on this point. As name British Columbia is simply a label at Empire and reflect the all-consuming domi in the original initiation ritual, the initiate tached to one of its many parts. nance of the British Empire. was subjected to a “hoodwinked” ordeal. Along with the absence Now, however, the initiate ofa British Columbian as had his “trousers rolled up pect to the identity of the to the knees, [and] a pack of Native Sons there are very a blanket, pick, shovel, axe, few references to the prov — and pans strapped to [his] ince’s Aboriginal popula back.”9 It is most probable tion. One example is a that this is the costume de Daily Colonist report on veloped by Post No. 4. a 1902 Native Sons excur Wearing this costume, the sion to Mayne Island initiate was led through his where the results ofa “race ordeal while the Chief for Indians” is included Guide recited the following with the outcome ofother passage. sporting events.12 Simi My Brothe you are now larly, a series of photo travelling over the Carriboo graphs identified as (sic) Trail. This Trail is rough showing the Native Sons and dangerous, and requires in the 1900 May 24 pa great nerve and endurance to rade also suggests some overcome. But our Forefathers form of association be successfully passed through the AI.exanderMcKenzie was tbefirst white man to crossNorthAmerica north ofMexico. Travelling tween Native Sons for the Northwest Company be crossed the Rockies and landed at sea water near Bella Cook. hardshzps, which proved and these Aboriginal ‘na themselves worthy as Pioneers, tives’ (see end of docu and it is to be hoped thatyou ment).’3 One of these photographs shows the While Victoria’s Post No. 1 guided the early willprove equally worthy as a Native Son.2° Native Sons’ float,14 manned by young boys history of the Native Sons, a differing view Following his ordeal, the initiate was ad in sailor suits and young girls in white dresses of the province and its character can be found dressed by the Post Chief Factor who detailed while another is of two Aboriginal men.15 in slightly later activities of the mainland the accomplishments of the pioneers. In With no available written documentation of posts. In particular, it appears that New West cluded in these comments on the pioneers the Native Sons intentions in this associa minster’s Post No. 4 took the lead in con was a reference to the “wild and often hostile tion, the only option is to speculate. tributing to the development ofa distinctively Natives,” who represented one of the “diffi Aside from the archives’ catalogue there is British Columbian identity for the Native culties” these pioneers “met and overcame.”21 little to connect these two photographs. Sons. One indication ofthis is developments This appears to be the first reference to There is no overlapping content, though in the initiation ritual that probably origi the Native Sons actually identifying with a judging by the camera angles the Aboriginal nated with Post No.4. Appearing in the min specifically British Columbian experience. men likely marched ahead ofthe float. ‘What utes ofthe annual meeting ofthe Grand Post Unlike the fur trade, which through the is intended by their presence is more diffi in 1911, is a comment by the Grand Factor Hudson’s Bay Company was as much a con cult to determine. One possibility is that they concerning Post No. 4’s purchase of “an ini nection to Britain as it was to any specific were intended to represent a defining con tiation outfit both interesting and varied, region of the company’s domain, the Cariboo trast between the Aboriginal character ofthe eliminating however all rough and danger gold rush could only be associated with Brit province and the future of the province as ous features.”17 Though there is no actual ish Columbia. For the Native Sons it was a represented by the children on the float. description of the outfit in these minutes, it defining moment for the province as well as There is nothing, however, about these chil is probably the same as the initiation costume for themselves. Added to this is the reference dren that is particularly British Coluinbian. that became standard for the organisation in to overcoming the “hostile Natives.” The pio Though there may be an awareness of race the 1914 revised ritual. neers are thus portrayed as having won the indicated here, there is no other material con The original ritual of the Native Sons in right to claim this province as their own. In temporary with these photographs that cluded an initiation that involved a “hood the minds of the Native Sons, the result of would indicate the Native Sons were con winked” initiate enduring an ordeal of this was the founding of “this Glorious Prov sciously attempting to define themselves as entrance into the society.’8 The initiate was ince of which we [the Native Sons] are the British Columbians in this manner in 1900.16 guided through a series of obstacles indicat Inheritors.”22 It seems that Post No. 4 was Instead, considering the organisation’s em ing entrance to the post and afterwards was the origin of another development of the phasis on Empire, it might be more reason instructed as to the good conduct of a Na Native sons ritual. In 1915, the Grand Fac able to view these two men, and similarly the tive Son. Likely formulated at the time of tor applauded Post No.4’s use ofthe Chinook Aboriginal participants in the Mayne Island the organisation’s founding in Victoria, the jargon in their initiation ceremony. It would, excursion, not as aspects of identity but in ritual makes vague references to the fur trade he thought, “help to perpetuate the days stead as indicators of locale. Aboriginal par but otherwise has little to associate it with when our Forefathers had to do with the then ticipants are, in association with the Native British Columbia. The 1914 version of the Savage tribes of Early British Columbia.”23

31 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 As will be shown, this comment on the use in the lead, would seek to play a public role Between 1922 and 1928 the collection and of the Chinook jargon is important in un in defining the meaning of being a British preservation of the early history of the prov derstanding the Native Sons identity. Columbian. Of particular interest is the fact ince was a primary occupation of the Native Though it received oniy Sons.3° Artifacts were col brief mention in the 1914 lected and the organisa ritual and the 1915 min tion participated in the utes of the Grand Post, the creation of a provincial issue of making reference Historic Objects Act. to the province’s aboriginal Central to this act were population is important in provisions for the protec considering the develop tion of “rock carvings, ment of the Native Sons’ totem poles, and other view of themselves as be works ofIndian art or his ing distinctively British toric interest.”31 The Na Columbian. In a discussion tive Sons’ participation in of Australian nationalism, the passage of this act can Andrew Lattas has written be seen as being rooted in that in the development of their desire to “preserve a national consciousness the relics ofa passing age,” “concepts of time (of the much in keeping with the past and the future) are in practice of viewing the tegral, and certain social Aboriginal identity of groups are invoked as the British Columbia as the Crown Colony ofBrithb Columbia was proclaimed at Fort Langley andJames Douglas took the embodiments of different oath ofLieutenant Governor byMatbew Baillie Begbie, CbiefJustice appointed by British law in past.32 Though frivolous times.”24 The past and the 1858. and possibly even de future, the overcome and meaning, the 1900 parade the inheritors, only in 1914 was a sense of that Victoria’s Post No. 1 generally excludes and the 1902 excursion included living Abo provincial ‘nationalism’ beginning to develop itself from these developments, possibly un riginal participants who were a continuing in British Columbia. Originating on the comfortable with the idea of following in part of British Columbia’s existence. In the mainland, the use of references to Aborigi Vancouver’s shadow.27 1920’s, these people were replaced by objects nal peoples and the identification of the With its reorganisation, the Native Sons that were used to define the past. It is also Chinook jargon as an aspect of the pioneers’ adopted the new purpose of pointing “the possible to see another element of exploita accomplishments in dealing with these peo way to a clearer and more definite apprecia tion at work here, as the Native Sons excluded ples was becoming a significant part of the tion of the values of citizenship.”28 Accom the Aboriginal identity from the province’s Native Sons’ identity. As part of the Native panying this new purpose was a new emblem future while at the same time using it in at Sons’ ritual, however, these features remained for the organisation. Unlike the otiginal seal, tempts to create greater interest in the “ro secret. It was only later, following the devel with its absence of references to British Co mance” of British Columbia’s history.33 opment of a nationalistic mood in the prov lumbia, the new emblem reflected an aware The Native Sons 1920’s view of history is ince at large, that these aspects of ritual would ness of place that had been developing in the well represented in a series of paintings com become part of the public persona of the pre-war ritual of Post No. 4 in New West missioned by the organisation and the Hud Native Sons. minster. Showing the Nanaimo Bastion, built son’s Bay Company. Accompanied by the title As in British Columbia, a “natives” asso by the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1853, the “Making B.C. History by recording B.C. ciation was formed in New Zealand in the emblem included the name of the organisa History,” these paintings were presented in late nineteenth century.25 Primarily a mid tion and a banner bearing the word Progress of British Columbia, a publica dle-class social organisation, the New Zea Tillicum.29 The inclusion of this word from tion produced by Post No. Given as a land Natives Association did not survive the the Chinook jargon is interesting when it is gift to the University of British Columbia, transition to the twentieth century In dis considered in relation to the comments made the eight paintings were of: Simon Fraser cussing this aspect of New Zealand’s history, about the use ofChinook in the ritual of Post Making His Way Through the Canyon of Keith Sinclair has suggested that the NZNA No. 4. It is representative of the accomplish the Fraser; Overland Expedition of 1862 was ultimately swept aside by the events of ments of the pioneers in dealing with the Coming Through Rockies; Alexander Mac the Anglo-Boer war which created a unif,r Aboriginal peoples of the province; peoples kenzie recording his arrival at the Rock of ing sense of patriotism independent of the who had been overcome by these pioneers. Elcho; Governor Douglas taking Oath of limited influence of a social club.26 In Brit Increasingly, the Native Sons would choose Office at Fort Langley, November 19, 1859; ish Columbia, it was the First World War that to define the province’s Aboriginal popula Discovery of Gold at Williams Creek; The served as the catalyst of patriotism. Though tion as an aspect of the past. Although they Building of Fort Victoria; The Hudson’s Bay the Native Sons was not swept aside by these would seek to collect evidence of this Abo Fur Brigade passing Lake Okanagan; and events, it was very much changed by them. riginal past, it was only for use as a scale Capt. George Vancouver meeting the Span Following reorganisation in 1922, the Na against which the province’s progress could iards Galiano and Valdez, off Point Grey. tive Sons, now with Vancouver’s Post No. 2 be measured. Though all of these paintings reflect the Na-

32 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 tive Sons view of British Columbia, the de 4. Victoria Daily Colonist, March 9, 1899, p.2. 5. Victoria Daily Colonist, March 9, 1899, p. 2. piction of Alexander Mackenzie is most rel 6. Victoria Daily Colonist, March 23, 1899, p. 2. evant to this discussion as it is in this painting 7. Victoria Daily Colonist, August 6, 1899, p.6. 8. Native Sons of British Columbia, Constitution And By that the Aboriginal presence is most Laws Of The Native Sons Of British Columbia noticable. (Victoria: Greenwood, Smith & Randolf 1899), p. 3, While the Aboriginal presence might be British Columbia Archives and Records Service (hereafter BCARS). obvious in this painting, it is also notably 9. 98811-03 Native Sons, 29 B 6, Minutes of Grand Post and diminished. Mackenzie is the focus of this Executive Grand Post, 1907-1915, City of Victoria Archives and Records Division (hereafter VARD). image, with the Aboriginal participants serv According to membership numbers listed in these ing only as witnesses to his actions. They are minutes, it was nor until 1915 that the Vancouver and New Westminster posts had a combined membership shown below Mackenzie, looking up to him that exceeded the size of Victoria Post No. 1. as he records his arrival and seems to gesture 10. Personal communication, Elizabeth Vibert. Some possible towards a new future for the territory. Simi examples are: McNeill, Helmcken, Finlayson, McTavish, Tolmie, Ross, and Todd. Names from, Native Sons, Post larly, all of the paintings speak of the transi No. 1: List of Members, their Vocations and Business tion to and the development of British Addresses (Victoria, 1900), ECARS. 11. 98811-03 Native Sons, 29 C 4, VARD, contains six control of the territory that would become examples of this badge as well as a box of seals from Post British Columbia. The Aboriginal inclusion No.1. 12. Victoria Daily Colonist, August 15, 1902, p.2. The as witnesses to Mackenzie’s 1793 arrival is names of the three top finishers in this race are listed and all the more revealing when taken in associa suggest, on comparison with the 1900 membership list, tion with their absence from the painting of that outside of the already mentioned metis individuals the Native sons did not have Aboriginal members. the 1858 creation of the colony. In this view 13. Photographs courtesy of the BCARS. of history the Aboriginal presence, and its 14. Photograph H-2435, May 24, 1900, BCARS. 15. Photograph H-2431, May 24, 1900, BCARS. In 1808 Simon Fraserfollowed this river to the sea, subsequent absence, is a measure of the de 16. There are some examples of race being used as a defining thus proving that this was not the Columbia. These velopment of the colony that would ulti characteristic for the pioneers, but this is still not a clear reference to a distinctively British Columbian identity. three reproductions ofthe originalpaintings byJohn mately become the province of British One example of this can be found in: Ritual of the Innes which were commissioned by the Native Sons, Columbia. Native Sons of British Columbia (Revised 1914), p.19, Post No.2, are available inpostcardform sold by the The Native Sons’ struggles with defining 98811-03 Native Sons, 29 C 4, VARD. Native Daughters ofB. C. 17. 98811-03 Native Sons, 29 B 6, Minutes of Grand Post Courtesy Native Daughters of B.C. themselves reveal a number of aspects of the and Executive Grand Post, July 25, 1911, VARD. development of British Columbia. Most ob 18. Ritual of the Native Sons of British Columbia (no date), p.7, 98811-03 Native Sons, 29 C 4, VARD. Though vious is the transition of influence from Vic undated, the content of this ritual can only suggest that 98811-03 Native Sons, 29 B 7, Grand Post Historian’s toria to the mainland and ultimately to it represents an early stage of its development. Reports and Notes, VARD. 19. Ritual of the Native Sons of British Columbia (Revised 31. 98811-03 Native Sons, 29 B 6, Minutes of Grand Post Vancouver. Also revealed, and possibly relat 1914), p.l2, 98811-03 Native Sons, 29 C 4, VARD. and Executive Grand Post, May 7-8, 1926, VARD. ing to issues ofsecurity, is the growing vision 20. Ritual of the Native Sons of British Columbia (Revised 32. This quote is taken from a newspaper article in the of British Columbia as a distinctive entity 1914), p.13. 98811-03 Native Sons, 29 C 4, VARD. BCARS vertical files. It is incorrectly labelled as being 21. Ritual of the Native Sons of British Columbia (Revised from the June 17, 1923 Vancouver Province. However, At the turn ofthe century the province looked 1914), p. 20, 98811-03 Native Sons, 29 C 4, VARD. its content does place it in the general period of the mid to the Empire for its definition and prob 22. Ritual of the Native Sons of British Columbia (Revised 1920s. 1914), p.20. 98811-03 Native Sons, 29 C 4, yARD. 33. 98811-03 Native Sons, 29 B 7, Grand Post Historian’s ably for reassurance. British Columbia was 23. 98811-03 Native Sons, 29 B 6, Minutes of Grand Post Reports and Notes, May 7 and 8, 1926, VARD. still on the frontier of’civilisation’, only able and Executive Grand Post, July 27, 1915, VARD. 34. Native Sons of British Columbia, Progress of British 24. Andrew Lattas, “Primitivism, Nationalism, and Columbia; Lumbering, Agriculture, Mining, Fishing, to claim clear authority through the support Individualism in Australian Popular Culture,” Power, Shipping and Transportation, (Vancouver: Post No. 2 of the Empire. Steadily, and most notably on Knowledge and Aborigines: Special edition ofJournal Native Sons of British Columbia, 1928), p.49. the mainland, this dependence was replaced of Australian Studies, (Bundoora: La Trobe University Press, 1992), p.45. BIBLIOGRAPHY by a confidence that was openly displayed 25. Keith Sinclair, A Destiny Apart New Zealand’s Search Secondary Sources: following the First World War. As the appar For National Identity, (London: Allen & Unwin Ltd., Bain Attwood and John Arnold, Power Knowledge and 1986), p. 45. Aborigines: Special edition ofJournal of Australian ent focus of this confidence, Vancouver took 26. Keith Sinclair, A Destiny Apart; New Zealand’s Search Studies. Bundoora: La Trobe University Press, 1992. over the role of defining the province and For National Identity, (London: Allen & Unwin Ltd., Sinclair, Keith. A Destiny Apart: New Zealand’s Search For 1986), p. 45. National Identity. London: Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1986. determining its future identity Meanwhile, 27. 98811-03 Native Sons, 29 B 6, Minutes of Grand Post Primary Sources: the image of the Aboriginal inhabitants of and Executive Grand Post, May 7-8, 1926, VARD. By Native Sons of British Columbia collection. 98811-03 Native the province was increasingly marginalized. this date, B.A. Mckelvie of Post No.2 was complaining Sons. VARD. that Post No. 1 would not even respond to Native Sons Native Sons of British Columbia. Progress of British The Aboriginal identity became the past, correspondence. Columbia Lumbering Agriculture, Mining, Fishing, surpassed and consumed by the identity of 28. The Native Sons of British Columbia: Bruce A. Mckelvie’s Shipping, and Transportation. Vancouver: Post No. 2 Comments on the History of the Native Sons, 98811-03 Native Sons of British Columbia, 1928. BCARS. the new ‘natives’ of British Columbia. Native Sons, 29 B 7, Grand Post Historian’s Reports and Native Sons of British Columbia, Post No. 1: List of Bio Note: The author was a student at the Uni Notes, no date, VARD. Members, their Vocations and Business Addresses. versity of Victoria where be prepared this essay 29. The Grand Post accepted the new emblem on May 12, Victoria:, 1900. BCARS. 1922. Hand written notes, 98811-03 Native Sons, Native Sons of British Columbia. Constitution And By for instructorJohn Lutz. 29 B 7, Grand Post Historian’s Reports and Notes, no date, Laws Of The Native Sons Of British Columbia. Victoria: FOOThOTES yARD. Description of the emblem in Ritual of the Greenwood, Smith & Randolf 1899. BCARS. 1. Victoria Daily Colonist, March 9, 1899, p.2. Native Sons of British Columbia (Revised 1947), p. 6, Vancouver. Daily Province. Various dates. 2. Victoria Daily Colonist, March 9, 1899, p.2. 98811-03 Native Sons, 29 C 4, VAP.D. Victoria. Daily Colonist. Various dates. 3. Bain Arswood and John Arnold, Power, Knowledge and 30. It is not possible to go into every example, but the Grand Aborigineu Special edition ofJournal ofAustralian Post Historian’s Reports list a number of purchases of Studies, (Bundoora LaTrobe University Press, 1992), p. iii. artif’scts and donations to the Vancouver Museum.

33 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96

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& NOTES NEWS BOOKSH ELF Books for review and book reviews should be sent directly to the Book Review Editor: Anne Yandle, 3450 West 20th Avenue, Vancouver, B.C. V6S 1 E4

The Queen’s Law is Better than Yours: promises and bigotry of politicians, including public. Governor Seymour organized two par International Homicide in Early British Indian Affairs Commissioners. What is glossed ties of militia and volunteers who bungled their Columbia: over here is that pre-colonial native society was way into unknown territory and were fortunate By Hamar Foster; in Crime and Criminal Jus violent; brute force and survival of the fittest enough to have eight Chilcotin natives turn tice; Essays in the History of Canadian Law; prevailed. themselves in to one of the parties under mis ed. Jim Phillips, Tina Loo and Susan One has only to read of the murderous raids apprehension of holding a conference with Lewthwaite. Toronto, University of Toronto which the Yucultas made on the peaceful Stolo Governor Seymour and not being arrested. Press, 1994. $70 cloth; $45 paper. of the Fraser Valley to realize how unreal is the Certainly Judge Begbie was troubled by the The clash of native and European cultures is myth of homogeneous, peaceful co-habiting of circumstances of the natives’ “surrender”, so dramatically portrayed by Professor Foster in native tribes in the pre-colonial era. Native much so that he interviewed their leader this brief exposition of homicides in the fur trad women as well were physically abused in a Klatsassin in jail after the trial, and was much ing and colonial era. The essay examines a manner often permitted by tribal custom. troubled. number of prosecutions from each era and The European invaders brought many evils The essay is most effective in revealing how notes the tribal law relative to murder and the to the natives and perpetrated many wrongs. European British Columbians viewed them justification for same. An interesting compari But the advent of the rule of law, in the form of selves not only in relation to native justice, but son is made between the fur trader’s ‘justice’ in the Queen’s Writ in British Columbia, with all in comparison to American tactics and meth killing one or more members of the family of a of its early imperfections of administration was ods. The crassness and more blood-thirsty na suspected native murderer, and native law ap surely welcomed by most natives and not just ture of American volunteers serving in one of proving of similar actions. In the pre-colonial some, as the author suggests. Governor Seymour’s militia parties made the era, the author suggests that the fur traders may Professor Hamar concedes in fact that na British establishment determined to emphasize themselves have been influenced by tribal cus tives were frequently eager to hunt down a flee treatment of the accused according to the strict toms of retribution. ing murderer and bring him to justice. The new rule of law, and to avoid unnecessary blood One key theme of the essay involves the ty rule of law I suggest was widely accepted by shed so characteristic of the American west. ing of many acts of native violence to the Eu natives, even by the crude, gun-happy Ameri Ms. Loo writes, “Meting out justice according ropean’s encroachment upon native territory. can gold miners in 1858: murder and violence to the law was thus what separated British The Bute Inlet Massacre of 1864 was viewed were not to be tolerated in the new colony and Columbians from Americans, and a failure to by the natives under Klatsassin as an act of war the specific offender would, subject to mitigat do so would surely mark the beginnings of to prevent completion of a road over native ing circumstances and a trial, invariably pay fbr ‘Califomization’ and a descent into savagery.” lands and as retribution for other grievances. his deed. The author concludes that with the hanging When the perpetrators of the massacre are cap In summary, this is an important, well writ of five Chilcotin ringleaders, British Columbians tured and tried, Judge Begbie, with some re ten essay in analysing both the application of felt smugly content that they had dispensed Brit gret, orders five natives hanged, stating that the criminal law in pre and post colonial British ish justice as opposed to the ‘savage’ treatment .the blood of twenty-one whites calls for ret Columbia and the effects of same on native Americans would have dealt the Chilcotin peo ribution.” and colonial social relationships. Fairness and ple. Thus the European establishment estab

The essay further chronicles the disadvan balance in the essay could have been enhanced lished its identity - rational, God-fearing, and tages which a native faced under the colonial by a frank expose of the lack of uniformity be fair, even when dealing with the lowly savage. court process - seldom represented by a law tween native tribal legal systems, the uncertain The one weakness of this essay is the pointed yer, often unable to understand the testimony ties which that created when natives of different innuendo throughout that the hanging of the against him, and given virtually no time to pre tribes encountered one another, and the de five Chilcotins was both unfair and reflective of pare a defence in advance by arranging to call gree of violence permeating native culture in typical “British justice toward natives”. The au witnesses for his defence. Yet it is conceded that pre-colonial society. thor writes, “The Chilcotin’s otherness, it Judge Begbie, unlike his counterpart on Van John A. Cherrington seemed, prevailed; the need for terror out couver Island, did many times show compas John Chemngton, a Langley lawyer weighed the need for British justice”. Yet she sion and fairness in dealing with native is the author of fails to delineate how justice here miscarried. It defendants. The Fraser Valley; A History, 1992. is true that one of the five accused was only The author quite rightly asserts that natives found guilty of attempted murder and for such were, after 1858, far more concerned with their a capital offence, Judge Begbie in fact had a loss of hunting, fishing and territorial rights than The Roadfrom Bute Island: Crime and Co personal habit of recording the death sentence the imposition of the Queen’s Law. Native an lonial Identity in British Columbia in his Assize Book, but not pronouncing death, ger over injustice colouring murder trials of tribal By Tina Loo; in Crime and Criminal Justice: thus allowing for life imprisonment. But other members was linked moreover to the handi Essays in the History of Canadian Law... judges could and did pronounce the death sen caps of the native defendant in the dock - not 1994. tence for attempted murder. least of which was the frequent tendency of a This essay examines the background to the As for twinges of conscience, Begbie felt badly native enemy falsely testifying against him. This most famous colonial era clash between Euro that Cox had entrapped Kiatsassin and his men sense of injustice is exacerbated against the peans and natives. The European settlers are into giving themselves up and making confes backdrop of steadily encroaching European set portrayed as viewing natives as ‘savages’ lack sion. However, the law barring confessions in tlement. ing an appreciation of the individualistic ideals duced by false promises from evidence was not In general though one may question the em of Victorian liberalism and Darwinian theory, well developed. As legal author David Williams phasis which the author places in his conclu justifying colonialism and paternalism. commented on this point in A Man for a New sion to a sense of betrayal by natives regarding When twenty-one road builders penetrating Country, “...in the 19th century, in spite of the the criminal justice system in terms of the na Chilcotin ‘wilderness’ from Bute Inlet are mas existence of the exclusionary rule, the courts tives loss of ‘wealth and power’. Natives in some sacred in 1864, howls of outrage for retribu did not so often apply it to the protection of parts of the province indeed feel a sense of tion emerged from Victoria and New accused persons; Begbie, in ruling that the evi betrayal - but surely more in relation to the false Westminster newspapers, politicians, and the dence could be heard by the juries, perhaps

35 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 BOOKSHELF correctly as the law then stood, experienced The Place Between. Aldergrove & Commu ness of their day to day living. nonetheless twinges of conscience.” nities. Alder Grove Heritage Society, 1993. The collection begins with notes on a few What the author fails to disclose is the fact 640 p., illus., maps. $55. non-Europeans. The local Indians, the Sto:lo that Begbie only convicted and pronounced The Place Between is a difficult book to read of Matsqui, appear in a column or two, but the death penalty after he was convinced by because, like many other local histories, it has soon disappear with hardly a trace, even though evidence other than the confessions as to the no real focus. Even the title is vague, though there must have been more intermarriages than guilt of the accused. Ironically, the principal the foreword suggests it means “the highlands those of Moses Graff, Henry West and William Crown witnesses were native - not whites. placed between two large prairies, both prone Veanen. The Chinese get little space; in com Begbie in fact would have been enraged by to flooding (of the Fraser River) during the early parison, the Japanese are handsomely treated Cox’s conduct in entrapping KIat to surrender years.” But still no specific mention of one of both here and in the family stories later. The and confess because he had made a life-long the communities on this higher ground. A bet item on the East Indians mentions the career of instilling in natives a sense of British ter title might have been “Aldergrove: The Place Komagata Maru and, later, that Jiwan Singh justice and fair play. Contrary to the author’s Between, 1860-1939”. Or whichever commu Gill, a Punjab man, jumped from that ship in innuendoes, Begbie was remarkably lenient to nity the reader deems most important. But why Hong Kong and made his way back to the wards accused - and particularly natives. In Aldergrove in some places and Alder Grove in Fraser Valley where he became a hero in the 1859, Begbie repeatedly dismissed charges others? Sikh community. against natives accused of murdering Ameri The overall organisation also creates prob The bulk of the book is taken up by the Fam can miners, stating that only “hard evidence” lems. It presents details first and then generali ily Stories of “European” settlers. They came would suffice. In 1860 at Hope a white miner ties, a direction opposite to the one readers from Canada’s eastern provinces and from the savagely assaulted a native. Begbie convicted usually go. After an eight-page collection of northern United States, from England, Ireland the miner on the evidence of native witnesses politicians’ letters and of pictures of the people and Wales, from Finland and Denmark, from alone. The miners raised such an outcry they who worked on the book, it jumps into a few Norway and Sweden, from France and Be! sent a delegation to Douglas in Victoria to com pages on non-Europeans and then into 388 gium and Switzerland, from Romania and plain about ‘mere native’ testimony. Douglas pages of “Family Stories” — A to Z with the Galicia, from Russia, the Ukraine, and Siberia, sent the miners packing. exception of Q, X and Y — most written by from Hungary and Italy and Jugoslavia. Mrs. Perhaps the most astounding example of descendants of the settlers, and then presents Moses John Jackson came from India; Laura Begbie’s compassion towards natives involved 360 pages of little essays on some aspects of Jane Goldsmith had been born in Ceylon. An the Metlakatla affair. In 1872, four natives from the nineteen different communities in the dis ancestor of John Jackman, the Book Commit Metlakatla pleaded guilty to the attempted mur trict, many with maps, but unfortunately not tee Chairman, came around the Horn from der of k)ur white men (who in fact died when all. These little essays are so short and diverse, England in 1859, a Sapper in the Royal Engi their canoes were overturned). Begbie, instead so undeveloped and unrelated one to another neers. Around the Horn, too, came the first of ordering death or life imprisonment, com that they give no sense of there being a ‘com mules to the district, brought in 1868 by Mat mitted the natives to the charge of Rev. William munity” to encase in this one volume. thew Archibald from Truro, Nova Scotia. Duncan at Metlakatla for five years. Another Because of this organisation, one reads about Knight Johnson and Joe Valente came together native, Qtl-Noh, convicted that same day of a family settling in Aberdeen or in Sperling but and thinking they were in Canada settled side murdering a fellow native whom he thought reads without really knowing where Aberdeen by side in the southern part of the district, but was an evil medicine man who had had sexual and Sperling are, and without knowing until when governments drew the boundary line relations with his wife, was similarly committed the end of the book why the places came into Valente lived in the U.S. and Johnson in a hol to Duncan’s care. Begbie’s words to the con being in the first place and why — but not al low tree in Canada. victed natives would be remarkably unique ways—they were so named. Readers also pick They came mainly to grub their fortunes out even in a late 20th century courtroom: up details at random. They learn on page 87, of that new land. As often happened on the “There is a rock at Metlakafla and a rock at in Family Stories, that Fenwick Fatkin planted frontier, relatives from elsewhere, from “home”, Victoria, upon which your canoe will split. You a half acre of bulbs in 1914, but do not learn later joined a settled family; after World War I have been sailing in an old broken canoe. When until page 497 that in 1928 he began the the Soldiers’ Settlement Board encouraged vet a canoe is old and broken, men take a new Bradner Flower Show which “put Bradner on erans to move to the district. Butchers, bak canoe if it is offered to them freely. There is a the map”. Evidence of a need for strong edit ers, candlestick makers; doctors, lawyers, Indian new canoe at Metlakatla, and a new and much ing occurs elsewhere throughout the book: on chiefs; rich men and poor men, but apparently better way of life.” page 3 we learn that “In 1885 another large not one thief. After all, family members writing Bench Books, Volume VIII, July 6, 1872 number of Chinese came to B.C. for the con the stories probably could not admit to any At Bute Inlet, the facts were different. What struction of the Canadian National and Cana thing untoward in their backgrounds. In The ever their legitimate grievances, Klatsassin and dian Pacific Railways” — interesting because Place Between there were no villains; only others had pre-meditated the murder of 21 ci the CN had not yet even been thought of — heroes. Nor was there any racial conflict or vilians who had no history of hostile acts to and that “Moving east along the Yale Road were religious nastiness. All was love and tolerance. wards the Chilcotin. Every society has a right two Japanese families , a statement that They came also to work on the river, in log to protect itself, and deterrence continues to gives no idea of where we or they are moving ging, in sawmills, to fish on the river, to con be an important factor in our law. I suggest that east from. struct telegraph lines, to open small stores, to the native law prevalent among the Chilcotin The book may, however, be seen as a mini- act as peddlers of small goods and groceries, and other First Nations of the colony would archives, as a gathering together of unrelated to supply services, to develop the transporta have supported the convicting and punishment manuscripts of concern to families and tion system on river, rail, and road, to pave of the ringleaders. The tarnishing feature which communities in the area, but one leaving read those roads when built, naming some of them coloured the episode was Cox’s false induce ers themselves to give the collection a unity. after the settlers themselves. They came to de ments - not the ultimate fairness of result. Accepted in this way, the book can give great velop the hop industry and the flower beds, John A. Cherrington pleasure to those interested in the variety of the bulb farms. Jesse Throssell “became fa John A. Chemngton is a Langley lawyer. peoples who came and where they worked and mous, but not rich” by winning prizes with his how they lived, about education and about trag turkeys, one prize a forty-year subscription to edy, and about how they escaped the same- a magazine, another a year’s supply of fig bars.

36 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 BOOKSH ELF Because of the dangers inherent in their ing of second-generation young people from only be described as smirks. The time is Au work, these people seem to have become ac the many different backgrounds, meetings gust, 1945, the place, London, England. To customed to dealing with constant tragedy of which could lead to marriage. Caesar Anderlini day is Arnold and Irene’s Golden Anniversary. one kind or another. Even settlers on higher of Italian background met and married Louisa We have seen many delightful wedding pho ground faced both fire and flood, floods from Swanson born in Manitoba of Swedish-Eng tos in 1995. Sometimes the bride is in uniform. raging rivers and creeks, and fire because of lish parents. Few wear gowns as elaborate as Irene’s, which the woodbuming stoves in their tarpaper shacks All such gleanings are interesting, but they probably was not bought off the rack, but could or little log huts far from neighbours and stores, require meticulous organising to create an over have been borrowed, inherited, made with love and because the spark-emitting smudges cre all historical view. Curious readers go to such from whatever was at hand, or searched out ated fires that could not be fought with the lim books to find answers to their questions, but through lucky contacts on the black market. ited water in the wells. These people witnessed here too often readers cannot even find an The couples do not always smirk, but appear others’ tragedies too: criminals working on the swers to the many questions which rise natu unanimously and understandably pleased with cIain gang; the unemployed in Relief Camp rally from the text. Why was the name Glen themselves. 207 at Patricia; one man being kicked in the Valley chosen over others? Why did the change More than 48,000 war brides came to head by a horse, another crushed by a rolling come in the pattern of hereditary chiefs? Why Canada during and after World War II. They log. In 1931, when the heat-dried wooden- did the Anderlinis give the backseat of their were “teachers, barmaids,... chorus girls, fresh spoked wheel of a car collapsed and caused Hudson over to their goat when they went vis cheeked young women and plump matrons, a the car to roll, a woman’s young son, also a iting friends? pot-pourri of Britain’s daughters.” During the passenger, saw the broken glass cut his moth A couple of articles illustrate some useful tech war they became “ambulance drivers, balloon er’s jugular vein; two weeks later the family niques when using this family-story format to barrage workers, nurses, fire fighters, air-raid house burned because of an air-tight heater. write the history of an area. Frank Erickson wardens, factory workers and members of the When the riverboat Ramona exploded two came to Vancouver from Finland to farm in armed forces, including the ATS (Auxiliary Ter women drowned, one of them widowed ear 1913 and in 1921, afterworkingasaloggerup ritorial Service), Land Army (farm work) and lier when a mine explosion killed her husband; the coast in order to make some money, he Air Force.” she left a six-year old daughter to be taken in bought a stump ranch at Aldergrove and then At the invitation of the Vancouver Island War by generous neighbours. Some 342 pages later married Bertha Sjoholm from Sweden whom Brides, the editors met thirty-six war brides, and readers learn that the explosion occurred at he had met in Vancouver. They first raised tape-recorded their reminiscences. The result West’s Landing and that four, not two, had died. chickens and, after removing the stumps, added ing book gives us the coming-of-age stories of

Not all the collection is, however, about work dairy cattle. Of their three daughters, one be girls living through the basic wartime atrocity - and tragedy. A careful gleaning reveals much came a secretary and two became schoolteach the total disruption of the daily lives of ordinary about the provincial educational system and ers. For this book one of the teachers, Ruth, people. Amidst the bombs, they got on with reminds us of Pro-Rec, that early idea of public wrote about the family, and about the early things, worked, danced and fell in love. After fitness. And about those school Christmas con Scandinavians in the Aldergrove area. They the weddings, they endured long separations, certs which fostered both creativity and com were the largest minority group, and her article bureaucratic hassles, and interminable journeys petition, but also pleasure and pride. After points out their stress on education, on com by boat and train, to be met by husbands un weeks of students’ practice, just a few days be munity life and responsibility, and their build recognizable in civilian clothes. The pockets of fore the big day, fire destroyed a school and ing Vasa Hall to help promote their beliefs and the civilian suits were often sadly empty. Most, forced the cancellation of the concert. Most of their joyful Scandinavian traditions. though not all, of these marriages survived. these students walked a fair distance to school These passages are probably the best in the Unfortunately, the editors have chosen to every day, but went willingly because of their book, and are the best because they are or record, transcribe and print these oral histories teachers, those dedicated enthusiasts who ganised: they have a beginning, a middle, and with no framework other than the briefest of brought new ideas to the community every an end; they tell us immediately who and why prologues and epilogues, no connecting links, year. At a time when young women had few and what and where and how and when. They and no attempt to weave the separate and una opportunities, those who could follow their leave no loose ends. And instead of forcing a voidably disjointed transcriptions into a narra models often did so and became teachers, or reader to guess the answers to rapidly forming tive. Five brides presented their stories as secretaries, or nurses in order to escape the questions, they answer the questions before the written, rather than oral, histories. These more frontier hardships of the place between hell and reader has really had time to ask them. crafted sections, especially the last, by Rose high water, the one between a rock and a hard Gordon Elliott, Professor Emeritus, mary Bauchman, give us a taste of the book place. Simon Fraser University is the author of this might have been. And there was music — for weddings and Quesnel ‘s Commercial Centre of the Members of thirty-six families will buy this funerals and parades, and for any other cel Cariboo Gold Rush, 1958. book and read the one chapter most meaning ebration marking a special occasion. Local ful to them. If the editors truly believe, as they players grouped themselves into dance bands, claim, “in the importance of recording and pub some of them extremely good; one picture Blackouts to Bright Lights; Canadian War lishing women’s life stories”, they will shape the shows Helena Gutteridge playing a mandolin. Bride Stories: wonderful material which they have collected One band in particular became popular Barbara Ladouceur and Phyllis Spence, eds, into a coherent whole to be read by the rest of throughout the valley and in Vancouver: Curley Vancouver: Ronsdale Press, 1995. 299 p. illus. us. Our war brides deserve no less. Chittenden and his Harmony Pals; he is also $16.95. Phyllis Reeve. credited with having originated the idea of the This morning’s newspaper cheers us with a Phyllis Reeve lives on Gabriola Island, Abbotsford Air Show. Every Saturday night fifty-year-old wedding photo of Arnold and where the beautiful new Gabriola Museum somewhere there was a dance which allowed frene. Arnold wears a Canadian army uniform, and Art Gallery opened on September 16th. the young and old to meet and mix, and in an not particularly well fitting but brightened with area where raising chickens was a major source a large boutonniere. Irene wears white, with of revenue, one great site for a dance would be many flounces and an elaborate headdress, and a newly erected chicken house before it had carries roses enhanced with trails of maiden been fouled. Dances also promoted the mix- hair fern. The faces of both wear what can

37 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 BOOKSHELF Becoming Canadians: Pioneer Sikhs in countered, many individuals were not deterred have been for the author to include a chrono Their Own Words: from becoming successful business men and logical chart describing all of the significant Sarjeet Singh Jagpal, Harbour Publishing, Ma community leaders, such as the lumber bar events affecting the Sikh people in British Co deira Park & Vancouver, British Columbia, ons Mayo Singh and Kapoor Singh. lumbia. 1994, pp.167 Hard cover. $29.95 While racist attitudes towards all Asiatic peo Becoming Canadians, despite the minor Becoming Canadians, is a superbly illus ples were prolific in BC during the first half of flaws, was well written using a great combina trated book that succinctly describes the social the twentieth century, there were a few philan tion of quotes from the Sikh elders. Incredible history of the Sikh population in Canada, fo thropists, such as Carlton Stone, owner of the photographs accompanied these oral accounts cusing on their struggles, hardships, and perse Hill Crest Mill near Duncan, who assisted the of events providing much colour, zeal and life verance to live in British Columbia. The author, Sikh work force at his mill. He allowed and as to a history about a people. Sarjeet says that Sarjeet Singh Jagpal, outlines the history com sisted them in building a gurdwara that made “There is no substitute for the living history that mencing with the first immigrants arriving in their life in the new land more hospitable. only our elders can offer us.” This is a must British Columbia in 1904 and ending with peo Regardless of the restrictions imposed upon read for interested people who are unfamiliar ples’ recollections and photographs of the late them, with examples such as the educated Sikhs with the Sikh history in Canada. It was very 1940s and early 1950s, but he leaves his last not being allowed to enter professional fields enlightening. Sarjeet’s book provides the voice chapter, The Challenge Continues, with many early on and then not being allowed to vote of the history of the Sikh communities in unanswered questions that both Canadians and until 1947, the valiant Sikh communities of Canada, one illustrious chapter in Canada’s Sikhs must try to solve together. Sarjeet be Canada have made major contributions to all multicultural album. lieves that the answers to these questions par sectors of society as a result of their strong be Werner Kaschel tially lie with the elders of our communities. lief in educating their young people, working Werner Kaschel is a Vancouver School Jean Barman mentions in a foreword to the hard, and assisting each other in times of need. Teacher. book that Sarjeet’s determination was displayed In 1947 the Sikhs, after many meetings and in his “willingness to listen and his passion to petitions with government officials, were understand that opened up the Sikh commu granted the franchise, giving them a voice within Shaping Spokane: Jay P Graves and His nity to him” which allowed Saijeet to success Canadian society. They were no longer sec Times: fully develop and write this splendid book. The ond class citizens. However, another obstacle John Fahey. Seattle, University of Washing author spent several years interviewing Sikh for them to overcome was the strict immigra ton Press, 1995. 144 p. illus. $25 (US) pioneers and gathering photographs and docu tion laws that had improved gradually from North-South links between the Boundary ments that delineated their experiences when 1947 to 1962, when the quota system was Kootenay regions of Southeastern British Co travelling to Canada and their working, and liv completely dropped. lumbia and the Inland Empire were particularly ing conditions in British Columbia. Some short comings of the book included a strong around the turn of the century. In fact, From the time the first Sikh immigrants number of inconsistencies between pictures and a great deal of the economic wealth of Spokane, landed in British Columbia between 1904-08 text. For example on page 18, a caption to a Washington’s entrepreneurs was generated the mores for their survival in this country and picture described Sikh soldiers visiting Vancou north of the border. for them becoming Canadians were established ver in 1897 en route to London and in the text Jay P Graves (1860-1948) was one of these upon hard work and the social cohesiveness of on the same page Sarjeet says the soldiers were successful businessmen. He was a real estate their population, the Khalsa or brotherhood, “travelling through Canada after” the celebra broker, land developer, owner of the urban trol The key to this idealism lay in their commit tion in London. Another concern that I had ley system and builder of a suburban railway. ment to their religion centering around the was the date and the turning point that gave These Spokane activities were made possible gurdwara, their temple. The new immigrants the Sikhs the right to vote. On page 136 he by his investments in Granby Consolidated Min experienced many obstacles in this new land uses quotes from one of his informants who ing, Smelting and Power Company Ltd. at which included new cultures, laws, and lan recollected the time in 1947 when a number Grand Forks (at one time the largest copper guage. The gurdwara assisted them in these of Sikh business men and leaders attended a smelter in the British Empire) and the massive times. Similar to the Chinese Benevolent soci meeting in Harrison Hot Springs and were copper mines at Phoenix. Two chapters, eties in BC, the gurdwara provided spiritual given the right to vote in municipal elections. “Boundary” (Chapter 1) and “Granby” (Chap salvation, housing, employment, health and Eight pages later, the author describes a brief ter 5) detail Graves’ skillful exploitation of Ca welfare to the new immigrants and those who that was presented to the federal Elections Act nadian patriotism to entice bankers and needed assistance. Committee in 1946 by Dr. Pandia that was seen railwaymen to support his British Columbia

There was little time for socializing. The men as the impetus for the Sikhs receiving the mu ventures - the consummate American capital spent their time working, saving money, com nicipal franchise in 1947. I assume that it was a ist municating with family members in India and combination of events and individual efforts that This short book includes 48 historic photo sending money home to assist with social prob eventually led to the Sikhs receiving the right graphs. It is well documented with a compre lems. It was not until the 1920s and 1930s that to vote in 1947, but which event was the turn hensive bibliography. family reunification and community building ing point is not clear in the book Sarjeet should Ron Welwood occurred with the arrival of the wives and chil have provided more reasons for the intrinsic Ron Welwood is Vice-President of the dren. Prior to their joining of unions and affilia and extrinsic factors leading to the immigration B.C.H.E tions with political parties, the men experienced from the province of Punjab to Canada. When racism and poor wages, and working condi describing a social history of an ethnic group it tions. From their commitment and dedication would have been beneficial to have a map The Accidental Airline; Spilsbury s QCA: to their religion and life style they were able to outlining the route that the pioneer people took Howard White and Jim Spilsbury. Madeira establish a number of robust communities near and/or charts delineating the regions of Punjab Park, Harbour Pub. 1994. 246 p. illus. paper. lumber mills on Vancouver Island such as Paldi, and the number of immigrants that came from $16.95 and around Vancouver and New Westminster each area. Additional charts in an appendix Ostensibly a joint authorship, this autobio as well as the fruit orchards and vegetable farms could have provided some statistics of Sikh graphical account of Jim Spilsbury was first of the interior. Despite the many obstacles and immigration, people born, and occupations in published in 1988. Now this paperback edi deep racial animosity that these immigrants en- Canada. Another personal preference would tion is a welcome reminder of the part played

38 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995196 BOOKSH ELF by Queen Charlotte Airlines in opening up the him from indulging in sharp practice when nec tine way of transport across Canada. After the BC Coast and interior in the immediate post essary or from bending, at least, the rules when coming of the railroad, however, this wilder second world war days, as well as of its place it seemed sensible to do so. ness “highway” was very quickly almost com in the history of Canadian Air Transport. Along with success and growth came the fair pletely forgotten. What its customers affectionately called a proportion of bad luck, and crashes. On at least In Canada’s Forgotten Highway, Ralph Queer Collection of Aircraft was started, as the one occasion deaths were caused by over zeal Brine describes the 1967 “Eastward Ho” Ex title implies, quite by accident by Spilsbury who, ousness in making a mercy flight in unsuitable pedition, in which he and three companions in with his partner Hepburn, had in the ‘30’s pio conditions. Never much of a pilot himself, he a big voyageur canoe retraced the entire length neered a radio business serving fish boats and had to rely on others and found this difficult. of the old waterway. plants, and logging camps, all up the Straits of Half way through the book Spilsbury’s real The gruelling details of this crossing of the Georgia and on Vancouver Island. It grew so bete-noire appears. Added to the problems of continent are at times almost incredible. The much that their service, using an old boat, was officialdom, his competition and suspect lob expedition’s first real test was the struggle up inadequate and too slow. Eventually Spilsbury bying methods now made QCA’ s task much stream through the rapids of the Fraser Can had the idea of supplementing it by aircraft. harder. However the narrative now protests yon. Even more daunting was hand towing of It was 1943, the worst time of the war, and rather too much about the unfair influence of the heavy canoe over snow-choked passes in he knew nothing about the air. Somehow he these outside factors. In retrospect, for the book the Rockies, about which one expedition mem managed to obtain an aircraft from the East, was written many years later when Spilsbury ber groaned: “Now I know how the Egyptian get it to Vancouver and persuade Ottawa his was over 80, the injustices may well have be slaves felt, pulling those two-ton blocks to the contracts for coastal defence radios merited a come exaggerated in his mind, if understand pyramids.” After the ascent (and descent) of gas allocation. A pilot was hired and without ably so. In contrast, some other contemporary the Divide, the canoeists found themselves bat breaking too many rules the new venture views, as for instance those recorded in Pio tling ice on the North Saskatchewan River, started. neering Aviation In The West (Hancock We are reminded of a forgotten fact: such It soon made sense to use the Waco from House! Canadian Museum of Flight, BC), give challenges were daily realities during “routine” time to time also to carry people. At the end of a much less jaundiced view of Spilsbury’s pet crossings of Canada through much of the nine the war this caused the first of his serious hates. teenth century. brushes with authority. Even then close regu Whatever the correct balance, in 1955 QCA A bonus in Canada’s Forgotten Highway lation of air transport was recognised as essen found itself stronger than ever but nonetheless is the author!expeditioner’s neat technique of tial for the general safety. Scheduled routes with its best prospect being to sell out to the including a ‘fifth man’ on the voyage. During needed special permits - one only per route to now weaker company run by the hated rival. each leg of the crossing the extra man is the prevent cutthroat and unsafe competition. There is no doubt the latter then behaved historic explorer who originally surveyed that Meanwhile there were numerous enthusias abominably to Spilsbury and the QCA staff he part of the route. Thus we have Fraser, tic undercapitalised enterprises started. Many had taken over. Many people did not regret Thompson, La Verendrye and Champlain giv were to fail, the rest to be either absorbed by that he did not long survive, unlike Spilsbury ing their impressions, each of them speaking or to take over others. It took perhaps forty years who, with a reasonable capital sum from the through his own logbook or diary. The obser before it was all sorted out and today’s more proceeds, as well as later from his radio busi vations of these passengers, very smoothly in solid and ordered structure of the airline busi ness, has continued to live a fruitful life, sailing, tegrated into the present-day narrative, give us ness achieved. At the same time, as Spilsbury painting, writing (he has written two earlier a lot of the history of exploration in a painless found to his cost, the regional office of the De books) and travelling. nutshell. partment of Transport was at that time particu This book is important history of the 1940- Philip Teece larly renowned for its nitpicking application of 60 period. There is BC aviation itself and the Greater Victoria Public Library rules and lack of both business sense and hu way it opened up the Province, particularly the manity. coast However, despite what seems to have been Then there is the no-holds barred business Time & Tide: a History of Telegraph Cove: an especially unhappy relationship with the au climate of those wheeler-dealing times. If nei Pat Wastell Norris. (Raincoast Chronicles 16) thorities, QCA was an airline that grew and ther aspect of history appeals, read the book Madeira Park, Harbour Publishing, 1995 eventually prospered, overcoming on the way as a simple story of the good clean country boy $12.95 all the problems associated with growing from who grows and fights the big baddies and over Community histories are often mere patch- a one man seat-of-the-pants operation to a comes terrible odds to triumph in the end. works of unconnected anecdote. This one is properly organised air transport company of Jack Meadows different; it is the well planned, dramatically nar some size. At one time it was the fourth largest Jack Meadows is a 1937 vintage pilot, rated history of a British Columbia place that is airline in Canada. retired businessman, and aviation historian. unique and yet also typical of many early coastal In the process, partly through ignorance, settlements. partly through lack of ready cash, it flew a re The author is a daughter of the builder of markable variety of aeroplanes, many of them Canada’s Forgotten Highway: the original Telegraph Cove sawmill and ham quite unsuitable. QCA will always be particu Ralph Hunter Brine. Galiano, B.C. Whaler let, and granddaughter of the man who in 1909 larly remembered for the old Stranraer biplane Bay press, 1995. 260 p., maps. $27.95 named the remote northern Vancouver Island flying-boats it used to start up the Queen Char Whenever I travel across Canada I invari cove. lotte Islands and Prince Rupert service. It also ably find myself wondering how people crossed Of the isolated place where she grew up, the flew Norsemen, Dominies, Cansos, Ansons and this vastness (especially the impenetrable bar author says: “We were fifty men women and DC3’s, DC4’s, and C47’s and had flirtations rier of the western mountains) before the ad children cut off from the rest of humanity by along the way with Cessna Cranes and a vent of rail or road. forest and ocean.” It is because of the small Stinson. Yet it was done. In 1811 David Thompson ness of this community and its unique geo In those wheeler dealing days Spilsbury succeeded in his canoe expedition across North graphic self-containment that Pat Norris’ story seems to have tried to run a gentlemanly com America from Montreal to the Pacific. This jour has its pleasing unity of plot and character. pany and not stoop to the worst cut-throat prac ney established a 4300-mile water route that, When the economic crash of 1929 wiped tices of some competitors. This did not deter for about half a century, became an almost rou out dozens of coastal jobs through the demise

39 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 BOOKSHELF of the B.C. Fishing and Packing Company’s ditional) cabinet by the institutionalized (orstruc book solely by the delightful front cover paint plant at Alert Bay, the Wastell family built the hired) cabinet”. The main effect of this shift, he ing, Maple Bay, Vancouver Island, B.C., by the mill and village at Telegraph Cove. The story argues, was in the role of the premier which well-known British Columbia artist, E.J. of this tiny settlement’s struggle to survive moved “from that of mere personnel choice to Hughes. But this is not a book about life on the through the Depression is a tale of high adven that of organizational architect”. Seeing the pre British Columbia coast. Rather, it is a potpourri ture: the romance of early day lumbering and mier’s role as crucial and each premier as dif of scholarly writings loosely connected to the sawmihing, and the perilous endeavour of log- ferent in style, he goes on to analyze for three general theme of the history of primary and towing with underpowered tugs in the ferocious western provinces (Alberta would not co-op secondary education in British Columbia. tidal streams of the inside passage. erate!) the tenures of various premiers from the This anthology is very much a product of Perhaps the greatest strength of this fine his 1940’s to the 1980’s. the Social and Educational Studies Department tory is the author’s great skill at drawing her Anyone who knows anything about WA.C. in the Faculty of Education at the University of cast of characters. The isolation of the place Bennett’s 20-year rule from 1952 can easily British Columbia. The three anthology editors creates a stage on which the strong personali accept Dunn’s conclusion that Bennett’s was a and principal authors are all members of that ties of Fred and Emma Wastell and their neigh traditional cabinet with the premier in full con department and several of the other authors bours develop, as in a well crafted play. trol. It was also an “unaided” cabinet. For most are former graduate students. The anthology’s Some of Pat Norris’ memories of these peo of the period, Bennett was assisted by only two contents reflect their research interests in the ple and the tough era in which they lived are senior staff - the deputy Minister of Finance and history of childhood, classroom life from the per comical. Chong the camp cook emerges as a the deputy provincial Secretary - he had no spectives of pupils and teachers and the edu minor hero in his battle (hampered by a lim executive assistant. cational system which structured those ited command of the English language) to ob That David Barrett continued the Bennett experiences. tain supplies that meet his high standards. Fred system after 1972 is surprising, given the role Children, Teachers and Schools is a use Wastell’s own stoicism is illustrated best in a clas models of CCF/NDP governments in both Sas ful mix of original and reprinted theoretical sic struggle against the elements— his conflict katchewan and Manitoba. Dunn attributes this works and personal or anecdotal accounts. The with a crate of escaped frogs during a gale in lack of change to Barrett’s personality - he op anthology’s contents are of interest to scholars the Straits. People’s desperation in hard times erated on concensus unlike his predecessor. But and students of educational history, the history is poignantly illustrated in the tale of Blackie, the absolute unreadiness to govern of the in of childhood, social history, British Columbia whom the Telegraph Cove mill crew attempted coming NDP should also be noted - they had history, the professionalization of teaching, to dissuade from suicide. (In the end he shot not prepared themselves to be the administra women’s history, etc. Tim Stanley’s careful himself—but missed.) tion, and were in fact flabbergasted at their vic analysis “White supremacy and the rhetoric of The close of Telegraph Cove’s great pioneer tory. This unreadiness is perhaps the reason educational indoctrination: a Canadian case days typifies the end of a similar way of life in that it took most of “1000 days” and the push study” is an excellent example of an academic many isolated Vancouver Island settlements. It ing of Marc Eliasen, fresh from his cabinet sup investigation of the perpetuation of cultural was the influx of people and marine traffic dur port role with the Manitoba NDP, to begin to norms. In a similarly rigorous academic ap ing the 19394945 war that changed the com change. Nevertheless when the Barrett govern proach, Jean Barman’s article “Schooled for munity from a kind of outer space colony to ment was defeated at the end of 1975, pat inequality: the education of British Columbia’s the busy stopover visited by yachtsmen in the terns were still essentially those of the previous aboriginal children” explores the issue of the 1990s. Bennett era. residential school as an agent of social assimi Time & Tide is an excellent historical narra The creation of the current institutionalized lation. While recognizing that the articles in this tive. The challenge faced by the pioneers of cabinet in British Columbia was WR. “Bill” anthology have been written for an academic Telegraph Cove are those that confronted all Bennett who came to power without any pre audience, much of the material is also of inter early settlers on British Columbia’s remote vious experience in government and only a est to general readers. Particularly appealing in coastal fringes. short service in the legislature. Thus unham this category are the accounts of the everyday Philip Teece pered by precedent, he proceeded as (to quote lives of children and teachers. Neil Sutherland’s Greater Victoria Public Library Dunn again) the “organizational architect [of I compelling articles “Everyone seemed happy the structure and decision-making processes of in those days” and “I can’t recall when I didn’t The Institutionalized Cabinet: Governing cabinet” to bring the cabinet of British Colum help” come immediately to mind, as does the Western Provinces bia belatedly no line with those of the federal Thomas Fleming and Carolyn Smyly’s engag Christopher Dunn. The Institute of Public government and the other provinces. ing account of a teacher’s life at Mud Flats, “The

Administration of Canada, Kingston. McGill- So we are left with this paradox - in style of Diary of Mary Williams”. There is much more Queen’s University Press, 1995. 333 pages, governance, it was Dave Barrett, not Bill here. If you are curious about the history of $44.95. Bennett, who was “son of WA.C.” All those children, teachers and schools in British Co At first glance, this volume appears to be yet years facing Bennett senior across the floor lumbia, there will be something for you. another written by an academic for fellow made Barrett into something of a mirror image Linda Hale academics - or more accurately, written for ten of the older man. But, considering the relations Instructor, History, Latin and Political ure and promotion committees. On closer in between actual fathers and sons, it is maybe to Science Department, Langara College, spection, however, it has for students of British be expected that it would be Bill Bennett, rather Vancouver. Columbia political history a perspective on the than Dave Barrett, who would break the tradi regimes of WA.C. Bennett, David Barrett and tional cabinet model in British Columbia. WR. Bennett not available elsewhere. Keith Ralston Dunn’s argument is that, in common with Vancouver Historical Society other governments of Canada, the provincial cabinets of Western Canada underwent a trans Children, Teachers and Schools in the MO VING? British Columbia. formation that began in Saskatchewan in the History of Send your change of address to the late 1940’s but did not reach British Columbia Jean Barman, Neil Sutherland and J. Donald Subscription Secretary, M. Matovich in Calgary, Detselig Enterprises Ltd., until the accession of the younger Bennett Wilson, eds. 6985 Canada Way, “wit 1995. 425 illus. 1976. In Dunn’s words this transition p., $28.95. Burnaby, BC V5E 3R6 nessed the replacement of the unaided (or tra Initially, readers may well be drawn to this

40 B.C. Historical News - Winter 1995/96 THE BRITISH COLUMBIA HISTORICAL FEDERATION

HONORARY PATRON

His Honour, the Honorable Garde B. Gardom Q.C.

HONORARY PRESIDENT

J. Arthur Lower 4040 West 35th Avenue, Vancouver, B.C. V6N 2P3

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BC HISTORICAL FEDERATION WRITING COMPETITION

The British Columbia Historical Federation invites submissions of books for the thirteenth annual Corn petition for Writers of B.C. History. Any book presenting any facet of B.C. history, published in 1995, is eligible. This may be a community history, biography, record of a project or an organization, or personal recollections giving a glimpse of the past Names dates and places with relevant maps or pictures turn a story into history The judges are looking for quality presentations especially if fresh material is included with appropriate illustrations careful proofreading an adequate index table of contents and bibliography from first time writ ers as well as established authors. NOTE: Reprints or revisions of books are not eligible. The Lieutenant Governor’s Medal for Historical Writing will be awarded to an individual writer whose book contributes significantly to the recorded history of British Columbia. Other awards will be made as recommended by the judges to valuable books prepared by groups or individuals. All entries receive considerable publicity. Winners will receive a Certificate of Merit, a monetary award and an invitation to the BCHF annual conference to be held in Williams Lake in April 1996. SUBMISSION REQUIREMENTS: All books must have been published in 1995 and should be submit ted as soon as possible after publication. Two copies of each book should be submitted. Books entered be come property of the B.C. Historical Federation. Please state name, address and telephone number of sender, the selling price of all editions of the book, and the address from which it may be purchased, if the reader has to shop by mail. If by mail, please include shipping and handling costs if applicable. SEND TO: B.C. Historical Writing Competition do P. McGeachie 7953 Rosewood Street, Burnaby, B.C. V5E 2H4 DEADLINE: December 15, 1995. LATE ENTRIES: Three copies of each book must be submitted and must arrive before January 15, 1996. Please phone (604) 522-2062 to clarify shipping arrangements for late entries.

There is also an award for the Best Article published each year in the B.C. Historical News magazine. This is directed to amateur historians or students. Articles should be no more than 3,000 words, typed double spaced, accompanied by photographs if available, and substantiated with footnotes where applicable. (Pho tographs should be accompanied with information re: the source, permission to publish, archival number if applicable, and a brief caption. Photos will be returned to the writer.) Word-processed manuscripts may also be submitted on 3.5” disk (DOS or Macintosh) but please include a hard copy as well. Please send articles directly to: The Editor, B.C. Historical News, RO. Box 105,Wasa, B.C. VOB2K0