CEU eTD Collection In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Gender BEING A CONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTOR IN TURKEY: CHALLENGING INTURKEY: BEING ACONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTOR HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY IN A MILITARISTIC NATION-STATE INAMILITARISTIC MASCULINITY HEGEMONIC Supervisor: Assistant Professor Elissa Helms Elissa Professor Assistant Supervisor: Department of Gender Studies Central European University Budapest, Hungary Fatma OyaAktas Submitted to Studies 2009 By CEU eTD Collection Keywords: hegemonicmasculinity, conscription, militarism,conscientious objection, Turkey. discourse. militarist to istightly related hegemonic which masculinity, to a resistance modern concept. Iclaim conscientious that objection- refusal citizenshipthe of isobligation- create pacifists, rebels orconscientious objectors, which is directly related to conscription as a create militaries donot ormilitarization idealprocesses However, only they butalso citizens militarism. through masculinity hegemonic constructs it aresult As society. in the identity is in Conscription masculinity Turkish the Republic. by usedto construct state citizen the is obligatory male-citizensfor anditis service one of mostthe important components of hegemonicMilitary inparticular. objectors, conscientious and it challenging of way possible in Turkey, the role of conscriptionABSTRACT in this intersectionality, conscientious objection as a This thesis discusses the intersection between hegemonic masculinity and militarism and masculinity hegemonic between intersection the discusses thesis This i CEU eTD Collection gratitude andgratitude love. my them with to life.thesis dedicate and codes of I the books both the read me howto me toquestion authority,the being my modelsrole for struggle the we call life and teaching twelve years. She has been always there to support me life.andtwelve hasbeenalwaysthereto years.She share studies into fun. I also want to thank to I to thank to want also I fun. into studies friendship of Seda, Marija,Jane,Robinand other friendsCEU have all atthe my turned MA making place. theworld abetter for interviews. Ialsolike would tothank every in objector conscientious Turkey inand the world, ideas me. with Iam grateful to Halil forSavda his crucial support before and during the Deniz Özgür, Özgür, Deniz Erkan Ersöz, Ersan U Daniel forMonterescu his sincere help andcrucial hints. completemefurthermore this tothank Iam to thesis. to encouraged valuable comments all,like Iwould to thank Elissamy Helms, whose help,supervisor, patience support, and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Finally I wouldlike tothankmy Raziyeparents, andCo I am Defnegrateful to andAndrafor making Budapestfeel like home. Valuable I am very much indebted to my interviewees Tayfun Gönül, Yavuz Atan, Mehmet Bal, This hasthesis been possible support with generous from a number of people. First of ø brahim Y brahim ÷ ur Gör, Do Õ lmaz and and lmaz ÷ ø an Özkan, Halil Savda, Fikret Yeti nan May nan úÕ l Kocabay for being my best friend and sister for sister and friend best my being for Kocabay l Õ s Aru, and thank them for sharing their time and time their sharing for them thank and Aru, s ii ú kun kun Akta ú ener, Enver Aydemir, ú , for encouraging CEU eTD Collection II.2. Challenging Hegemonic Masculinity? Analysis of the interviews...... 35 II.1. Interviewees: Research ...... 25 Design and Methods CHAPTER II...... 24 I.3. Conscientious ...... 19 Objection I.2. Conscription as Politics...... 10 I.1. Modern Aspects of Militaries: Conscription as ...... 5 Military Labor Source CHAPTER I...... 5 ...... 1 INTRODUCTION OFCONTENTS TABLE II.2.4. A villain or a good man? Violence and hegemonic ...... 48 masculinity ...... 45 barracks II.2.3. “ II.2.2. Perception of Hegemonic ...... 40 Masculinity by the COs II.2.1. Becoming a conscientious objector in Turkey...... 35 II.1.2. Twelve conscientious objectors ...... 29 as interviewees II.1.1. Research design and the researcher’s positionality...... 25 I.3.2. Conscientious objection and the conscientious objectors (COs) in Turkey.....21 objection...... 19 and thelegal forconscientious regulations Developmentoftheconcept I.3.1. of ...... 14 gender and militarism I.2.2. Constructing hegemonic masculinity through conscription: The intersection Turkish nation state...... 10 ConscriptionI.2.1. inas away the(new)citizen of reconstructing identity the I.1.2. Contemporary regulations on conscription in Turkey...... 7 I.1.1. Development of conscription through time: World and Turkish contexts...... 5 A laboratorytoproducemen ”: Beingout ofor a conscript inthemilitary iii CEU eTD Collection EEECS...... 57 REFERENCES CONCLUSION...... 54 objectors’ masculinity by the objectors themselves...... 51 AretheobjectorsII.2.5. different? A comparison ofhegemonic and masculinity iv CEU eTD Collection outbreak of a possible war. They give me the gun, mom, they tell me to kill”. comments were harsh: the of Some “Whatsent. he text the about kind comments through lynched of virtually be a will man member are you?, Are you a coward or a littlein girl?, any Arecondition and will in which serve hewillnot military stated that the objector, textof a conscientious declaration not kill or die for anyone. andmusic determined concerts One friends members news. those of the website sent a the of After reading that text, to Oneday variousIwas aforum reading reasons. the of with a website related military I knew that the future. in the point serviceatone dothe to planning they However were service. military the postpone to BAs their accomplished they after right programs MA in enroll period interrupt the companies donotprefer ones who the did completenot themilitary efficiency sinceservice, this service of the employees.for malethe citizensin Turkey since 1927,and for better jobs andlong term positions, Some other male of them 12 or for the dependingothers, on lots the drawn by them. is Conscription obligatory friends of mine chosemale colleagues preferred to complete their military six which services, monthstook for some to offer low salaries and low positions. Therefore, after looking for a job for a while, most of my or theirhave military whoservice employees prefer completed male companies the because was worried him me malemilitary around I obligation. about service colleagues and other friends, one of my friends told me that I was lucky because at least I did not have to fulfill the 1 INTRODUCTION A part of lyrics of Ya of lyrics part A On the other hand, I had other male friends who were determined not to serve in the serve to not determined were who friends male other had I hand, other the On While Iwas lookingfor a job after graduatingfrom universitythe like most of my ú ar Kurt’s well known song Korku-Fear (or Anne-Mom). “Army calls me up, for an for up, me calls “Army Anne-Mom). (or Korku-Fear song known well Kurt’s ar 1 Silah Silah veriyorlar anne, bana öldür diyorlar Orduya istiyorlar,sava ú ç Õ kar diyorlar 1 CEU eTD Collection masculinity among the plurality is masculinity”, which dominant the relationship between directand “hegemonic conscription of masculinities isa a manmarried isget there for a“real”life. to who ready to not Therefore their daughter which exist in the society.let donot parents since girl’s service his military a girl before he marry completes cannot to Parallel to what they refuse accomplishto a crucial task for the society. There is a saying in Turkey that aman charges. Turkey including 14women,serve whorefuse inany to of kind military compulsory related are havinglegal and recognizedproblems as draftevaders. There arecurrently 76 COsin conscientious objection is not recognized by Turkishthe state, COs (conscientious objectors) and is conscription service Sincefor beginning noalternative there of 1990s. the inthe term this encountered Turkey however, phenomenon, a new not is it thus conscription, serve in going to military.the not he is that declared publicly a person is that conversation in this is new what however, conscription, about conversations to listened or in Turkey up grow who those to familiar mostly focus on “being a man”, in these conversations. These kinds of comments are highly conscription is a citizenshipexperience and the friendshipsin built barracksthe Although areneverforgotten.” obligation,will be yourabout It country. a different lot andlearn a human characters of meet avariety as it is alsohow clearto become in thea real above mana younger advices isit such giving to as: “Conscription hardbut brother, teaches you well throughexample, carrying comments like language,or with werewritten a fatherly comments other feed Some successfullyyou”. people who those difficult your protect nation?, Kurds,you live You traitor in beautiful you country our and trait to tasks out. Youyou afaggot?, Howare you going toprotect your family in if future the you donot want to will In addition to legalthe positionproblematic of COs, theyface society’s backlash since The history of objectionconscientious stretches backtothebeginning of history the of 2 CEU eTD Collection backgroundfor development the of conceptthe and First the discussions. Iwillfocus on the the firstmasculinity 2001,Altinay,(Brockling, Sinceis it 2004). the inTherefore secondthe partof section hegemonic and militarism between nationalism, relationship reveals the also their existence I will while militaries of human resources limit the andthey nation-states of processes construction discuss of results of the one are objectors Conscientious objectors. or rebels pacifists, create conscientious also they but citizens ideal only create not do militaries however, society, the in masculinity objection set. was men” as a conceptconscription, men ahierarchy between and women, men” andalso“proper and“improper soldierydiscourse andis a part of Turkish national identity. In addition to this myth, through give imposedand on produced society the discourse.as apartof According state the this to a brief national identity, thus gender roles in society.the myth” “Military nation (Altinay, was 2001) Conscription is one of the inachieve means of to states used by states. the order nation political modern, the tools the Turkishmostly is which concept modern isa Conscription militarism. Republic, and gender between intersection as a nation state, used to constructed in andpractices society. the militaristicnorms values, of normalization the imposing issociety, defined by state the militarizationthrough of civilianthe life,in words other Lucassen & Zurcher, 1999).Therefore hegemonic masculinity, norm masculinity the in the of hegemonic masculinity in Turkish Republic is to serve in militarythe (Altinay, 2004, isin defined terms ofmodernity militarizationand and one of mostthe important components in hegemonic in militarism masculinity masculinity Turkish that nation and Turkey state state, hegemonic between intersection to related studies in example, above the was stated Militaries are the institutionsMilitaries arethe usedby to createandimpose the hegemonicstate in of terms conscription concepts Iwillthe section discuss firstpart of first the In the 3 CEU eTD Collection be able to discuss this issue in depth or with other dimensions. masculinity in Turkey. Iwill also provide my for possibleopinion studies further which will inand hegemonic Turkey masculinity and COshave thebasesfor a challenge ofhegemonic militarism between is relationship thatastrong there states based theory on the with COs the in the light of the foregoing theories and discussions. COs by one andone information. necessary background give Then I will analyze interviews COs in Turkey, asthedata of this study in toanswerorder my main Iwill question. introduce second partof study,this firstI will informationprovide interviewsabout the with twelve roles in the society?to servein military?the do react objectors How masculinity conscientious these to hegemonic Do they alter or andmasculinities by affected appearancethe of publiclywho objectors conscientious refuse reconstruct militarism of articulation this is how process, militarization those this to related is directly service roles? If military if compulsory so,and inTurkey connected are masculinity how? and militarism nationalism, Therefore in the aspects other of like pose masculinity hegemonic as well?Iwould also questions: tothese If mightchallenging the most important component of hegemonic in masculinity challengeturn citizenship in Turkey. Basedon insights, my these main questionfor this isstudy how that; andmilitarized by codesaresupported these nationalism construction andof the patriarchal objectionconscientious and COsin Turkey. about information give will I then and objection of aspects legal and context inageneral term In the conclusion part, I will summarize the results of the analysis of the interviews This studyis basedonthe codes masculinitytheory the which states that of are 4 CEU eTD Collection improvements of the European states’ militaries closely, since the empire was looking for the waslooking theempire militaries since states’ closely, European of the improvements (2003). increased state of the centralization and forbureaucracy conscription, requirements meet the definition of citizenship. Thus, throughout implementationthe of processesthese required to statistics in order to organize the conscription Additionally,process. required conscription a male legislation; however,state population requiredservices through regulation accurate this years of least.tens in Themale wasobliged atcountries tojoin armed those population the took which wars, intense extended, in operations sustain to sufficient longer no were soldiers The countries in the 18 similar could applications befound in historical previous (Lucassen & periods Zürcher, 2003). in 18 inFrance, late the Revolution French the immediately after used first was service military compulsory direct Contemporary centuries. three the last for nation states source military of (Altinay labor & 2001). Bora, is new relatively therefore, Theconceptofthe & 1999). “Citizen-army”, Zurcher, (Lucassen lands of authorities the theirof responsibility as the conscription land, perceived particular promising war prizes in conqueredlands.the Until 16 the peasants as conscripts, inciting them join to by paying meeting or their basicneeds or or historicsoldiers, changed overusingslaves,ordinary time, professional with militaries has militaries the of source labor The centuries. throughout soldiers employ to which by I.1. ModernAspects ofMilitaries:as Military Conscription Labor Source CHAPTER I Throughout the19 Male-only conscription has been used as the primary military labor source by many Soldiers are the backbones of militaries, and militaries have used a variety haveusedavariety means areandmilitaries ofmilitaries, of backbones Soldiers the I.1.1. Development ofconscription through time: World andTurkish contexts th century century needed more soldiers during wartimes, since professional th century, the Ottoman Empire was following the changes and 5 th century, people who lived on a th century, although CEU eTD Collection 3 2 citizens (whoused to be referred toas peasants) aspotential soldiers throughout the 1930s time. Until the took and,obviously, was aprocess military-nation the constructing However, amodern nation-state. Turkishstate, policies of the influence have the to continued process, civilian life (Alt beginsthus military-nation toappearasa result of this military blurred boundary between and andthe stage, atan starts early process Themilitarization a battlefront. lifeinto civilian between military the and civilianlifeisblurred,andthe probability a wartransforms of whole nation for the war (Milli Güvenlik Kurulu, 1990:80-81). With this usage, boundary the of the socio-cultural) (economical, and political theresources situation usageof all the of a stateandits citizens should alwaysbe readyfor awar(Brockling, 2001,p.302):“total iswar Theof “total Empire’s the concept1994; 2003). of that indicates survival plan (Zürcher, war” Prussiait military-nation and the used, which concept eventually intersected to become apart of war policies total of success the military: of the process its modernization for example 2001; Keyman & Icduygu, 1998). intotransformed “citizens” throughout modernizationthis (Ustel,process 2005;Kadioglu of the Ottoman Empire. in process whichwas modernization institutions, the targeted became of military one first the A male population census was held regularly, and “subjects” were Influences, Theory and Methodology. In ways to survive The Turkishstate was found in1923. For information about the Ottoman Empire in 19 in Empire Ottoman the about information For 3 , although latethe Ottoman Empire earlythe and male recognized state Turkish modernization theOttoman Empire legacy of intothe concepts, addition These two look asan Empireto Prussia for Ottoman to important reasons two There were Õ nay & nay Bora, 2001). 2 . Especially victorieswith the of Prussia’s modern army in Europe, the Turkey: A Modern Modern History A Turkey: th century see: Zurcher, Eric J: (1993/2004). Part 1: Western 6 , (pp. 9-92). NY: I.B. Tauris. CEU eTD Collection http://www.mevzuat.adalet.gov.tr/html/437.html) of Justice] (2000). [Military Service Law].Retrieved May 19, 2009,from mucibince askerlik yapma 4 citizen isserve citizen obligedin to military. the articleThe first of Military the Law Service 1111 states every that male Turkish Republic internalize connection. this for to male difficultcitizens it forwas the time, and was anew concept conscription and betweencitizenship connection took fortime male tosee citizens aspotential becausethemselves the primarily soldiers, modernization process who could be called up to military service from time to time. Yet, it examinations held in military the hospitals (Askerlik Yasasi, [Military Service Law], 2000). Turkey through drawingthe lots, of if they foundare tobe “eligible” in medical the haveserveschool graduates 15months. to Individuals sent tothe variousare regions in serve six months as privates or twelve months as reserve officers, however those who are high fifteen months, depending on their education. Forexample who those are university graduates have servesix to to are (20-41) who of military age those that, than Other service. military years and pay the specifiedabroad also amount have the ofright money, to delaystudying ina hasuniversity or illnessesin diagnosed military hospital.the Thosewho work theytheir militaryhave the service option or, turns 20, however delaying an individual’s military service is ifpossible if citizenthe is of theydoing worked onefor atmonth least threeof service. for the eligibility such as of of service of conscription, the length the theconditions definition or the regarding has not been removed; however, it was subject to change, in terms of the regulations First article of the Military Service Law: “Madde 1-Türkiye Cumhuriyeti tebaas Cumhuriyeti 1-Türkiye “Madde Law: Service Military ofthe article First Since 1927,every man in Turkey is obliged military toundertake whenhe service I.1.2. Contemporaryregulations onconscriptionin Turkey ÷ a mecburdur”. ( Turkiye CumhuriyetiAdalet Bakanligi [Turkish Republic Ministry 4 Thiswhich law, has been in effect since 1927,still 7 Õ olan her erkek, i erkek, her olan ú bu kanun CEU eTD Collection depopulating of as apart depopulating of region”the of (78) warstrategy of the Turkishthe army. Conscripts, moreover other Kurdish nationalist armed groups, and “in emptyingthe of villages and it did not have in earlier PKK war between the days” (78). Conscripts of the start the with 1980s, since the However, regions. to these weresent conscripts Turkish took part in thisAfghanistan (2001-present). Theinvolvement of Turkey in these was conflicts such that war against the PKK,situations in Cyprus (1974)and, as a member of NATO, missions in Korea (1950-53) and and aright. asacategory or objection However, itis important toremember Turkey that still not recognizedoes conscientious inevaders million draft Turkey. least one asof areat June 2008,there has declaredthat, of years, lastNational hasthe ten number Turkish the Minister and Defense increased through religious or moral 68).Thisbeing 2000: (Sinclair-Webb, reasons] ‘enormous’ asnot category” arecognized political, with military the in serve to [refusing objection conscientious Counter-Terrorism and Operations Department of Directorate General forSecurity. organizationGel, and KGK. Theis war between Turkish listedMilitary and PKK guerillas has been going on almostas for 30 years. oneThe 5 of the twelve active terrorist organizations in Turkey as of 2007, according to the number of [426.000] men officially as draftknown evaders ( itisSinclair-Webb, “a view tofindingmeans a to‘normalize’ situation the of enormous the pay to specified feein the exchange foronly month one military of service. According to stateintroducedfor the the earthquake, wereopportunity whothose bornin 1973,orbefore, August 1999,which killedin over 17000, toraiseorder funds for thevictims of the example, of military earthquake For only monththe 17 after and one service. complete of Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan (The Kurdistan Workers' Party); best known as PKK, also called KADEK, Kongra- The Turkish army, consisting of recruited citizen soldiers, has experienced combat hasexperienced soldiers, citizen of recruited army, consisting The Turkish From time to time, with the new regulations, people are given the option to pay fee to a option the aregiven people new the regulations, with totime, From time 5 and the Turkish army, “military service has taken on a dimension that dimension a on taken has service “military army, Turkish the and 8 asker kaça ÷Õ ) - in the context of context the - in ) CEU eTD Collection soldiers will be sent to those regions where war is going on between the PKK and the Turkish army. 6 as will in be discussed followingthe section. state, TurkishRepublicthe useconscription as a tool of itsanddiscourse, nationalist militarist As amodern-secular-nation state. tothe are subject who militarize people or (re)construct usetogovern, beseen which states militaries tools as the can apparatus, state ideological newidentity imposing citizenship ideology state discourse.or state or Thereforeas an means toachieve specific political suchaspurposes, building anew nation, a constructing Turkey, have to experience front lines of battle, which may resultin deaths. in primarily waragainsttheare sent PKKisoccurring,whosoutheastern wherethe toregions A new regulationis about to be carried into effect totally in2010 states that only volunteers orprofessional However, conscription should not be seen only as a military labor source, but also as a 9 6 CEU eTD Collection leaders of the country in ‘saved’ War who nation of Turkish country the of the the officers were the leaders having and a‘strong modern’ nation. This by aim was constructed elites state the and the nationthe catchingwas targeted towards upwith Westernthe nations’ standardsthrough the Turkish national identity is identified with in produced 1930s within discourse state the (Lucassen & Zurcher,1999; Altinay,‘being 2005). a soldier’ was which myth, military-nation the of existence in the lies or conscription. transformation this of explanation The aim of protects notTurkish State used for this mission. The military intotransformed an institution, which only the state,(Kadioglu, 2001; Unsal 1998). The military is of one mostthe institutions crucial thatthe but alsoenforce and spreadthis identity, in order to (re)construct newthe Turkish identity national the regime institutionsand of the Turkish nation-state developed practices and discourses that servethedefine, to nation the nation-states, other of periods construction Asinthe states. nation created newly of the as a whole. 2001:141).& Bora, Together, these two concepts play a crucial in role enacting projects the The primaryin in from Turkey, one a way (Altinay most cases,it other that, is the to differentiate difficult in and concepts intertwined of militarism articulated nationalism centuries. Thesetwo are and played important an rolein shaping thestructure of nation-states throughout lastthe two I.2. Conscription asPolitics According to this myth of military-nation, the Turkish nation is a military-nation and military-nation is a nation Turkish the military-nation, of myth this to According wesee If look atmilitarismfeatures, have we that and nationalism nation-state’s the Turkish nationstate I.2.1. Conscriptionas a way of reconstructing the (new) citizen identityin the 10 CEU eTD Collection 183-4). 2004, (Zürcher, religion’ a‘Turkish as described been even has which of Kemalism,, characteristics distinctive republicanism,secularism, nationalism, popularism,statism and reformism. Secularism and nationalism are the 7 Ottoman and Turkishmilitaries and education system. nationalism and19 civilization with war and soldiery are some of the most Therefore,a battlefieldby modernization identification the of Turkish and nation-state. the prominent characteristics of Kemalist is justaceasefire” international Again, (Under,2001:428-9). perceived werealso as relations is Darwinism, “war anatural result of natural the struggle groups between the and peacetime Social to According all institutions. the affect Darwinism Social of principles the because of state, the discourses and wartime the peacetime both defined militarism ideology on of this andin strong unbeatableeconomically order to surviveamong The reflection societies. other be socio- should a society that holds asetvalues which of thoughts, Social Darwinist Intellectualsshape tried to andpoliticians accordingnation-state. to theirapproaches political survival Empire,the of decades of continued into thefirst and creationthe Turkish the of the on focused which were Empire, Ottoman in decades of lastthe politics affectedthe states, nationalism and militarism. differentiate to impossible become has it and soldiery, and war with identified are civilization national identity (Altinay & 2001:142). Bora, Therefore, in modernizationTurkey, and institution, ofnationalism and Turkish military, standard the Turkish asastate became especially shows the military to be the base of “modern-Western identity”. The Turkish Independence (1914-1918)and founded amodern nation ‘Kemaliststate. “Kemalism” is a term named afterMustafa Kemal Atatürk. The basic principles of Kemalism orAtatürkism are Social Darwinist ideology, which influenced the politics of many emerged nation th century century German militarist ideology, whichhad acrucial impact on 11 7 ’ nationalism CEU eTD Collection closed society from the beginning of the Turkish nation-state construction period until the until period construction nation-state Turkish the of beginning the from society closed was a Turkey “modernization”. of and the about “civilization” concepts male-conscripts the “modernization” of the rural population as a whole. citizens,families tobeproper asdefined by state. Therefore, leaddiscourse aimedthis the to commanders of their and wives children, they thus and could membersthe train of their be wereseen youngto male the those citizens because newideology, the with male citizens new citizen identity especially in the 1920s was Itand 30s. crucial for state the to equipyoung “education” (Altinay &Bora, 2001). The conscription servedperiod asa tool shapeto the adultthe population. Thusthemass adultpopulation became the military target of the population through nationalpart still state reachthe couldthe biggest of not isvia Another “mass education”. However, education becauseconscription of the low that argued be schoolcan It istransformation. and “education” one of enrollmentfunctions the with ofsociety, in the most rate influential directamong extremely become has institution an as military the ways notions, Islamic with equipped the state uses to communicate with its citizens. 2001:6).Bora, & (Altinay references Islamic of inclusion the following way, a populist in nationalism of reproduction tothe identity,”contributed national be “modern-western baseof the assumed to was The military, concepts. which and‘military-nation’ ‘military’ the rituals wereaddedto moreover, independence”,and and,celebration emotion”, “national “collective and mourning of“national defense”, concepts jihad) tothe added were – aMuslimwhodies inalegitimate state building periodof Turkey.like Concepts “jihad” (Islamic holy war) or“shahid” (martyr structure during into nation- the and concepts the nation-state process of traditions Islamic After the military became an institution of it began of institution and to After theeducation became military discipline, an teach After being modern-Western identified with civilization and popularized bybeing The FirstWorld War and Turkish the Warof Independence affected the transfer 12 CEU eTD Collection race and this discourse wasnationalism, consolidated based on citizenship. “Militancy” a civic from wasidentity, said ethnic Turkish to on with based be was a constantthat nationalism an ethnic feature into the of transformed the expressionTurkish “every Turk privileged position thefeaturesamong of “Turkishness”. Asa Turkishresult, nationalism is born a soldier” became concepts apartof racial the featuresa of on “Turkishness” andtook and cultural two no These was longeronly obligation. an longernonecessity conscription only and a 1930s, statediscourse based itself upon“Turkish”history and ethnicidentity. Thearmy was because of the ongoing warsthrough firstthe decades of 20 the nations. rival modernmake nation the healthy the among sothat survive and could maleto strong, citizens worked in accordance Socialto Darwinistideology, in order to improve the whole society and in barracks mechanisms the Disciplinary 1979). control (Foucault, themselves become able to and improvement societal of responsibility this internalize would they so that conscript single These education improvement. disciplinary processes required toreshapemechanisms every in modernized, ultimately improved a way wouldthat to thewhole contribute society’s or educated disciplined, bodies these were Therefore development. health and physical personal for also and society whole the of sake the for both education, army in the elements related agricultureto andlife rural (Kiral,Ustel, 1937, 2005). ones the information, especially related and work intercourse life,modern sexual obligations, and rights health, the and development physical the and write, and read to how soldiers from rural areas couldmeetmodernity. conscription themilitary periods, During taught youngfor men who lived in rural was places, firstthe institution and placein which conscripts 1980s when neo-liberalthe economic policies have come into effect, conscription, especially The state discourse on conscription was built on the “need” for soldiers inthe army for soldiers “need” the built on was conscription on discourse The state Health and physical development were especially taken to be the most important 13 th century. However, after the after However, century. CEU eTD Collection modernity…embodyingnationalism’s progressive revolutionaryor of principle discontinuity”. (1993:66)“menMcClintock national general][in progressivethe agentof represent to According projects. ofthenationalist carriers they are the since of male-citizens control by of getting state centralize the use itto to military the image of strengthen the to in order because the state needed tomobilize society toits nationalist andaccording projects, second, firstbecome soldiers, to tobemotivated had male the population Therefore, states. modern needed militarizedbein a strong to society nation-state andwith order other compatible Turkish Republic ismilitary service (Alt militarization. One of the Turkishthe nation hegemonicstate, masculinity is indefined terms of modernity mostand important components According 1999). Peterson, to masculinity scholars, these is anintegral part ofnationalism. In of this hegemonic in reconstructed masculinity with (Anthias projects these accordance & Nagel,Yuval-Davis, 1989; 1998; in the or areconstructed manand of the roles woman andthat projects, of nationalist heart the at lies gender that argue and work, in their gender and nationalism between relationship masculinity. hegemonic I components, gointowouldlike to the details of andmilitaristicinstituting nationalist the to approaches militaristic its and masculinity hegemonic of features the at look closer a have state discourse which stated conscription is apart of Turkish male citizen identity. In to order argue(Sirman, I that anew according 2001). masculinity hegemonicthe was produced to Scholars such as Nagel, Anthias,Yuval-Davis andPeterson have beendiscussing the of gender and militarism The intersection conscription: Constructing hegemonicmasculinity through I.2.2. The modernization, orin this case,westernization of newlythe emerged Turkish Õ nay, 2005,Zürcher, 1999). 14 CEU eTD Collection is the “flight from femininity,” which is directly related to the definition of femininity. This femininity. of definition the to related directly is which femininity,” from “flight is the define whathegemonic masculinity is (Kimmel, not first 1994). The feature Kimmel provides easier todefineitby it iswhat According not. toKimmel, aresome there features which in masculinities society. hegemonic is masculinity more stable than non- time. other, However hegemonic the particular a at society in aparticular people evenamong time society,or over from to society vary withMasculinities or world. macro-cultures the its relation to life and everyday emphasizes Kimmel 120). 1994: (Kimmel, constructed” is socially it is historical… it timeless; nor relationships with ourselves, meaningswe construct our through of that collection[s] changing as“constantly masculinities with each other, (Nagel,and In 1998:247). addition Nagel’sto definition,Kimmel explains these“other” with our world. Manhood define or which other compete masculinities revered –against themselves” or whether reviled is neither – standard a remains staticmasculinity hegemonic less, the None masculinities. sexuality-based and race- class-, other to in stands contrast often masculinity hegemonic “Indeed, “other”: the itself pillarsthe on of constructs masculinity defines, asNagel hegemonic also since, military, Turkish the to applied as bodies, ‘improper’ the clarify to important is also it and citizen bodies. docile into them transform to in order discipline to bodies specific chooses rather bodies, but docile create only not military does the that remember Atis it 1979). forces thisto finally,of (Foucault, point composition the important the the Foucauldian way: enclosure, the control of activity, in thebody organizationthe of docilization of in the geneses elements and, the of all includes that example a clear is Military examples in understanding the projects of the modern world that served to discipline the body. In addition definedto the hegemonic masculinity,Kimmel argues thatitwould be ideal andthe man ideal the masculinity, hegemonic defines also it my opinion, In The “soldier body”, in “Docile bodies” (Foucault, 1979), is one of the most useful 15 CEU eTD Collection female citizens, and emphasizes that men get privileges in return of military in of menservice: privileges return that get andemphasizes female citizens, and male between difference this summarizes Enloe rights. citizenship class first gained thus have citizens male state, Turkish the of eyes in the obligation “holy” is the conscription Since conscription. through state the of strengthening the and citizens male between persists mostly partnot take do in engagements on frontthe lines (Speck,2006).Therefore thelink women get military although Howeverin countries, andIsrael these Eritrea. less than numberthe of men. Only in countriestwo is conscription obligatory for women: accept women as soldiers, some countries world, In contemporary cases.the in extreme some except army,regular however this is still accepted to the not limited sincewomen were Kimmel emphasizes, that masculinity hegemonic and the of feature number femininity from flight the exemplifies This ofobligations. of in terms womencitizens is always male female a and between difference creates conscription on society. Male-only andimposed definition of hegemonic masculinity basedmen” since they are, by default,on non-masculine. the “other”, whichexclusion of a defined race. Men who belong tothewas defined “inferior races” cannotbe “proper set by the state isfeature masculinity “racism”. Hegemonic in a society or agroup of people demands the itself last The fit malegayness to heteronormativity. excludes hegemonicmasculinity therefore heteronormativity iswhich in a dominantinstitutions discourse and inourdaily lives, and A is components orheterosexism,features. second feature of homophobia two thusworksfeature to define masculinity hegemonic in of terms having “non-feminine” When we think about the Turkish state policies on citizenship, we see a similar from from privilegingthe of masculinity. (2000:246) life in political advantage reap who men all those for but men, individual for only not without havingendure military to militaryservice, but the will tour have its reward – sister mayA Turkish youngbe man may not look relievedforward to his tour of militarypreserving amasculinized hold its on service, conception militarizedof national citizenship… and his that Still military…continues Turkish the she depend male-onlyto on conscription, thereby can get on with her schooling or paid civilian work 16 training, they CEU eTD Collection state from the position of ideal role-models of society. As Whitworth emphasizes, “soldiers modern and equipped with national identity, so that they could spreadthis ideology of the mustbe strong, conscripts Therefore of society. viathemilitarization ways and militaristic through accomplished be to were strength and Modernization nations. other with compete to military. the for bodies improper as homosexuals define time same politics” 1999:43),(Peterson, like the Turkishmilitary insists male-onlyon conscription and atthe homosocial male of favor in sexuality homosocial male denies power productive and feminineAsbehavior.states; Peterson “in tonationalism,regards juridical modernstate’s the of defined homophobic state nature the masculinity hegemonic flightfrom and the the the both represents diagnosis homosexual’ ‘extremely this masculinity, hegemonic femininity” If person. we of and Kimmelandthat says “extreme recall outfit, the about what person foris thearmy his military the eligible behaviornot that feminine The decides due to behavior of the person, homosexual’‘extremely is a result of a selection method concerning thedressing and the it is Being not 2008). (Biricik, aboutdisorder” behavior “sexual of content the his under falls which diagnosis, sexual orientation, contrary to the report’s name. 143-152), Istanbul:Iletisim Yayinlari. Usterci (Eds.), Usterci Insasi [Rotten Report andReconstructionof Hegemonic Masculinity in Turkey]OzgurHeval In Cinar& Coskun 8 as “rotten.” officially a decides that person has psychological orphysical person that problems, is counted examinations consist notonly physical, butalsoof psychological If evaluations. military a These period. conscription before the soldier of the eligibility the to determine instituted were Forfurther informationsee Biricik, Alp. (2008). Curuk Raporu ve Turkiye’de Hegemonik Erkekligin Yeniden According to the Turkish state, a nation-state should be modern, so that it can be able can it that so modern, be should a nation-state state, Turkish the to According In order to define and recruit these civilian privileged men,medical todefine In order civilian the these examinations and recruitprivileged 8 Carklardaki Kum: Vicdani Red An interesting example of the “rotten” label is the “extremely homosexual” “extremely the is label “rotten” the of example interesting An [Conscientious Objection: Resisting Militarized Society], (pp. 17 CEU eTD Collection complement his process of “becoming a soldier.” So, every culture. a wasborn (male)insoldier Turk military and in educated to camps order not only an obligation according Therefore 1983). tothe nationalist discourse conscription wasof Turkish the state, for male citizens butevery man is born kill to dieor for the members other of imaginedthe “bigfamily” (Anderson, it was also a part ofrun away from killing dying.or Imagined fraternity links amongTurkishmen creates beliefthe that identity, way modern racecould country. save the In to bea order real man,a male shouldtrue citizen not and danger and only nationalist Turkish males who werephysically andstrong educated in a existed andthere independence internal wasandisin and external enemies. exists Therefore nationalism, a Turkish man should be ready in every stage of his life to fight in a war, because and nation of the militarization the of process andthe trend, Social Darwinist the discourse, andmodern notconservative,and butrespectful to traditionsthe (Ustel, 2005:194). shouldbe healthy, well strong, mannered, respectable, careful hisabout appearance,educated male-citizen, agood issues.and soldier,therefore A good important these to defined according masculinity were body of and hegemonic military,of soldier the conceptions the the and themaininterests issues leisure health and composed Sports, and activities, physical process. allregulate social life in publicboth spaces, andprivate in namethe of modernization the soldiers. Especially in tried toregulatesocial conscription, life through andthe educated and then through disciplined first two decades of Turkish nation-state soldiers. makes which institution isthe life, military Therefore the military tried to andconditioning, avariety material of 2004:86). and ideological rewards” (Whitworth, born; psychological are not institutionalmade, they training,rather expectations, are through According to the hegemonic masculinity which is constructed through masculinity hegemonic through state isconstructed the According tothe which The military asa worked of center of production tomakethe it anddiscipline soldiers, 18 CEU eTD Collection has been recognized objection conscientious that itasis development a recent has for centuries, been known concept a right. The Human Rights whoadded tothose refused toparticipate because of their the believes. Although religious Commission of theserve UN, in the themilitary Council for political of reasons, such as humanism, socialism, prisons.anarchism (Bröckling, 2008(2001):389). etc., were objectors were recognizedand therefore they refused toas serve in wars. However, untilcriminals the mid 20 or mental for instance orQuakers,were Mennonites conscientious objectors (Bröckling, 2008:70-71) patients, and, in most In 20 the weremostly religious. cases,objection were put into Until(Bröckling, 2008:69-70). 20 the serve in military the to whoare obliged conscripts of consisting armies emergenceof the history of war, however, conscientious objection existed, differently from these concepts, with nationalism,militarism and hegemonic masculinity 2001,Alt(Brockling, between about therelationship also reveal amount a substantial objectors conscientious forces. Inaddition to limiting human the resources and capital militaries,available to political,moral or religious reasons, refuses participateto in combat, the military or the armed processes construction of the results TheCObutoneof the orobjectors. at pacifists, rebels create work in thehegemonic masculinity withinmilitaries society, donot only idealcreate citizens, they also nation-state. A conscientious objector Objection isConscientious I.3. a person who, out of Especially with WorldWara I, number of whoconscientious objectors refused to The history disobedientsrebels, pacifistsof stretches or back thebeginning to of the and create impose by to state arethethe primary used institutions militaries Although objection DevelopmentI.3.1. of legalthe conceptand regulations forconscientious th th century followersthe of some churches in Europe, century, the reasons century,the prompting conscientious 19 th century, conscientious century, Õ nay, 2005). CEU eTD Collection Jovanovich. politics, Civildisobedience, On violence, Thoughts on politics and revolution. 11 Yayinlari. Vicdani Red Military Service and Alternative Service].In Ozgür Heval Cinar & Coskun Usterci (Eds.), Hakkinda Avrupa Standartlari ve Alternatif Hizmet [International Standards on Conscientious Objectionto 10 Rights. of Human Convention European the of Civil and Political Rights, Article 10 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the EuropeanUnion, and Article 9 9 Europe and Europe European the objection Unionin as a conscientious rightrecognized 1987. personal “good,” rather good(Cohen, than “good,” personal greater the 1964). and that this is a detachment from the political system since he or she prioritize his or her own as a conscript, but only refuses to obey the rules in order to protect his or her own moral being, an objector does not demand a change in that Similarly,Cohen people” stated also other (1972). Carl affect doesn’t this situation this the system when he refuses to serve in onesthe military own beliefs may keep that subjective, andnot related personto other people: “The fear of being responsible settle to upwith from to do harm, however disobedience civil because of subjectivity of own moral beings. For example, when Hannah Arendt compared conscientious objection to 2008).Objection(Toker, was regardedasamoral andcode, thereforewasrelated topeople’s subjectivity Studies related mostly conscientious objection in literature. to literature the the20 throughout objection isconscientious recognized not still (Ç Azerbaijan, and in Turkey countries, in two However compulsory. isstill conscription Council of Europe, conscientious objection is a right in 26 member countries where Article 18 of boththe Universal Declarationon Human Rights and Article 18 of the International Covenant on For afurtherdiscussion on civil disobedience see:Arendt, Hannah. (1972). Forfurther information on the international standards and regulations see: Brett, Rachel. (2008). Vicdani Red While legal developments surrounding conscientious objection have been occurring been have objection conscientious surrounding developments legal While [Conscientious Objection: Resisting in aMilitarized Society], (pp. 267-272). Istanbul: Iletisim th 11 century, the definition and content of in concept andcontent the definition wasalsotaking place the century, , she stated that they are different because conscientious objection is objection conscientious because that they are different she, stated Õ 20 nar, 2008). nar, 10 Crises of the Republic: Lying in New York : Harcourt Brace Carklardaki Kum: 9 In the In CEU eTD Collection punishment, while one of them, Osman Murat Ülke, was put into prison and stayed there for slightly different name, the in SKD, which was eventually by decisiondissolved a court foundedand again under a 217-233). Istanbul:Iletisim Yayinlari. Initiative) founded which was in Usterci (Eds.), Ugur. (2008). Turkiye’de Red Vicdani [Conscientious Objectionin Turkey]. OzgürHeval In Cinar &Coskun 14 Zencir. Vedat and Gönül of Tayfun texts declaration objection conscientious the published they since service” military compulsory 13 12 objectors were mostlybecoming publicly the first conscientious in objector known subsequent Turkey. The the members of the Sava International Gönül declared in a journal called 1980s,Turkishthe society the term encountered conscientious in objection 1989 when Tayfun subgroup of antimilitarism. isthis blurred conceptualization objectionin conscientious Turkey, whereitis regardedasa Agood example formovements. antimilitarist hasbeena concept with antiwar or combined risein was blurred. Especially the with of number objection the as secular COs,conscientious and objection orantimilitarism antiwar causes ofbetween boundary conscientious war, the For further and detailed information onconscientious objection in Turkey see Usterci,Coskun & Yorulmaz, http://www.wri-irg.org/ page: web official see their International Resisters War about information further For Sokak Dergisi: The first journal in Turkey which underwent trial because of “alienating the public from public the “alienating of because trial underwent which Turkey in journal first The Dergisi: Sokak There were already nine conscientious objectors There werealready objectors innine conscientious 1996 andthreeof them received However, through the support of antiwar organizations, such as War suchasResisters of organizations, antiwar support the However, through Although there were Jehovah's Witnesses who refused to serve in the military before military in the serve to refused who Witnesses Jehovah's were there Although I.3.2. Conscientious objection and the conscientious objectors (COs) inTurkey Carklardaki Kum: Vicdani Red 12 which inwas founded 1921 and aimsnonviolent topromote action against the ø zmir Sava ø zmirin the 1990s.Antimilitarists and COs were organized Sokak ú [Conscientious Objection: Resisting in a Militarized Society], (pp. Kar 13 úÕ , tlar that herefused serveinthat military, to thereby the 21 Õ Derne ú Kar úÕ ÷ tlar i ( ø SKD) Õ Derne 14 . ÷ i (SKD - War Resisters CEU eTD Collection objectors in objectors Turkey conscientious 76 the among objector women 14 are there Now event. Day Objectors’ who declared on declared 16 whothe on lastobjection during fewyears and is more the recentfemale a year-old objector 20 woman, grounding for women’s objection was antimilitarism. Women have been declaring their basic The necessary. when soldiers combat being or conscripts, of wives or mothers the being in time festival this themilitary that suchas charged stated them and with duties, various forfirst objection the declared conscientious Femaleobjectors focus. with an antimilitarist in held was most and, of Militurizm Turkey.the In2004, FestI COswereantimilitarists time, anarchists. punished, while some others were released with the provision the required they to that somepunished, while werereleased others were with appears in objection subjectivity concept. that conscientious the the for a reference and objection conscientious and antimilitarism between boundary blurred the to challenge is a existence his in myopinion, Therefore, a Muslim. as it in fight and State Turkish the of military in the serve to refused He written. have COs other the nor Hedoes an notanarchist. which haveneither anantimilitarist text, most of adeclaration is He beliefs. religious Islamic his with objection conscientious his declared Aydemir Enver 24 objections,the on weredeclaring theirobjectors conscientious anarchist ø http://savaskarsitlari.org/arsiv.asp?ArsivTipID=2&ArsivAnaID=27221&ArsivSayfaNo=1 15 two and a half years.After Ülke’s punishment, the stanbul Antimilitarist Initiative) was founded, and support forstanbul founded, Antimilitarist Initiative) COsincreased was support and all around May).The (2009,Karsitlari Savas A big part of the COs did not have any penal sanction. Some of the COs were and/or antimilitarist and occurring were events antimilitarist these of all While ø stanbul to provide an event for conscientious objectors to declare their objections their declare to objectors conscientious for event an provide to stanbul 15 . th of of May 2009, atthe 15 Conscientious Objectors in Turkey 22 th ø of May International Conscientious stanbul Antimilitarist . Retrieved May 26, 2009,from th ø nisiyatifi ( of July ofJuly 2007, ø$ø - CEU eTD Collection so, I will go on to discuss the interviews I conducted with twelve COs in Turkey. In order to have acloser look to how COs challenge hegemonic masculinity,if they do even defined by in State, Turkish or the some casesby systems,other and smashthefraternity link. is which community imagined the for die or kill to refuse they services, public compulsory is for anmost of COs. option the option not an public service alternative objectors, of COs the todoany refuse of kind compulsory servicepublic andcall themselves total must Turkey international adopt treaties; this law the right. andregulate However,sincemost recognizedCouncil conscientiousEurope of therightto objection because of and, other the that section from previous the Recall bythestate. legally restricted were and rights mobility their since thestartof called“civilian death,” office. This a viciouscycle, prompted draft togothe they refused are COs, in military. they toserve Since the start immediately Therefore by refusing the compulsory military service, and in casesall some and service, military compulsory byrefusing the Therefore 23 CEU eTD Collection about them, later analyzing the interviews, as the main focus of this study. information further and COs, namely give the Iwill interviewees, focuson the After that, research, Iwill give information detailing my research design and my position as a researcher. including interviews the Iconducted in withTurkey twelve COs. analyzing Before this masculinity as well?” I, component aspects of challenge masculinity of hegemonic in other important hegemonic turn first of all, want to introduce my personal researchmasculinity moreand conscription thoroughly. on the subject, of some experiences in Cos trace the of the order of hegemonic intersection to discussthe to like I would chapter this In masculinity. hegemonic of construction inthe a tool therefore, and, process militarization the of least tools of one the at challenge people these (COs), behind thisrefusal in a public going space asfar tocall objectors themselves conscientious is not recognized by the state as a right nor an offense, and openly stating the personal reasons serve in by to military,which the refusing militarization Therefore intoolsprocess. usedthis militarization of society. I have inisargued thathegemonic masculinity defined by Turkey the through state the The practiceintersectionality. this challenge to a way as objection conscientious and inTurkey, ofmilitarism and state discourse on conscription areCHAPTER II two of the In order to discover an answer to my main question; “how might challenging the most the challenging might “how question; my main to answer an discover to order In In theprevious Idiscussed chapter, masculinity of intersection the hegemonic and 24 CEU eTD Collection following almost every conscientious objection case, in addition to being a CO himself. CO a being to in addition case, objection conscientious every almost following caseor has court aCO support of the a demonstration occurrence to in has been Halil prison. aCO for example, in of, case each other, inform helpand to andareready phone, or internet of the COs I eventually interviewed. The COs, especially the ones in ones the especially COs, The interviewed. Ieventually COs the of behappens who alsoto my one friends.of helpedme Hewasthepersonwho most tocontact Halil of I one COs the talkedSavda, to useful.Second, were interviewed COshe the about however, his contain not observations a genderdoes perspective, His documentary unfinished documentary COsinabout the had Turkey and interviewed some COs of the a fewyearsago. and conceptabout the COs.Ispoketo one of myhas been friends who a preparing COs. ideahave about abroader in to order familiar theirthrough subjectthe with with contacts including COs,the COsthemselves, the are people who the to as talking well as materials obtain I could written of the reading all of the focus of my studies, Ihadand, interviews as semi-structured with conduct decided after some of objectors the to a pre-research periodto them details the about reasons or behindnoticed theirmy I objection. lack of knowledge had started for I did feel not me,need seem cleartalk asan me. to so usedto the antimilitarist, that to objection” This period involvedI did the not knowand, during thecourse of involvement,this have metand befriended afew of them. However, the majoritysupport the COsinI have Turkey, part to in demonstrations Therefore, taken their cause. some of in andsupport interested topic, the five Ihave lastyearsforpersonally the been since media, the COs personally, and the Methods and Design Research Interviewees: conceptII.1. of “conscientious First of all, I talked to some of my friends who could give me preliminary information me preliminary give could who friends my of some to I talked all, of First I have news the following COsin been about independent the within media, especially ResearchII.1.1. designandthe researcher’s positionality 25 ø stanbul, are in touch via intouch are stanbul, CEU eTD Collection objectors and delveintoobjectors gender questions. related problems. These interviews give to voice COsby the focusing on personal the of stories the in to in these method overcome this thesis interviews research asthe order structured written in the past, and therefore they may not reflect present cases. Thus, Ihave chosen semi- this study focuses. Another problem with the declarations lies in the fact that they were histories or of the theirideas objectors about genderaspects related which to objection,upon itself noton and personal are mostly the objection conscientious focused resources on these However clearly. declaration the of andtarget motivation the stress they often texts, prepared or written areall these Since audience. target with their communicate to COswanted the that within them, but also to the author’s tone and the audience of COs. of the texts declaration the text, since this is the wayanalyze tomy andhelpedme the contributed aswell,studies to andmilitaries which andstates antiwar it militarism,containsnews antimilitarism, and about articles Moreover, mostly material from website sincethey this conscientious every articlegather objection. about online written get could I Therefore, mentioned. are COs or objection conscientious issued. This site includes news individualabout COs newspaperor articles in which andgathereddeclarations, brief information thecontextabout in thedeclarationswhich were Ilearned thelocationswebsite by about and websiteadministrators. the of dates the antimilitarists. http://savaskarsitlari.org/ 16 Yeti for Fikret example, Moreover, interviews. he the for key of wasone the persons Therefore, “War Resisters” Turkey website, which is a center on the internet for war resisters, conscientious objectors and objectors conscientious resisters, war for internet on the center a is which website, Turkey Resisters” “War ú ener introduced meener Yavuz to Atan U and Ersan While analyzing the declaration texts, I paid attention not only to the words written Second, I have surveyed all of the declarations uploaded to the 26 ÷ ur Görhelpedme meet to Erkan Ersöz. Sava ú kar úÕ tlar Õ 16 CEU eTD Collection the interviews is that lived experience became crucial for my work in the analysis of analysis inthe my work for crucial became experience lived is that interviews the for elements that may be difficult topredict beforehand. fornecessary me interview useasemi-structured with method to COs in tocompensate order or to limit speechin the toavoid it information. order flowwas an of unnecessary Therefore clarify intervene itpoints when tosome was needed, and tone could alsoof voice. gestures I COsin interviewing way.a semi-structured Icould appearance, mimics, interviewees’ observe was I when advantages other had I Additionally, beforehand. collected had I that information and the statements interviewees’ questions on the base those tried to I situation. economic each about lifeobjector’s in order to understand his hispast, life experiences, and his socio- ask questions open-ended to Third,I tried objectors. the about details the questions or initial newlight. Therefore I needed tobe free todevelop follow-up questions in order to clarify the a in reactions their understand me to help would which subjects, new onto move to interview about issues those andhad made thosea thoughts part of lives,their mightthis have led the according to the flowbeto flexible with order the of questionsthe andfeel freeask follow-up to questions of thewanted I Second, interview.masculinity. hegemonic and militarism between interplay the and objection Since I assumedconscientious about literature related the ledmeanswersto connect the they to because that objectors hadaccording tothehegemonic masculinity they questions These werevery define. crucial already thought identities,their how they define hegemonicmasculinity, how and they position themselves what objector, conscientious and why do they how they refuse, themselves in define of terms conscientious review,literature aboutobjectors’ideas about Turkey,militarism nationalism, being a and interviews structured foras themethod First, thisIhad specificquestions study. basedthe on objector. These questions covered topics such as the definition of a I should alsomention that the main reason behind focusing primarily on the result of semi- choose to mentionedabove, from those apart more reasons, three There are 27 CEU eTD Collection responsibility belongs to me. considered socially as a structured term, therefore,I amusing this term withoutconsent their the and be also can which “sex” biological their to here Irefer “men.” becalled to refused objectors some boy), 18 London:and Routledge, 1992, pp. 22-40 17 asking more personal such questions, as thoseabout sexualitythe and sexual lives of COs. me from intimacy kept the level. This limited and communication havethe might affected knowledge they from carried past experiences meabout or groups the I used to belong to, becauseof the about a friend, awoman someone theyhaveprejudices or an interviewer, while others feltuncomfortable.addition me In to theirperception of asaperson,researcher, intimacy level dependedstudy mefrom prohibited most developing close with relationships of objectors.Thisthe on the COs’ character as well inadvantageous - further studies. possible some of them were myselfvery relaxed,as an insider of sorts.of which This some positionof the COs thatas an I spokeinsidersimilar resistance movements. Ihave also taken withpart in some antimilitarist oranarchisthasused groups, aidedto be a thispart. researchTherefore,many and I can ofcan also be theposition as do itmilitaristic state, as a seeing Turkishtotalitarian, the Republic, COs. about similar concerns Moreover,conscientious objector nor aman, Imay seem as an outsiderin this research. However, Ishareas an anti-militarist, masculinity.case hegemonic I support conscientious objectors and provide the opportunity to question provide theopportunity of assumptions to the narratives andhistory big by people recounted personal stories discusses, level. AsJoanScott microthe at masculinity With the reason that they do not want to be New York gendered Political, the Theorize withFeminists (eds.), Scott Joan any and Butler ofJudith in the “Experience” termsScott, Joan we use (such as man, woman, girl, Apart from the plurality of my position as a researcher, the time limitation of this men, with undertaken were interviewees the all While 28 18 and I am neither a 17 , in this , CEU eTD Collection compulsory compulsory doctors for service public to avoid considering them as a Iwouldlike tointroducethetwelvein“strategies”, interviewees by one order to be one, able determined six areas where the service can be done based on the socio-economic development index. development socio-economic on the based be done can service the where six areas determined appointed. are doctors the where region the to respect with differs service 19 howconscientious isabout objection a“tactics” of largely proceedings interviewees. on the depended the of tone the although conversation, informal an resembled interviews the time the of most centerof of city.the from The duration the 30 minutes varied totwo hours,and interviews the I also places usedother in Beyo was Leylathe Pub in Beyoglu in was locations Bookstore-Café One interview Amargi frequently the mostof Feminist the used place. the to familiarity of their because felt comfortable, interviewees the inwhich locations I mainly chose quietIstanbul. to close a city in Izmit, places one and in Istanbul COs eleven interviewed I in interviews. the order to record the interviews, on for place myself,the andthen we decided phone,Icalledintroduced the them on them and but I also attempted to choose research question, were useful which enough. my main to related questions ask specific crucial was able to I time, limited in this However, Newly graduated doctors have to conduct compulsory public service. The duration of compulsory public compulsory of duration The service. public compulsory conduct to have doctors graduated Newly II.1.2. Twelve asinterviewees objectors conscientious II.1.2. Tayfun Gönül (51), after completing a medicine degree, he refused to fulfill the Although they have common features, based on the discussion in the previous chapter previous in the discussion the on based features, common have they Although I contacted twelve objectors through two key COs. After the key had to key talked Afterthe COs key COs. two through twelve objectors I contacted , which is a haunt of feminists, antimilitarists and LGBTQ activists. Another place Another activists. andLGBTQ antimilitarists feminists, isahauntof which in Beyoglu, which was run by a CO, who was also one of the interviewees. group ÷ lu, : which is the heart of and places in heart other which isthe some Istanbul, of 19 , along with the compulsory military service. He 29 individual s for coping with state imposed The State Planning Organization has CEU eTD Collection into militaryinto prison again andon tortured the grounds of disobedience. Henowdefines Atorders. pointthis he had alreadybeen servingin military the for 9.5months. Hewas put he disobeyed until military, in the serve to started he prison, from released being After group. he between was andbeforethat simple 1995-2002, offense, a memberof a radical nationalist encountered the concept of conscientious objection. He was in prison for seven years for a Pub, which I usedas a place some for interviews. BEDI time butby transforming them into intermittent declarations. He is one of foundersthe of same the at declaring not by visible objection keep to well, in as he was a group Association, War by Izmir mainly Resisters taken of the decision as aresultthe before declaring, decided todeclare objection. Even though he made this decision in 1991, he waited twoyears even university student, as astudentleader. After he becamean inlate anarchist 1980s,he the this, the this, European Human Rights Court punished Turkishthe state. 22 21 Soyleminde Kurt Sorunu repressive policies to control the area, including military operations. For more informationsee: Yegen, M. of the city is that the population is politicized with leftist ideology. The Turkish state has beenapplying 20 indoctor company.a private concept the about After working objection.inof variousconscientious he fields, isnowa anarchist before he declaredTurkey. Hehad been ina member some leftist groupsfor awhile, andthen became an his objection. Through one of his foreign friends he first heard declared in his objection a journal, Osman Murat BEDI-BizÜlke Erkek Degiliz Inisiyatifi (‘We Areis Not Men’ Initiative)a CO, who declared conscientious objection Tunceli (Dersim) is a city where thein citizens are mostly1995, Kurdishand Alevi. The most prominent characteristic was in prison for 2.5 years. For 21 Mehmet Bal (34), shared the same prison ward with Osman Murat Ülke Yavuz Atan from (44), Tunceli . He is a management graduate and has worked in various jobs. Now he runs Leyla [KurdishQuestion in the State Discourse]. Istanbul: Iletisim, 1999. Sokak 20 in 1989 and become the first publicly known CO in CO known publicly first the become and in 1989 , took part in leftist organizations when he was a was he when organizations leftist in part took 30 22 where he where Devlet CEU eTD Collection Court with refusal to obey orders. After a while, he was put in jail again, this time for time this again, jail in put he was a while, After orders. obey to refusal with Court beliefs. Hereceived adisciplinary of punishment seven days andwas chargedbya Military military,he butheTurkish declared as take military not would that of a result his orders prison, where he spent 3 yearshas said that hedoes notwork because he notdoes need to,sincefor his him. family supports being a PKKleftist groupsand he defines himself as an antimilitarist. Hewas expelledmember. from university, and He wasConference inIstanbul2004whenhedeclaredhis Hewasamemberof some objection. forced to serve in the where his boss and colleagues do not care about his conscientious objection. conscientious his about care not do colleagues and boss his where antimilitarist only. Hehasbeen working asadesigner,as a freelancer,or in some companies member of anarchist groups for a long time; however he defines himself now as an more Fest, whereeight COs declared aswell.Militurizm Firstcalled the event Hehadbeen a five year old son. andhe a has objector, is a conscientious also His ex-wife graduate. Relations International is He an for “lackof heinterview discipline”. the wasdismissed after afewdays however, had been working asachief in journala editor trade for four years when I interviewed him, leftist organizations when he was in high consent. school and afterward or his application without heiseligible formilitary service, that states not which military, he became an anarchist. issue.point objection viewin of Hehas from a“badapple” received conscientious report the He with anarchism anymore. Herevised his indeclaration text 2009 toreflect his gender sensitive himself as an antimilitarist and anarchist in some cases, but he prefers not to be associated Halil Savda (34) was taken to military barracks immediately after coming out of out coming after immediately barracks military to taken was (34) Savda Halil Do Ersan Ersan U Erkan Ersöz (33), declared his conscientious objection in 2003. He was a member of ÷ an Özkan (32)was participatinginorganized anevent against NATO the ÷ ur Gör (33), declared in objection hisconscientious in 2004, an organized 31 CEU eTD Collection 24 Party). school school and wasmarried, hequit however, his job and gotdivorced for ideological He reasons. in 2008, in Militurnethe organization, asDeniz Özgürdid. Heworked as a teacher in a state 23 asa assistant. shop Heworks ideological reasons. for university not identified withKurdishness. Hecalls himself an anarchist anddropped out of the is COs.He from Diyarbak with other three Militurne time. and has two sons. He has his duringlived abroad hisyears in Arabicuniversity and for language Heis education. married own business for now, butMuslim livesand according his to religion, whichis the reason behindhis declaration.is He not planning to work he was taken by force in for2007. He is Kurdish and his fatheris a mullah. Hedefines himself as a long in the military regardless of his educational status. He does not have a regular job. anarcho-communist.He is still howevera student, since he is over 30; he is servesupposed to inHe had been2005. a member of S the apple” report from the military without his application or consent. or his military application from without the apple” report completing andisnowhis after unemployed. Healsohas primary education, a“bad received school quit He military. Turkish and PKK between on going been has war the where Turkey, “alienating the public from military service.” He is from Hakkari, in the Kurdish region of Diyarbak S ø P-Sosyalist ø Deniz Özgür(27)declared his inobjection in2008, an organized eventcalled Enver Aydemir (31) declared conscientious objection in the military draft office where Fikret Yeti brahim Y Õ r is a large Kurdish city in the South-eastern part of Turkey. øú çi Partisi (Socialist Worker Party); formerTKP-Türkiye Komünist Partisi (Turkish Communist Õ ú lmaz (31) islmaz who aKurdish(31) his objection anarchist declared conscientious ener (31) declared conscientious objection in Secondthe Militurizm Fest ø P 23 for seven years. Now he defines himself as an 32 Õ r 24 and he is Kurdish, however he does he however Kurdish, is he and CEU eTD Collection declare objection the next day in the Tomb Bedreddin. in day of next Sheikh Tomb the the declare objection read it to friends).his he after tomb, the at OfMiracles” Bird “The poem declaration his left (Aru in 1416. Empire Ottoman the against 25 ideologically to livingopposed aregular life. existence Without of Enver Aydemir,Icould among those elevennot activists and arenotwilling totake inpart any of kind political Additionally,activity. COs, thereare who eleven COs those among anarchists also are there circles. However, in the anarchist are COs who have operate or anarchists are be anarchists, used to who antimilitarists, active politically are there regularantimilitarists, those Among antimilitarism. of jobsin terms themselves define COs eleven other as wellthe Aydemir, Enver Except asinterviewed. I COs the among those commonalities or sub-groups about who are under written by hisname people.are texts other media the in found texts the of all that and text, declaration any have not he does that stated Aydemir Enver online. is not text declaration Gönül’s Tayfun well. as them among poem one is and andletters, there manifestos including aremostly prose, texts Declarations declarations. inincludingin ajournal,office, and thedraft eventsdesigned objection for at organized translator. freelance anarchist.He dropped out of his university for ideological reasons and henow works as a reasonforthe his declaration andin his ideology general. Hecalls himself a Muslim and an produce surplusproduce value. notwanthavejob not aregular Hedoes asan hedoes defines to himself since anarchist. Sheikh Bedreddin (1359-1420) was arevolutionary theologian andcharismatic preacherwho led a rebellion Although we cannot talk about a group or an organization of COs, we can still talk various in ways and places, declaredobjection We interviewees the that conclude can ø nan May Õ s Arufriends his (28)called in onenight 2008 andtold them he that would 33 25 He wrote a poem detailing CEU eTD Collection interviews and declaration texts, as supplementary data, in the following part. longer beestablished. can objection no conscientious and antimilitarism a between relationship direct Therefore, issue. objection conscientious the to dimension another added testimony this COs, eleven other the from differing life, Islamic orthodox an live and State, Turkish the of that military, like other studies did.ideology, anarchist antimilitarism and to related COs aresomehow all of the conclude that However, because Enver Aydemir only refuses to serve in a specific All in all, after summing up the information about the interviewees, I now analyze the 34 CEU eTD Collection provides COs free mobility in the city. 28 (01.06.2008, http://www.tumgazeteler.com/?a=2904197) 27 26 from the previous section, when we recall the short biographies of the interview subjects,declaration that to be complementary to their antimilitarist or religious stand points. It is obvious their declaration as COs and if, and how, theirlives have changed after declaration. position publicly known. Therefore, I would like to have a closer look at their motivations for military. or they have already themselvesdeclared COsby when disobeying orders they are in Inthe addition they that declare COs However military. to disobedience stemming from this decision, they also make their person by if an authorized are caught they mayarise. However, which any legal accept problems service or conscientious objection option, deciding not to serve the military forces citizens to is one of the ways that makes them distinct from draft evaders. serve forreasons refusing in to military the making this and decision publicly which known, draftevaders are million while there in one Turkey, interviewees’the own words. As discussedin sections,previous are there only male61 COs likestudy,wouldgive I to background abrief about process the of aCO,basedbecoming on II.2.Challenging Hegemonic Masculinity? Analysis of the interviews Minister of National Defense of Turkey has declared that there are at least one million draft evaders in Turkey in evaders draft million one atleast are there that declared has of Turkey Defense of National Minister There currentlyare 75 COs, including 14 womenCOs, in Turkey. Police has not been authorized to catch draft evaders since 2006 because of the new security law. This law. security new the of because 2006 since evaders draft catch to authorized been not has Police 28 The COs I interviewed declared objection mostly mostly The COsfor declaredobjection Iinterviewed political Theyconsider reasons. Since conscription is an for all Since conscription obligation andmale citizens is there noalternative Before I go on with the analysis of the interviews to answer my main question for this BecomingaconscientiousII.2.1. objector in Turkey , they are sent immediately to the military barracks, and usually then serve in the serve then usually and barracks, military the to immediately sent are , they will not serve in the military in case they get caught, get they incase military in the serve not 35 27 . Therefore, it is worth discussing their discussing worth is it Therefore, . 26 CEU eTD Collection could not serve in When military could to not hemilitary be and the wastaken armed anymore. the not carrying using or agun and by not servingin any kind military of system. he Therefore, by being rejecting killed, and of child through killing an innocent state return tothe wanted emphasized thathe had turned into someone whowas not aninnocentchild anymore. He Savda life, in prison experience additionally and army, Turkish in the and PKK in the andTurkish state spent three years in havingAfter all prison. “military these of experiences” one year as a PKK guerilla andfighting Turkish againstthe army. Hewas caught by the spending after barracks bygendarmerie, military the hewas declaredwhen taken to objection went homeleave on tohis and neverand joined returned armyservice, then PKK. the He Halil Savda’s case. Halil spent suchas in itself is of of refusal conscription, a practice a direct other cases,declaration some two and a half months in the Turkishobjection army, then isconscientious above, onementioned a ones the commitment,in like day cases, in some he that be remembered should It and therefore itsurrounding objection. Yet, isthere are other reasons for COs to declarerelated conscientious objection. to the future of the CO. However, in for himself:attitude” Socialist Workers Party,Similarly, Fikret Yeti also sees declarationthought he could transform his conscientious objection declaration intohis personal activism. as a way of activism,example, DenizÖzgür,whodefines himself as ananarchistandlives saidthathe accordingly, andFor “a activists. as years their proper spent have they and backgrounds, political active have politicalCOs most Deniz and Fikret’s motivations, as stated above, are examples of political above, of areexamples the reasons asstated motivations, Deniz andFikret’s thought I could combine and arts politics in way.this ways artistic the liked I also them. contacted immediately I me. for attitude political proper theya was this that andthought internet I the on declarations objection conscientious demonstrateI didn’t knowwhatwith I would do military the service problem. Isawthe Those days I was worried about my future because the theiruniversity was almost over and declarations, Militurizm Fest for instance. Maybe I ú ener, a new anarcho-communist who spent ten years as a member of the 36 CEU eTD Collection and declaration the after and explains sothis called “protection” forCOs: instance,his life compares freer before than evader Erkan For a draftthis new situation. with are they that COsstated The objectors. ofconscientious prosecution continuous the prevent Rights) in decision January implement2006, which 5 Turkey legislationrequired to to Courtof of ECHR(European Human few COsforthe lastyears, the with any because trouble above. According to COs the I interviewed, government the has been trying to avoid having again. once evaders goobliged tomilitary to service, since back thecivilian life,they become to turn draft they freed begins. after they and in was discussed However, parts, are conditionally previous the Then,disobedience. vicious the circle between ‘military’-‘military andwhich prison’ ‘court’, becauseof military areputin toby prison to force or taken areeither office, draftthe or a “rotten”. COs,like Halil Savda, who declare objection when they are in the military, orin evaders are asdraft still lives evaders, asdraft livingbeen characterized have already civilian legal aright.of status COs, who The or aterm objection notrecognizeas conscientious does because state Turkish in legal the of lives their similar status, terms become were, objection for conscientious reasons Whatever the state. Turkish contemporary of the analysis economic detailed reasons and background for being amale CO,since it requires adetailed socio- it notshouldaim study bemultileveled, however,does research that this clarified the to objection.conscientious Hedefines his motivation with followingthe words: declared and rules toobey the he refused from prison, after hewasreleased right barracks CO is related to this anti-militarist thought. anti-militarist this to isrelated CO for it being was aprocess. a immediately of Andmymotivation course, anti-militarist become an I didn’t peace. into be transformed cannot Violence suicide. committed revengeto see byhaving aweapon. take Iasifmychildhood wanted transformation this anger, of full was who someone into turned had fights never and violence from was away who[himself] is…The child conscientiousobjection for motivation My However, according tothe COs, the reality seemsslightly different than the one drawn and more complicated are say, behind declarations to reasons Needless the 37 CEU eTD Collection military, he during badtreatment discusses the his lockup experienced period: sent to a militaryharassed by legal state andthrough procedures “visits”the of police.the was Mehmet,who lockup for they disobeyingwent on the orders of their commanders. disobedienceafter they entered civilian life, they were treated badly during the military lockupafter period, since nine despite freedom COs stated relative the they of jail because in military had that, disobedience. and a half months of military.all,were placed they the First at already they when were who declared objection of service COs for the different was situation the However, mobility inthecity. COs’, or draft evaders’, in the to contributes draftevaders,catch also to longerauthorized police the areno that indicates different than the draft evaders. Mehmet says: evaders. Mehmet thedraft than different since they society in the marginalized been have they so military, in the serve not will they that weredeclared not silent keep they COshavehavelives because asasecret.However, to their position already about a taboo issue. This makes their position in the society nationalist he was than the other one… Commanders set the soldiers in the military in soldiers setthe the one… Commanders other the hewasthan nationalist more how prove to trying each soldiers,was least two at if were there alone, however having problemsI didn’tmany have that except during problems the military lockup Iwasn’t period. when I had the chance to talk to the other soldiers when they were and add that they will serve in the military as soon as they solve these problems. them, they say may They talk it. toyou about these about hidingtalk that never practicesthey if but they are alone. But if interesting there theyare at really least are two of practices hiding areevaders’ having somemarginalized. andlabeled Draft are awareof as therefore us andweare troublemakers problems, margins of society the itbutis we not something The state and constructed. police the let’s say problemsDraft in theevaders family live among ordinary people. But COs are different. We are at the demonstration, but not because I am a CO. it for the last six years. forprotection I COs, whichwas hasn’t been named yet,however Isense itby experiencing taken into custody sinceNothing happened then. as since Maybe even protected I was aCO because thereisa I was supporting othermy my changed nor Neither thedeclaration.perspective political status social after COs at a As an addition to what Erkan and Mehmet said, the new regulation in regulation new the said, Mehmet and Erkan what to addition an As Mehmet adds Mehmet draftevaders that aresilenced, andthey have adifferentposition in their 38 Moreover, their families were ø stanbul, which stanbul, CEU eTD Collection evader or a CO: or evader Aydemir, they chose to serve in military the and donotwant tolive an“illegal” life of a draft Muslim people of whoin consists lives he community the arethat said concerns, also religious his of because objection against serving in thewho declared Aydemir, them.Enver about worried and they because cared but declaration, Turkish military. of idea the against were they because not all, at them However,support not did or declaration, according to instance, theyCOs declared that theirsaid attitude is a concern thatshared their lives, daily by during andafter conscientious the objection declaration Moreover, period. the majority mostof their social circles.of For asuitabletheir basefor created andhorizontal relationships lifestyles their these life. Therefore, on outlook their friendswith in accordance and time over constructed been have positions, political supportedthat theCOs things both which shape emphasizedbefore that it is just a theirpart of their lives and life styles. Most of the intervieweeslives specified suchand as their COsafter thoughts,I interviewed, theirtheir declaration circle declarationitself momentthe be as a taken can part of According position. mostthis toof the wasof friendsnot a turning or their point in their lives. All of the interviewees service. military against stand his maintains CO the situations, in both Still, maltreatment. he gets military, evader status persists. However if he objection declares by to refusing obey inorders the objection citizen military of the when heoutside declares is evader,a draftalready his draft declaring objection, can make a difference in terms of the short-term results. If a male Turkish state. And also their personalities are different than mine so they through come so they minecould than are different And theirpersonalities also the state. with have may they problems the handling than rather military in the serving prefer they But concerns. same the share who similarly, think who friends of lot a have I they used thosepoorguys. lockup upon me, they told them that I am a rapist and a traitor before I was sent there, Since COs have taken a stand against military service before and after the declaration, the before after military and service Since against COshave taken a stand when military the of “inside” or “outside” being that then, concluded, be can It 39 CEU eTD Collection women and children, and be loyal to the nation. Despite the fact that a plurality of a plurality that fact the Despite nation. the to loyal be and children, and women beprotect able enough protect andstrong be to to the nation, well equipped obliged should to men are 2001). Therefore (Under, enemies internal from and external threat is constant under which influenced Turkish the politics by holding that society the be should ready for war and principles, ideology Darwinist fed society by Social the and of was a Kemalist militarization militarization insociety of Turkey (Altinay, 2005;Lucassen &Zurcher, The 1999). position in relation to the hegemonic masculinity of the Turkish state. and gender roles. Startingfrom this fact, Iwill investigate theirto find words about out their man” berelated “proper declarationonly itself,COs completeidentity the cannot butthe to to step, rejecting one of the most importantdeclaration part isinlives. point neither aseparate of Therefore, their a CO’slives nor abig parts of hegemonic masculinity or stancesrejecting being and a their of their expression is an declaration Although lives. in their wayviewpoints their represents of communication withititcan bewhichwas just objection step Rather, saidthat declaration. another conscientious the public, it is stillwould be inappropriate to define COs as people whose lives have changed with the not a significant turning way: his horizontal network supports him on issueandthis network howthe is in constructed this of my mind. of includeare who people minds;of their so therearenopeopleme around are not who in network a way to form their already in people my family. Besides, except reaction People around memostly me supported and mydecision.any get Ididn’t negative uniform, haircut… this service period even though they were unwilling toserve,couldn’t I havedonethat; As was discussed, PerceptionII.2.2. ofHegemonicby theCOs Masculinity hegemonic masculinity is constructed by the state through the It interviewed. COsI of the processes life inthe isastep objection Conscientious how defines also antimilitarist, an Ersan, stated, Aydemir Enver what to addition In 40 CEU eTD Collection “hegemonic masculinity” when I use “erkeklik in the society”. the in “erkeklik use I when masculinity” “hegemonic term the to refer will I on now from Therefore, time. same atthe of man” performance “sexual and “masculinity” masculinity hegemonic described a as number offeatures a man have,should orroles he interviewees of mostthe men warriors, as of Aydemir’s essentialization to well”.contrast In they fight, there is no suchit. Menarewarriors, man does Every military. typein he of serve “could aproper says that man who is not beliefs, religious his to a according army warrior,a proper not is which army inan serve not he will that even the says who cowardAydemir, Enver example, For be tracked. can ones ingeneral society of and aremasculinity warriors as hegemonic masculinity.With these both definitions, their perception of hegemonic masculinity interviewees’ hegemonic of perception and their related to daily reflections gender. inmy However, theiropinion, definitions arestill crucial since they the represent and militarism of intersection the on mentioned, previously studies related about information have is they that itclear as heteronormativity, they such use, concepts of the because cases, in later this parts concept the of this chapter. the society” have a close meaning to “hegemonic masculinity”. to “hegemonic aclosemeaning have society” the 29 their usageofhegemonic positionbe able to in “hegemonic masculinity”to order of asked COsabout their perception focus level on micro the of understanding ofhegemonic masculinity in Turkish society, I power important which has influenced the other types ofmasculinities in Inorder society. to impact on masculinities in society as a whole, and therefore should be considered to which isbe constructed through statethe ina very Turkishthe case (Altinay 2001),& Bora, has a big 2005), Messerschmidt, thisfigure dominant masculinity, of namely hegemonic masculinity, masculinities exists (Sancar, 2008)in Turkish society,like in societiesother (Connell & There is separateno worda for“masculinity” Turkish,in as was discussed“Erkeklik” before. or “erkeklik in The interviewees defined hegemonic masculinity in their own terms; however in some however terms; own intheir masculinity hegemonic defined interviewees The erkeklik 29 , especially when they position themselves in relation to 41 Erkeklik means “manhood”, “being aman”, “being “manhood”, means CEU eTD Collection Becoming a father is the ultimate level required for amanis level become man”. Becoming the afather ultimate to Asan a“proper required man,man a should have afamily through marryingthe of a womanandhaving children. “benefits” from this bargain, In aswasdiscussedbefore. the becomingthirdtoward step a he control the state, earnsfuture the of whenhislifeistotally under conscription period, grand children. By hierarchy the accepting and setting aside his during citizenship rights the hethat canlearn tobe commanderthe family-- of his hiswife, andprospective children also of transformation from childhood to manhood. In conscription, a man should obey orders so is alsoaceremony isan requirement, Islamic which Circumcision, marriage. and conscription circumcision, are well, as interviews the of some in mentioned also was which book, in The steps “man”this of 2008). (Selek, deserve in title the andreceive to take mustorder Selek, and “havingand excess difficulty” through life, ingeneral. the military in do soldiers exercises creeping to the referring “by creeping”, both means which sürüne”, “sürüne 30 Turkey’s withcontext, followingthe words: andstructured defined. Halil thegeneralsummarized features of being a“real” man in inshould tobe perform “respected” asa“man”order in society, whichareculturally the Becoming a Man by Creeping: The title indicates how difficult it is to become a man by using the words Sürüne Erkek Olmak become a man. to step And of first course is the you should be a Turk.circumcision since circumcised and Muslim Sunni be a also should tobeTherefore a“real” “full” or man,you should You bebreadwinner. aheterosexual is legally not possible for now and the social structure would neverallow such a thing. recognizedbe to as a man inimportant the society.is really You cannota family have a familyHaving as a homosexual,children. since those it through authority your earn money yourfor family. also You have tohave children because you will perform have job your should for family aproper you you areresponsible because have and to you oneisthat Another be aheterosexual. is thing to important military. other The the serve in beingfeatures amanisto of important most of one the that also military and is There in astrong discourse as if society menserve inall the to are willing the This definition by advanced Halil me reminds newly by the book published P 30 , where she an thenecessary defines steps individual 42 Õ nar CEU eTD Collection streets with the on fight otherexample, for and, men”, “proper be to men mentheir expect they iftherefore and model, necessary (if those men harassDo woman or curse the harms them. this role though even well, man” as role “proper perform the to force them man). Second, authoritative role of men is required by women in state. bythe promised as aright their social circle, and of stateoverhim,the yethis exercises members own authority others the over his family, of that these women accepts authority the malewho the citizen, obedient serves toreconstruct men.It also “other” patriarchy reconstruct in society, by thepositioning men” “proper as towomensuperior and this “bargain”performing and participating in hegemonic masculinity.As indiscussed previous sections, is one of manin a of has Thesearesome“advantages” return for they do. things that the account most crucialto having not and night, at especially mobility easier as such mission difficult his for return as aspects of hemission Additionally, undertakes. interviewees specifiedsome benefits other other hegemonic masculinity and is a way to figure is incrucial the construction of “the man”: addition to Halil’s summary, Deniz focuses on the father figure and how this authoritative ÷ an says there are two reasons for this. First, women recognize men with the “proper man” men with the“proper women recognize First, for an says this. are reasons there two being strong and authoritative is perceived as the most difficult task in life. violentmanner of manthe is by histolerated family and society because this of task on this belief. Sothe“proper man” should be strong and authoritative. Every rude or is such man” old women,protected, people. children The “proper or as based concept constructsand “properhisFirst of all “a proper man” has responsibilities such as beingof theprotector his family wife. fathers”. We, the There society, is a belief see that the there military are people as whothe have constructor to be of this role, it It shouldIt mostbe also underlined of that intervieweesthe agreedon factthe this that As Denizman a is mentions, be free violent to or rudeas a recompense of protection 43 men get CEU eTD Collection which deceives innocent girls and has sex with them or rape them. orrape them with sex has and girls innocent deceives which 31 different, improper, man: improper, different, women care about men, and they do not want them to have problems in the society as a performance of of conscription. performance and concept the about said military serve in the to refused conscription and to objected who malecitizens asTurkish what theinterviewees, atlook havea Iwill closer others’, in conscription ‘the man’ consistinglevels hierarchy of these ‘the state’, proper and‘the “improper”the man,below but stateandthe nation. the order In to understand role the of above and woman above level a on him positions and man proper the defines that hierarchy including mentioned those in sections.previous Again, these stress studies therethat is a studies, in academic definitions masculinity hegemonic the to isparallel inTurkey masculinity masculinity. of hegemonic of performance the because women, namely violence, to are addressed who ones the even of help ofits members, society,all the the with Tecavüzcü Co man since she cares about me, wants me to live a happy life as a toseeme“real” “manly” as a works me reminds about my sister especially And also, have accomplish to andifmen refuse todo works, those they leave thosepoorguys. something to behave in with want accordance rolethis model,wrong start women to think not that is there do men If relatives. or partners their with to model this impose [women] they those men. Women remind men about the manly works they The male role model women isto given slightlybetter than Co Tecavüzcü As Do Finally, it can be concluded that the interviewees’ perception itFinally, be interviewees’ hegemonic of can concludedthatperception the ú ÷ kun an narrates briefly, hegemonic masculinity finds a place for reconstruction in finds a reconstruction for place masculinity briefly,hegemonic an narrates (Rapist Co ú kun) is wellkun) a known movie character in Turkish the movies, the in1980’s, 44 normal man. ú kun 31 and CEU eTD Collection further step in the militarization process after national national after education: inprocess militarization step further the is a conscription how summarizes Ersan example, For of nation. the of militarization the they not do only tocompulsory object military nationalalsoservice, but to education, aspart uniforms, hierarchy Mostand discipline (Altinay, of 2001). intervieweesthe indicated that barracks with Monday morning and Friday evening ceremonies, physical education classes, military resemble also schools aschool, the military resembles fact the the that to In addition centers. aseducation canbecharacterized which institutions brother aretwo are constructed, institutions, identity and genderroles national in andtherefore two these which are educated, (Altinay, 2005). The military is one of the institutions where conscripts, namely male citizens, national security isand betweennational education out relationship there pointthat astrong is itto study, of crucial focus the this not nation is Turkish the of process militarization the of Commemoration Youth Atatürk, and Day’. Sports While place the of national in education for ‘The students preparing School were in teachers next sitting. café tothe which wewere military marches in uniforms, with trumpets and drums, were coming from the high school 32 nations. Whento besomethingin which Turkish youth show their strength to thenation and tothe other I was interviewing city on national holidays. Thesepreparations take a few months and these shows aredesigned present military presentmilitary band performance and ashow, includingmarching, Marching on national days was repealed forstudents with a new regulation beginning in April, 2009. It was a well-knownbarracks phenomenon “ II.2.3. in Turkey that both male and female students A laboratory toproduce men ø brahim, the noises of the school band, which plays ”: Being out of or a conscript in the military 45 32 in the stadiums of every CEU eTD Collection objectioninterchangeably. no regulation aboutis there publicsince service However, option objectors. in Turkey, total are they they sometimestherefore, use conscientious service, military for objection service and totalalternative an as service 34 Macmillan, 2005: 119-140.) The In Fronts”. more information see: Altinay, Aysegul. “The Army is a School, the School is anArmy: The Nation’s Two 33 have been defined by the state. According that havebeen by COs, whichindicates tothe thisdefined discourse, state. the that obligations citizenship of fulfillone the not they will that andthey declare standpoint, isadifficult which orders, institutions, state ofthestrongest one military’s, to the object men“strong image” and through a “strong Objectors antimilitaristmen brave image” (2006). the reconstruct antimilitarists that says and discourse in this danger the out points Speck mustface.” (1964:3). objector conscientious whichevery social can standuptothe pressures is at war, or threatened by war, requires very great courage indeed. Itis only a brave man who ithonored, is well remember to that to apply status when objector for conscientious nation the Cohen states, example, For antimilitarists. among baseddifference this on when canbeconstructed discourse he a ‘heroic’ discusses Therefore state. the despite standpoints their declare publicly and silent not are COs how people total objectors call COs,or standpoints, COs political cowards,similar have COs antimilitarist of circles social the that consideration into that “if courage is to be National Security Classes (MilliGüvenlik Dersleri) compulsoryare classes for all high schoolstudents (for Recall from the previous chapter that most of the COs I interviewed declared that they also reject public children. his wife, his of boss home, at chief bethe he will but military in the is subordinate he national education,more. in the Firstenough they shaped smash hisis not ego and thenthink theythey makewhom him men, believe young that the on work to try They classes stereotypediscriminatory them. They alot of racist, are system, there if at national look education the we instance, try to bring For society. tothe isimposed Militarism is militarism. to object The thing Iactually them up as prototypes. discourses For the National Security in the text books. They try to shape children, try to Therefore, after looking at Ersan’s comments on “shaping the generation” and taking and generation” the “shaping on comments Ersan’s at looking after Therefore, Myth of the Military-Nation: Militarism,Gender, and Education in Turkey 33 an officer comes to class. Conscription is just one of the bases of militarism. of bases ofthe one isjust class. Conscription to comes an officer 34 can be thought of as heroes among antimilitarists, since antimilitarists, among heroes as of thought be can 46 . New Ed. Palgrave Ed. New . CEU eTD Collection “civilian death”. concept the “civilian use circles political their in people the and media restrictions, legal the and court, and prison military 35 choosing ‘civilian death’ ‘civilian choosing that important step. However, they also reject the concept of “civilian death”, which death”, “civilian of concept the reject also they However, step. important that is on man” path becomingconscription the totake of astep andmanyCOsrefuse a“proper Conscription is also usedtoconstruct citizen identity,including genderroles. Therefore, their citizens (Foucault, 1979; Bröckling,although notnecessarily 2008), maleonly citizens. concept. As indicated in the previous section, conscription is a tool that states use to discipline street”),andthe livingin just therefore courage requires isTurkey, andcourage thus a state the as well (he says “this is Turkey, everythingmay happen even to ordinary people on is a common case in Turkey foreven citizens, “proper” as they may have legal problems with especially futuresince the is ambiguous for aCO. However,he also adds that this ambiguity in objection haveandhe todeclare Turkey, has thatsomeone says to courage conscientious society: from away them positions and COs it constructs a false image of the CO. For example, Deniz says that this discourse marginalizes feelings they that find because dangerous, this they discourse say itis amisunderstanding and and the political circles that they run in. However, almost every CO I interviewed voiced their In order to underline the life long difficulties COs experience; such as the vicious circle between military- between circle vicious the as such experience; COs difficulties long life the underline to order In relating conscientious objection to the concept courage, it puts the problem away from away people,itgains themeaning thatitissomething notproblem which the an ordinary person can puts do. it courage, concept the to objection conscientious relating me orpride. Theredo. iswhatthey If they nosuchfeelingkeep called courage want to harmony,because is it something Idefine myself with. Iam just saying Ican’tthat do socially norm; my constructed iseffort just tobeloyal the word-thought-action to of ‘pride’ leadsitdon’t peoplecourage agree with I itthem. Because calling torelate with concept the but ‘courage’ on objection] [conscientious issue this based as friends my of Some well. It is not something someone feels proud of. Bravery is also a Fikret, on the other hand, does relate the concept of conscientious objection to courage 35 isrequires courage, usedby not COs, butratherused by media the 47 normal CEU eTD Collection also men who reject using violence or the advantages of this culture (Sancar, 2008). Some theadvantages 2008). violence of using of menalso reject or (Sancar, culture this who use malepatriarchal through violence bargain and 2008; Kandiyoti,(Sancar, 1988) are there all that men use violenceandwomen are only victimsthe instance, ofviolence. Forwomen while controlling andexcludingthis incapacity However, be it women cannot(2008). argued This gender. maleto based culture and on for provokes disciplines violence violence inmen, capacity the related is it sex, biological to related not is violence male notes, Sancar Serpil performancesor of areidentified menpower, with involveand types various ofviolence. As tasks, these of All 2008). (Sancar, nation-state” the of enemies the against family…fight their in children the and women the control and “command to them allow bargain this from obtain fulfilling their endthebargain military is the rightof service toviolence. The advantages men that masculinity,of one whichindicates hegemonic male for getin citizens rewards the return below. I Therefore, will haveat look isfar a closer this relationship morecomplicated. objection conscientious and violence between relationship the and pacifist, is a CO every not However, of COsnote the they that and are already all they thus pacifists, are against of types violence. compulsory,legal andinstitutionalized ‘violence education’. Tosupport this argument, some in since the chapter, male firstmen, whichwasdiscussed areeligiblefor the only citizens lives their to morededicated then political the arena others. the are who and ones leaders the becomes heroes, more person that the legal restrictions, suffer becauseof aperson more circles the in male especially image, political since strong a which or“courage”, “hero” reconstructs as of attribution them,the aswell marginalizes II.2.4. Avillain II.2.4. or a goodman?Violence andhegemonic masculinity As previously demonstrated, there is a strong connection between violence and violence between connection strong is a there demonstrated, previously As violence with identification of the COschallenge by conscription, Moreover, rejecting 48 CEU eTD Collection Turkish state. 36 victim victim violence,of compounded byhis growing upin a Kurdish area as a Kurdish man: experienced both PKK the guerilla army and theTurkish army,State defines himself as a are alsoinstitutions of violence, even maythough seemthey less obvious. Halil, who thoughts: Denizin opposing institutionalized violence. Herelated his objection to his antiviolence as state. violence of the such the meaningdeeply the it.about heof Headdedthat isinstitutionalizedviolence, onlyagainst nowadaysthat people groups declare or as themselves against violence without thinking ismakinganarchist, against concept the of fetishanti-violence a asanewHe discourse. says Deniz,an example For violence. type of againstevery thatthey were not COsstated other some exemplify However violence category. this COswhothe declared they are against that There are a number of Kurdish people from the area who disappeared during the war between the PKK and the towns nightwithoutshowing people reasons,doused inacid andburned them,bombed the state torturedIt is in violence. I lived aplace extreme an where experienced the area wherepeople random people to prove authority, killed families in the middle of the processesofviolence. the creating production gunsof those ifyou sayyou areagainst usage the of guns. Iobjectall to violencejust isnot being againstusingguns. should You alsobe againstthe and thehave job. Ialso problemsperceptions of with beingsecurity. Ithink against marriage, gave thosethings: violence upall I and Iam against Since Iwasateacher. someone shoulddon’tit. accept that I I am against and violence a certain isalso place at working work toThe meaning ofviolence may dependingdiffer definition.the on Inmy opinion, earn money. I passed through those stages: I was married, which provide violencefor people. cannot thereis Andalso, security by violence used PKK, says security,havethat for is indicatesviolence I that necessary understood theydiscourse arestate. fightingI know PKK peopletortured andbombedthe which some towns, they labeled as of supporters the victims, I am againstone of them. Therefore the as theTurkish opposite of what statestate since it practices violence, From From what 36 … There is no respect for human rights. But not only the state, but also the ø brahimit said,can bemarriagesjobs, concludedthat regular andmilitaries ø brahim, who used to be married and a teacher, agrees with agrees be andbrahim, married whoused to ateacher, 49 CEU eTD Collection other peopleother believingmen that actually of approve thingsthe done thatare women,to to keep that silences “the silence, to men leads which enactment’, ‘homosocial from stemming psychological violence, suchas homophobia. AsKimmel isa argues, homophobia fear “other men”. They argue that they institutionalizedare against violence,including men, the members of Mehmet said about howhewants to take responsibilitythe violencethe of performedBEDI by all refuse to take lies violencewhatbetween masculinity. mutual Incontrast relationship andhegemonic the to the responsibility of the violent behavior of the objection is a part of his anti-violence thoughts. He stated that under BED or BED and specifically by men. the responsibilities of the execution of violence, especially violence against women, by people victim of it, and now he defineshalf months ofmilitary he stated experiencedthat service, using through violence it, notas a himself as a pacifist and wantswho used to be a member of a radical tonationalist group andcarry declared objection after nine and a the burden of all peoplethe around the world,of especially civilians. On otherhand,the for example Mehmet, sincemistake, to ofviolence, itonly existingculture all the whichoppresses contributed of performed by men. responsibility guilt the of subjective in that violence, position I wantthe tocarryitand Iwant to take for that using through it. My guilt.self-criticism stemmedfrom this fact.Idon’twantget to rid of I am a of violence.the pacifist ButI used to be the subject of theviolence; Iexperienced violence butMost of I the COs’feel pacifists. all conscientious are friends my and mostly objectionpolitics responsible originated feminist by influenced from were theirthoughts position as the object for allI usedthe violence to be against only the military but I am a pacifist now. My anti-violence doesn’t solve any problem. toviolence every was subjected andIam it violence against Iknowthat of since type exploitation, assimilation and oppression on Kurdish people. As a Kurdish person, I Yavuz, who is the founder of Halil also adds that his participation in the PKK and the Turkish armies was a big ø ), says that he is also against institutionalized violence and adds that conscientious Biz Erkek De 50 ÷ iliz ø nisiyatifi (We Are Not Men Initiative ø ’s refusal beto men CEU eTD Collection ideals and theirindividual positions were mixed. ask this question observed directly howthey positioned themselves in relation hegemonicto masculinity, Iwanted to to get their self-perceptions, since in their previous answers their and the mutual between relationship masculinity hegemonic and violence. individual. objection Conscientious is of one ways the of rejecting institutionalized violence the with starting and time over changed be can in society men with it of identification to them, normalization violence Accordingof institutionalized the violence. or all against viewpoint by indicating: point to rather but out have, men problems the out point to not is aim their that therefore, and oppressor, there areconjunction with feminist andLGBTQ groups. However, they also consider men to be the different indemonstrated black veils condemnto They violence. the also preparedemonstrations in men who aresilence politics. After Pipa Bacca,an wasraped andItalian artist, killedin the group Turkey, against violence.not silent at all. Yavuz behave in The general accordance the with and homophobicviolent image of men, and they are starting summarizes pointminorities, to gays andlesbians” (Kimmel, However, 1994). of this group menof refuses to the group this activities is a good example of these anti- silent about violence is violence very silent about crucial. only theiragainst physical psychologicalor integrity. raising Conscious beingand not types of violence, wecan violentcontrol our behaviors againstpeople’s integrity; not the system between men it cooperation of because the when use islegitimized violence however and men; of hands the at only is not men. Violence society. in the violence of Therefore,prevention ifIf we therecan be conscious appear enough more of this groupsfact, and the like BEDI, the most important effect will be on the I asked the COs I interviewed to compare themselves to compare themselves interviewed to COsI I askedthe objectors’ masculinitybythe objectors themselves AreII.2.5. theobjectors different? Acomparison ofhegemonic masculinity and are pacifists, or are antimilitarists COs who those it that can be concluded Therefore 51 erkeklik in society. Although I CEU eTD Collection in rejecting hegemonic masculinity, but it does not mean that they managed to reject every identity is not as easy as rejecting the military identity. In his words: the Rejecting identities. other among those reject identities to easiest of the one was saididentity military Mehmet the example, that For complication. atnight without streets the on walking as such advantages, certain have to them permits and men as them recognizes However, as some other COs also said, society, except within their own social circles, still report. Deniz and it by since heisaCO and documented andstate the giving him anantimilitarist, a “rotten” hand, Halil said other the On children. thatnationalist and secular, heobedient, does raising of mission the with not state the fit into the ideal male citizenupon Turkishness, nor did he say that hemodel is nota nationalist, secular citizen, who is ascharged by defined by the state heis Kurdish when he was comparing himself the to that mention not he did However, friends. his than different him makes which team, football a support not he does and him, around men the than critical more far is he that said Aydemir Enver example For fit. not do they terms with citizen ideal the defined they although citizens, situation to conscientious objection. Most of them did not mention that they are not ideal objection may objection be justalittle step. want toget ridconscientious I of; These aresome advantages a man,wasthere. to memy not andto recognize her because shedidn’t partner, assomeone totalk I, to she puppetproject, talked about our head-mistress talka school tothe to andwent to I and provides advantages mekeeps treating as mya man. example, For [female] partner label etc. me andas aman. Iwanttobesociety alternative, Although different just Ican’tsay “I my man”. Because my am recognized. hair-style, not Even clothes military identity by just rejecting it. But, for example, for But, it. rejecting byjust identity military with every is clearBut so identity sovisible, identify. arearticulated Military identities to other day lives so it is difficult to notice them. It was easier to get rid of that Some of the COs argue that conscientious objection is an attitude, and therefore a step, None of COs the said they the “proper” menwere and only a few of them related this ø brahim brahim notdo even wish todefine themselves even with word“men”.the 52 erkeklik in the society, which isbuilt which society, inthe erkeklik is so difficult to be erkeklik CEU eTD Collection this case, for COs. for case, this members of society,that trying tochange identity is their adifficultprocess for men, andin society has with the power. Since society Since reconstructs with power. has society the society by bargains of as aresultthe society it, itis of and reconstructed primarily aspects of the conscientious madeobjection conscientious him question becomingexample, justaspect of aCO.For masculinity hegemonic through said Yavuz that According to them identity. that torejectis iteasier is visible, andas long saythatastheidentity with state the have they relationship the not lives, daily their on focus them of most However go. to way all, while some others say that they are trying to be different,society, but indicatethough thatat differentthere is a long levels. Some say that they are totally distinct, or even not men at change it. change position try to and my inthesociety be awareof I haveleast I amin; to at oppressor circle social the and myself change to have I First doing? we are what but them blame me on and institutions imposed inWethe “normal”. being name of the areagainst Iwas Of course questioning related to related memakes it question more. Although I cannot object orchange all my behaviors Therefore, it can be said that COs see themselves different than the “other” men in than “other” the different COs seeit themselves can be that said Therefore, erkeklik erkeklik , I got more suspicious about every step I take and everything is not easy to be defined, and thus it is difficult to be aware of all erkeklik erkeklik before being a CO, but conscientious objection 53 more: erkeklik and imposes it on all of the CEU eTD Collection hegemonic masculinity withinmilitaries society, donot only idealcreate citizens, they also chapter of this study. in hierarchy, itheteronormativity the society was as inthefirstand patriarchal discussed man is soldier andthe norm.of society, defined asthe the constructs This militarization by is inin with state constructed the masculinities society, the the amongaccordance masculinity dominant the is which masculinity, hegemonic that see we Republic, Turkish the at When versa. isof we look vice and anintegral nationalism andpart masculinity projects, these with in accordance reconstructed or areconstructed man andwoman of roles the that citizen”. “proper roles of the gender the and therefore only military is Conscription compulsory service. used to construct newthe citizenidentity is myth nation” a in“military anditself result realized process of this male- militarization the Turkish Republic baseditself on modernizationthe of nationthe militarization.through The nationalist projectsof Turkishthe its Republic.order tocreate In imagined community, the militarism. of in terms isdefined which masculinity is refusal obligation,conscientious objection, of citizenship aresistanceofhegemonic the identity society. However, and apatriarchal in citizenshipcrucial the constructing is conscription of militarization society, of As apart Republic. Turkish of beginning the the since masculinity hegemonic of component important an isstill conscription that thesis in the possible way of itchallengingand conscientious inobjectors Itwasexploredparticular. sofar in Turkey, the role of conscriptionCONCLUSION in this intersectionality, conscientious objection as a Although militaries are the primary institutions used by the state to create and create impose by to state arethethe primary used institutions militaries Although and nationalistprojects, lies attheheart of feminist gender the According studies, to is militarization in of society As itwas discussedpart, the a of first resultthe masculinity hegemonic between militarism and This intersection the thesis discussed 54 CEU eTD Collection such as anarchists, antimilitarists or Islamic communities. Moreover, a comparative study a comparative Moreover, communities. Islamic or antimilitarists anarchists, as such COs; create communities whichinclude or exploring related the objection, or conscientious comprehensive study including of aspects the other theory, psycho-sociology such as of circles. social in those visible staying through masculinity such as being antimilitarists orMuslim, they stay in system the and challenge the hegemonic own self integrity by However,because theexternalidentities, power. refusing of other their their protect but COs, as system the change to aim not do they Therefore system. the of out findings of this study, COs,as individuals, create gaps in hegemonicthe masculinity and stay the to According militarism.and masculinity betweenhegemonic intersectionality the study. This study can be seen asmasculinity onconscientious inobjectors order to find ananswer mainthe to of question this a bridge between micro and of hegemonic explore thereflections to Itried male COsfrom macroTurkey. twelve with interviews levels of the analysis of for objection conscientious this blurredarea. isantimilitarism and anarchism. Turkey one of in examples the studiesthe related to movements, antiwar and objection a conscientious blurredarea between create studies Again,these like itandis not disobedience. that system, and outside of a resistantthe argue COs as evaders. anddraft treat asaright objection conscientious inright 1987, however, Turkey is oneof countriesthe still notrecognizewhich does movementsantiwar and ideology. is Conscientious objection internationally as recognized a such as religious or political.beginning ofHowever, the conscription,the back to stretches objection conscientious The history of objectors. politicalconscientious reasons18th century. are more There recent are anda variety related of to reasonsthe for being a CO, It can be elaborated more on this issue and make general conclusions with a more more with on can a makeIt be general this issueand elaborated conclusions discuss semistructured In order to above mentioned and apply theories Iconducted the The studies onconscientious objection mostly on focus subjectivitythe of conceptthe 55 CEU eTD Collection hegemonic masculinity,hegemonic and may furtherlead studiesin future. the and objection conscientious between relation the on discussions in the taken step is a between Turkey countriesand other couldmore reliable provide Therefore, study results. this 56 CEU eTD Collection Cohen, C.(1978).Conscientious Objection. 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