Freedom and Regulation on the Information Superhighway A study of the Internet Content Rating System in South Korea You-Seung Kim A thesis submitted to the University of London in fulfilment for the award of a Doctor of Philosophy Degree School of Library, Archive, and Information Studies University College London University of London 2004 UMI Number: U592247 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U592247 Published by ProQuest LLC 2013. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Abstract This PhD thesis aims to explore issues relating to Internet content regulation and the methods of dealing with illegal and harmful content on the Internet. Firstly, the thesis begins with a discussion of the theoretical issues relating to freedom and regulation on the Internet. Debates over freedom of expression and governmental regulation on the Internet are critically appraised through case studies in the US, Australia, China, the UK and the EU. Furthermore, the notion of Internet self/co-regulation and its advantages and drawbacks are considered. Issues relating to the implementation of co-regulation regarding Internet content are also explored. Secondly, detailed technical reviews and critiques of the Internet content filtering and rating systems are conducted. Two US legal cases that deal with filtering software issues are discussed. Ten stand-alone filtering software products are reviewed in order to examine how the filtering technologies are applied to commercial products in practice. Three leading Internet content rating systems are also examined. Thirdly, close attention is paid to Internet content regulation in South Korea. Its significant Internet usage and infrastructure are explored. A mandatory Internet content rating system in use in South Korea is analysed and situated within a broader context. Its impacts on actual Internet contents are researched through case studies and a survey. The thesis concludes by examining the theoretical potential for better solutions to the controversial issues of freedom of expression and regulation on the Internet. Finally, a number of policy proposals concerning Internet content regulation are critically discussed and a number of recommendations are made. 2 ABSTRACT 2 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 10 LIST OF TABLES 13 LIST OF FIGURES 15 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCING THE INTERNET 1.1. Introduction 17 1.2. The Emergence of the Internet 20 1.3. The Nature of the Internet 24 1.4. The Literature on Internet Regulation: A Utopian Vision and a Digital Panopticon 29 1.5. Regulating Information on the Internet 36 CHAPTER 2 FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION AND REGULATION ON THE INTERNET 2.1. Declarations and Conventions on Freedom of Expression 46 2.2. Responsibilities of Freedom of Expression 50 2.3. The Internet is not a Legal Vacuum 54 2.4. Regulating Illegal and Harmful Content on the Internet 57 2.4.1. Illegal Content and Harmful Content 57 2.4.2. Illegal Content 58 2.4.3. Harmful Content 60 2.5. Freedom of Expression in South Korea 62 2.6. Governmental Internet Regulation 71 2.6.1. The US 72 2.6.1.1. The Communications Decency Act 1996 73 2.6.1.2. The Child Online Protection Act 1998 79 2.6.1.3. The Implications of the CDA and the COPA 82 2.6.2. Australia 84 2.6.2.1. The Broadcasting Services Amendment (Online Services) Act 1999 84 2.6.2.2. The Features of the Australian Internet Content Regulation 87 2.6.2.3. A Critique of the Australian Internet Content Regulation 88 2.6.3. China 90 2.6.3.1. China: Internet Legislation 1996-2000 91 2.6.3.2. Technical Measures for Controlling Internet Content in China 93 2.6.3.3. A Modem Paradox in China 95 2.6.4. The EU and the UK 97 2.6.4.1. The UK: Governmental Regulation against Obscene Internet Content 98 2.6.4.2. The Development of the EU Internet Content Policy 101 2.7. A Comparative Analysis of Governmental Internet Content Regulation 106 2.8. Beyond Governmental Internet Regulations 108 CHAPTER 3 SELF-REGULATION ON THE INTERNET 3.1. Introduction 111 3.2. The General Definition of Self-Regulation 111 3.3. Self-Regulation of Internet Content: Definition and Aims 114 3.3.1. Advantages of Internet Content Self-Regulation 117 3.3.2. A Critique of Internet Content Self-Regulation 119 3.4. Co-Regulation of Internet Content 121 3.5. Implementation of Internet Content Co-Regulation: The Safer Internet Action Plan 122 3.6. Internet Content Self-Regulatory Institutions in Europe 126 3.6.1. The Internet Watch Foundation, UK 127 3.6.2. INHOPE 130 3.7. Conclusion 13 2 4 CHAPTER 4 THE FIRST GENERATION FILTERS 4.1. Introduction 13 5 4.2. Technical Aspects of First Generation Filtering Software 136 4.2.1. Definition 136 4.2.2. Methods of Filtering 137 4.2.3. Locations of Filtering 139 4.3. Technical Review: 10 Examples of Commercial Filtering Software 141 4.3.1. Filtering Coverage 143 4.3.2. Filtering Methods 145 4.3.3. Reporting 149 4.3.4. Customisability 150 4.3.5. Usability 153 4.3.6. Effectiveness 157 4.4. A Critique of First Generation Filtering 164 4.5. Free Speech Rights Issues of Filtering Software on the Internet 168 4.5.1. Case Study: Mainstream Loudoun v. Board of Trustees of the Loudoun County Library, Virginia, 1998 170 4.5.2. Case Study: The Children’s Internet Protection Act, 2000 173 4.6. Conclusion 179 CHAPTER 5 THE INTERNET CONTENT RATING SYSTEM 5.1. Introduction 183 5.2. Internet Content Rating System: Technical Specification 183 5.2.1. PICS 183 5.2.2. PICSRules 192 5.2.3. RDF 194 5.3. Internet Content Rating System: Technical Analysis 196 5.3.1. The SafeSurf System 197 5.3.2. The RSACi System 199 5 7.1.3. Je o n g b o T o n g s in m a n g Iy o n g C h o k jin M it Je o n g b o B o h o D e u n g e G w a n h a n B e o p y u l [Act on Promotion of Information and Communication Network Utilisation and Information Protection, etc.] 248 7.1.3.1. Article 31 and the Internet Content Rating System 249 7.1.3.2. Article 42 and the Indication Method for Harmful-to-youth Content on the Internet 253 7.2. Technical Review: Two Internet Content Rating Systems of the ICEC 255 7.2.1. SafeNet Internet Content Rating System 256 7.2.2. The Harmful-to-youth Material Indication System 260 7.3. A Critique of ICEC Deliberation 265 7.4. A Critique of ICEC Third-Party Rating 269 7.5. Conclusion 270 CHAPTER 8 THE IMPACTS OF THE INTERNET CONTENT RATING SYSTEM ON THE ACTUAL INTERNET CONTENTS IN SOUTH KOREA 8.1. Introduction 274 8.2. Case Study I: EXZONE.COM 274 8.3. Case Study II: iNOSCHOOL.NET 284 8.4. Rating and Removal Orders 288 8.5. Questionnaire Analysis 290 8.5.1. Introduction 290 8.5.2. Section I: General Information 291 8.5.3. Section II: The Internet Content Rating System 292 8.5.4. Section III: The Harmful-to-youth Medium Material Indication System 299 8.5.5. Section IV: Labelling and Rating 304 8.5.6. Findings 213 8.6. Conclusion 214 7 CHAPTER 9 A STEP TOWARDS THE NEW INTERNET CONTENT REGULATION IN SOUTH KOREA 9.1. Introduction 318 9.2. Article 53 of the Telecommunications Business Act and the Korean Constitutional Court 318 9.3. Reformed Bill of Article of the Telecommunications Business Act 322 9.4. Co-Regulation of Internet Content and South Korea 325 9.5. The Absence of the Self-Regulation System in South Korea 327 9.6. Towards the New Internet Content Regulation 329 9.6.1. A Role of the Government 329 9.6.2. Responsibilities of the Internet Industry 332 9.6.3. Empowering End-Users 336 9.7. Conclusion: The Korean “R3 Net” Strategy 337 CHAPTER 10 CONCLUSION: THE FUTURE OF INTERNET CONTENT REGULATION 10.1. Introduction 342 10.2. A Critique of the Governmental Internet Content Regulation 345 10.3. Is the Co-operative Model a Right Answer? 348 10.3.1. Risk of Self-Regulation 350 10.3.2. Limitation of International Consent 3 51 10.3.3. Defect of Technical Solutions 352 10.3.4. Recommendations 354 10.4. The Future of Internet Content Regulation 355 BIBLIOGRAPHY 363 8 APPENDIX A Technical Specifications of Reviewed Filtering Software 407 APPENDIX B Comparative Table: Technical Specifications of Reviewed Filtering Software 418 APPENDIX C Technical Review: 10 Examples of Commercial Filtering Software: The List of the Sample Websites and the Detailed Results 420 APPENDIX D The SafeSurf SS— Rating Standard 431 APPENDIX E The Statistics of ICEC Deliberations (1997-2002) 436 APPENDIX F Notification of the Commission on Youth Protection (No. 2000-31) 443 APPENDIX G Questionnaire: The Impacts of the Internet Content Rating System on the Actual Internet Contents in South Korea 445 APPENDIX H The Questionnaire Sample List 453 9 List of Abbreviations ARPA Advanced Research Projects Agency ACLU American Civil Liberties Union ALA American Library Association ABA Australian Broadcasting Authority CDA Communication Decency Act, US CDT Center for Democracy and Technology CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research COPA Child Online Protection Act, US CIPA Children’s Internet Protection Act, US CRE Commission for Racial Equality, UK CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organisation, Australia CYP Commission on Youth Protection, South Korea DARPA Defense Advanced