“Nietzsche” redirects here. For other uses, see Nietzsche these published editions, Nietzsche’s name became as- (disambiguation). sociated with fascism and Nazism,[12] although 20th- century scholars have contested this interpretation of his work. His thought enjoyed renewed popularity in the Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (/ˈniːtʃə/[1] German: 1960s, and his ideas have since had a profound im- [ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈvɪlhɛlm ˈniːtsʃə]͡ ; 15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a German philosopher, cultural critic, pact on twentieth and early-twenty-first century thinkers across philosophy—especially in schools of continental poet, and Latin and Greek scholar whose work has exerted a profound influence on Western philosophy philosophy such as existentialism, postmodernism, and [2][3][4][5] post-structuralism—as well as art, literature, psychology, and modern intellectual history. Beginning [3][4][5][13][14] his career as a classical philologist before turning to politics, and popular culture. philosophy, he became the youngest-ever occupant of the Chair of Classical Philology at the University of Basel in 1869, at age 24. He resigned in 1879 due to 1 Life health problems that plagued him most of his life, and he completed much of his core writing in the following 1.1 Youth (1844–69) decade.[6] In 1889, at age 44, he suffered a collapse and [7] a complete loss of his mental faculties. He lived his Born on 15 October 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the small remaining years in the care of his mother (until her death town of Röcken, near , in the Prussian Province in 1897) and then his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, of Saxony. He was named after King Frederick William [8] and died in 1900. IV of Prussia, who turned forty-nine on the day of Niet- Nietzsche’s body of writing spanned philosophical zsche’s birth. (Nietzsche later dropped his middle name polemics, poetry, cultural criticism, aphorism, and fiction “Wilhelm”.[15]) Nietzsche’s parents, Carl Ludwig Niet- while displaying a fondness for metaphor and irony.[9] zsche (1813–49), a Lutheran pastor and former teacher, His thought drew variously on philosophy, art, history, and Franziska Oehler (1826–97), married in 1843, the religion, and science, and engaged with a wide range year before their son’s birth. They had two other children: of subjects including morality, metaphysics, language, a daughter, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, born in 1846, epistemology, value, aesthetics, and consciousness. and a second son, Ludwig Joseph, born in 1848. Niet- Among the chief elements of his philosophy are his radi- zsche’s father died from a brain ailment in 1849; Ludwig cal rejection of the existence and value of objective truth; Joseph died the next year, at age two. The family then his atheistic critique of religion and morality, and of moved to , where they lived with Nietzsche’s Christianity in particular, which he characterized as prop- maternal grandmother and his father’s two unmarried sis- agating a slave morality in the service of cultural decline ters. After the death of Nietzsche’s grandmother in 1856, and the denial of life;[2][10] his characterization of the hu- the family moved into their own house, now Nietzsche- man subject as the expression of competing wills, collec- Haus, a museum and Nietzsche study center. [11] tively understood as the ; and the aesthetic Nietzsche attended a boys’ school and then, later, a pri- affirmation of existence in response to the "death of God" vate school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug, [2] and the profound challenge of nihilism. His later work, Rudolf Wagner, and Wilhelm Pinder, all of whom came which saw him develop influential (and frequently misun- from highly respected families. derstood) concepts such as the Übermensch and the doc- trine of eternal recurrence, became increasingly preoc- In 1854, he began to attend Domgymnasium in Naum- cupied with the creative powers of the individual to over- burg but since he showed particular talents in music and come social, cultural, and moral contexts toward a state language, the internationally recognized Schulpforta ad- of aesthetic health.[5] mitted him as a pupil. He transferred and studied there from 1858 to 1864, becoming friends with Paul Deussen After his death, Elizabeth Forster-Nietzsche became and Carl von Gersdorff. He also found time to work on the curator and editor of her brother’s manuscripts, re- poems and musical compositions. At Schulpforta, Ni- working Nietzsche’s unpublished writings to fit her own etzsche received an important grounding in languages— German nationalist ideology while often contradicting Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and French—so as to be able to or obfuscating his stated opinions, which were explic- read important primary sources;[16] he also experienced itly opposed to antisemitism and nationalism. Through for the first time being away from his family life in a small-

1 2 1 LIFE

Nietzsche in his younger days

in theology and classical philology at the University of Bonn. For a short time he and Deussen became members of the Burschenschaft Frankonia. After one semester Nietzsche in 1861 (and to the anger of his mother), he stopped his theo- logical studies and lost his faith.[21] As early as his 1862 essay “Fate and History”, Nietzsche had argued that his- town conservative environment. His end-of-semester ex- torical research had discredited the central teachings of ams in March 1864 showed a 1 in Religion and Ger- Christianity,[22] but David Strauss's Life of Jesus also man; a 2a in Greek and Latin; a 2b in French, His- seems to have had a profound effect on the young man.[21] tory, and Physics; and a “lackluster” 3 in Hebrew and In 1865, at the age of 20, Nietzsche wrote to his sister [17] Mathematics. Elisabeth, who was deeply religious, a letter regarding his While at Pforta, Nietzsche had a penchant for pursu- loss of faith. This letter ended with the following sen- ing subjects that were considered unbecoming. He be- tence: came acquainted with the work of the then almost- unknown poet Friedrich Hölderlin, calling him “my fa- “Hence the ways of men part: if you wish vorite poet” and composing an essay in which he said that to strive for peace of soul and pleasure, then the mad poet raised consciousness to “the most sublime believe; if you wish to be a devotee of truth, ideality”.[18] The teacher who corrected the essay gave it then inquire...”[23] a good mark but commented that Nietzsche should con- cern himself in the future with healthier, more lucid, and Nietzsche subsequently concentrated on studying philol- more “German” writers. Additionally, he became ac- ogy under Professor Friedrich Wilhelm Ritschl, whom he quainted with Ernst Ortlepp, an eccentric, blasphemous, followed to the University of Leipzig in 1865.[24] There, and often drunken poet who was found dead in a ditch he became close friends with his fellow student Erwin Ro- weeks after meeting the young Nietzsche but who may hde. Nietzsche’s first philological publications appeared have introduced Nietzsche to the music and writing of soon after. [19] . Perhaps under Ortlepp’s influence, In 1865, Nietzsche thoroughly studied the works of he and a student named Richter returned to school drunk Arthur Schopenhauer. He owed the awakening of his and encountered a teacher, resulting in Nietzsche’s demo- philosophical interest to reading Schopenhauer’s The tion from first in his class and the end of his status as a [20] World as Will and Representation and later admitted that prefect. Schopenhauer was one of the few thinkers whom he re- After graduation in 1864, Nietzsche commenced studies spected, dedicating to him the essay "Schopenhauer as 1.2 Professor at Basel (1869–78) 3

Schopenhauer's philosophy strongly influenced Nietzsche’s earli- est philosophical thought.

Educator" in the . In 1866, he read Friedrich Albert Lange's History of Materialism. Lange’s descriptions of Kant’s anti-materialistic philosophy, the rise of European Mid-October 1871. From left: Erwin Rohde, Karl von Gersdorff, Materialism, Europe’s increased concern with science, Nietzsche. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, and the general rebellion against tradition and authority intrigued Niet- zsche greatly. The cultural environment encouraged him ogy at the University of Basel in Switzerland. He was only to expand his horizons beyond philology and continue 24 years old and had neither completed his doctorate nor his study of philosophy, although Nietzsche would received a teaching certificate. Despite the fact that the ultimately argue the impossibility of an evolutionary offer came at a time when he was considering giving up explanation of the human aesthetic sense.[25] philology for science, he accepted.[29] To this day, Niet- In 1867, Nietzsche signed up for one year of voluntary zsche is still among the youngest of the tenured Classics [30] service with the Prussian artillery division in Naumburg. professors on record. Before moving to Basel, Niet- He was regarded as one of the finest riders among his zsche renounced his Prussian citizenship: for the rest of [31][32] fellow recruits, and his officers predicted that he would his life he remained officially stateless. soon reach the rank of captain. However, in March 1868, Nevertheless, Nietzsche served in the Prussian forces dur- while jumping into the saddle of his horse, Nietzsche ing the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) as a medi- struck his chest against the pommel and tore two mus- cal orderly. In his short time in the military, he expe- cles in his left side, leaving him exhausted and unable to rienced much and witnessed the traumatic effects of bat- walk for months.[26][27] Consequently, Nietzsche turned tle. He also contracted diphtheria and dysentery. Walter his attention to his studies again, completing them and Kaufmann speculates that he might also have contracted meeting with Richard Wagner for the first time later that syphilis along with his other infections at this time.[33][34] year.[28] On returning to Basel in 1870, Nietzsche observed the establishment of the German Empire and Otto von Bis- marck's subsequent policies as an outsider and with a de- 1.2 Professor at Basel (1869–78) gree of skepticism regarding their genuineness. His inau- gural lecture at the university was "Homer and Classical In part because of Ritschl’s support, Nietzsche received a Philology". Nietzsche also met Franz Overbeck, a pro- remarkable offer to become professor of classical philol- fessor of theology who remained his friend throughout 4 1 LIFE

his life. Afrikan Spir, a little-known Russian philosopher Age of the Greeks. Between 1873 and 1876, he published responsible for the 1873 Thought and Reality, and Niet- four separate long essays: “David Strauss: the Confessor zsche’s colleague the famed historian Jacob Burckhardt, and the Writer”, “On the Use and Abuse of History for whose lectures Nietzsche frequently attended, began to Life”, “Schopenhauer as Educator” and “Richard Wag- exercise significant influence on him during this time.[35] ner in Bayreuth”. These four later appeared in a collected Nietzsche had already met Richard Wagner in Leipzig in edition under the title Untimely Meditations. The essays 1868 and later Wagner’s wife, Cosima. Nietzsche ad- shared the orientation of a cultural critique, challenging mired both greatly and, during his time at Basel, he fre- the developing German culture along lines suggested by Schopenhauer and Wagner. During this time, in the circle quently visited Wagner’s house in Tribschen in Lucerne. The Wagners brought Nietzsche into their most intimate of the Wagners, Nietzsche met Malwida von Meysenbug and Hans von Bülow, and also began a friendship with circle and enjoyed the attention he gave to the beginning of the Bayreuth Festival. In 1870, he gave Cosima Wag- Paul Rée, who in 1876 influenced him into dismissing the pessimism in his early writings. However, he was deeply ner the manuscript of “The Genesis of the Tragic Idea” as a birthday gift. In 1872, Nietzsche published his first disappointed by the Bayreuth Festival of 1876, where the book, . However, his colleagues banality of the shows and baseness of the public repelled within his field, including Ritschl, expressed little enthu- him. He was also alienated by Wagner’s championing siasm for the work, in which Nietzsche eschewed the clas- of “German culture”, which Nietzsche felt a contradic- sical philologic method in favor of a more speculative ap- tion in terms, as well as by Wagner’s celebration of his proach. In his polemic Philology of the Future, Ulrich fame among the German public. All this contributed to von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff dampened the book’s re- Nietzsche’s subsequent decision to distance himself from ception and increased its notoriety. In response, Rohde Wagner. (then a professor in Kiel) and Wagner came to Nietzsche’s With the publication in 1878 of Human, All Too Human defense. Nietzsche remarked freely about the isolation (a book of aphorisms ranging from metaphysics to moral- he felt within the philological community and attempted ity to religion to gender studies), a new style of Niet- unsuccessfully to transfer to a position in philosophy at zsche’s work became clear, highly influenced by Afrikan Basel instead. Spir's Thought and Reality[36] and reacting against the pessimistic philosophy of Wagner and Schopenhauer. Nietzsche’s friendship with Deussen and Rohde cooled as well. In 1879, after a significant decline in health, Niet- zsche had to resign his position at Basel. (Since his child- hood, various disruptive illnesses had plagued him, in- cluding moments of shortsightedness that left him nearly blind, migraine headaches, and violent indigestion. The 1868 riding accident and diseases in 1870 may have ag- gravated these persistent conditions, which continued to affect him through his years at Basel, forcing him to take longer and longer holidays until regular work became im- practical.)

1.3 Independent philosopher (1879–88)

Living off his pension from Basel and aid from friends, Nietzsche travelled frequently to find climates more con- ducive to his health and lived until 1889 as an indepen- dent author in different cities. He spent many summers in Sils Maria near St. Moritz in Switzerland. He spent his winters in the Italian cities of Genoa, Rapallo, and Turin and the French city of Nice. In 1881, when France occu- pied Tunisia, he planned to travel to Tunis to view Europe from the outside but later abandoned that idea, probably for health reasons.[37] Nietzsche occasionally returned to Naumburg to visit his family, and, especially during this time, he and his sister had repeated periods of conflict and reconciliation. Nietzsche in c. 1872. While in Genoa, Nietzsche’s failing eyesight prompted In 1873, Nietzsche began to accumulate notes that would him to explore the use of typewriters as a means of con- be posthumously published as Philosophy in the Tragic tinuing to write. He is known to have tried using the 1.3 Independent philosopher (1879–88) 5

Hansen Writing Ball, a contemporary typewriter device. lomé,[41] through Malwida von Meysenbug and Paul Rée. In the end, a past student of his, Heinrich Köselitz or Nietzsche and Salomé spent the summer together in Peter Gast, became a sort of private secretary to Niet- Tautenburg in Thuringia, often with Nietzsche’s sister zsche. In 1876, Gast transcribed the crabbed, nearly il- Elisabeth as a chaperone. Nietzsche, however, regarded legible handwriting of Nietzsche for the first time with Salomé less as an equal partner than as a gifted stu- Richard Wagner in Bayreuth.[38] He subsequently tran- dent. Salomé reports that he asked her to marry him and scribed and proofread the galleys for almost all of Niet- that she refused, though the reliability of her reports of zsche’s work from then on. On at least one occasion on events has come into question.[42] Nietzsche’s relationship February 23, 1880, the usually broke Gast received 200 with Rée and Salomé broke up in the winter of 1882– marks from their mutual friend, Paul Rée.[39] Gast was 83, partially because of intrigues conducted by Elisabeth. one of the very few friends Nietzsche allowed to criticize Amidst renewed bouts of illness, living in near-isolation him. In responding most enthusiastically to Zarathustra, after a falling out with his mother and sister regarding Sa- Gast did feel it necessary to point out that what were de- lomé, Nietzsche fled to Rapallo. Here he wrote the first scribed as “superfluous” people were in fact quite neces- part of in only ten days. sary. He went on to list the number of people Epicurus, By 1882 Nietzsche was taking huge doses of opium for example, had to rely on even to supply his simple diet [43] [40] but was still having trouble sleeping. In 1883, while of goat cheese. staying in Nice, he was writing out his own prescrip- To the end of his life, Gast and Overbeck remained con- tions for the sedative chloral hydrate, signing them “Dr. sistently faithful friends. Malwida von Meysenbug re- Nietzsche”.[44] mained like a motherly patron even outside the Wagner After severing his philosophical ties with Schopenhauer circle. Soon Nietzsche made contact with the music-critic (who was long dead and never met Nietzsche) and his Carl Fuchs. Nietzsche stood at the beginning of his most social ties with Wagner, Nietzsche had few remaining productive period. Beginning with Human, All Too Hu- friends. Now, with the new style of Zarathustra, his work man in 1878, Nietzsche would publish one book or major became even more alienating and the market received it section of a book each year until 1888, his last year of only to the degree required by politeness. Nietzsche rec- writing; that year, he completed five. ognized this and maintained his solitude, though he of- ten complained about it. His books remained largely un- sold. In 1885, he printed only 40 copies of the fourth part of Zarathustra and distributed only a fraction of these among close friends, including Helene von Druskowitz. In 1883 he tried and failed to obtain a lecturing post at the University of Leipzig. It was made clear to him that, in view of his attitude towards Christianity and his concept of God, he had become effectively unemployable by any German university. The subsequent “feelings of revenge and resentment” embittered him: “And hence my rage since I have grasped in the broadest possible sense what wretched means (the depreciation of my good name, my character, and my aims) suffice to take from me the trust of, and therewith the possibility of obtaining, pupils.”[45] In 1886 Nietzsche broke with his publisher Ernst Schmeitzner, disgusted by his antisemitic opinions. Niet- zsche saw his own writings as “completely buried and un- exhumeable in this anti-Semitic dump” of Schmeitzner— associating the publisher with a movement that should be “utterly rejected with cold contempt by every sensi- ble mind”.[46] He then printed at his own expense. He also acquired the publication rights for his earlier works and over the next year issued second editions of The Birth of Tragedy, Human, All Too Hu- man, Daybreak, and with new prefaces placing the body of his work in a more coherent perspec- tive. Thereafter, he saw his work as completed for a time Lou Salomé, Paul Rée and Nietzsche, 1882. and hoped that soon a readership would develop. In fact, interest in Nietzsche’s thought did increase at this time, In 1882, Nietzsche published the first part of The Gay if rather slowly and hardly perceptibly to him. During Science. That year he also met Lou Andreas Sa- 6 1 LIFE

these years Nietzsche met Meta von Salis, Carl Spitteler, and Gottfried Keller. In 1886, his sister Elisabeth also married the antisemite Bernhard Förster and travelled to Paraguay to found Nueva Germania, a “Germanic” colony—a plan to which Nietzsche responded with mocking laughter.[47] Through correspondence, Nietzsche’s relationship with Elisabeth continued through cycles of conflict and reconciliation, but they met again only after his collapse. He contin- ued to have frequent and painful attacks of illness, which made prolonged work impossible. In 1887 Nietzsche wrote the polemic On the Genealogy of Morals. During the same year, he encountered the work of Fyodor Dostoevsky, to whom he felt an immedi- ate kinship.[48] He also exchanged letters with Hippolyte Taine and Georg Brandes. Brandes, who had started to teach the philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard in the 1870s, wrote to Nietzsche asking him to read Kierkegaard, to which Nietzsche replied that he would come to Copen- hagen and read Kierkegaard with him. However, before fulfilling this promise, he slipped too far into illness. In the beginning of 1888, Brandes delivered in Copenhagen one of the first lectures on Nietzsche’s philosophy. Although Nietzsche had previously announced at the end Drawing by Hans Olde from the photographic series, The Ill Ni- of On The Genealogy of Morals a new work with the ti- etzsche, late-1899. tle The Will to Power: Attempt at a Revaluation of All Values, he eventually seems to have abandoned this idea and instead used some of the draft passages to compose after his death states that Nietzsche witnessed the flogging and in 1888.[49] of a horse at the other end of the Piazza Carlo Alberto, His health seemed to improve, and he spent the summer ran to the horse, threw his arms up around its neck to in high spirits. In the fall of 1888, his writings and letters protect it, and then collapsed to the ground.[51][52] began to reveal a higher estimation of his own status and In the following few days, Nietzsche sent short writings— “fate”. He overestimated the increasing response to his known as the Wahnbriefe (“Madness Letters”)—to a writings, however, especially to the recent polemic, "The number of friends including Cosima Wagner and Jacob Case of Wagner". On his 44th birthday, after complet- Burckhardt. Most of them were signed "Dionysos", ing Twilight of the Idols and The Antichrist, he decided though some were also signed “der Gekreuzigte” or “the to write the autobiography . In its preface— crucified one”. To his former colleague Burckhardt, Ni- which suggests Nietzsche was well aware of the interpre- etzsche wrote: “I have had Caiaphas put in fetters. Also, tive difficulties his work would generate—he declares, last year I was crucified by the German doctors in a “Hear me! For I am such and such a person. Above all, do very drawn-out manner. Wilhelm, Bismarck, and all not mistake me for someone else”.[50] In December, Ni- anti-Semites abolished.”[53] Additionally, he commanded etzsche began a correspondence with August Strindberg the German emperor to go to Rome to be shot and and thought that, short of an international breakthrough, summoned the European powers to take military action he would attempt to buy back his older writings from the against Germany.[54] publisher and have them translated into other European languages. Moreover, he planned the publication of the On 6 January 1889, Burckhardt showed the letter he had compilation and of the poems received from Nietzsche to Overbeck. The following day, that made up his collection Dionysian Dithyrambs. Overbeck received a similar letter and decided that Niet- zsche’s friends had to bring him back to Basel. Over- beck travelled to Turin and brought Nietzsche to a psy- 1.4 Mental breakdown and death (1889– chiatric clinic in Basel. By that time Nietzsche appeared 1900) fully in the grip of a serious mental illness, and his mother Franziska decided to transfer him to a clinic in Jena un- On 3 January 1889, Nietzsche suffered a mental collapse. der the direction of Otto Binswanger. In January 1889, Two policemen approached him after he caused a public they proceeded with the planned release of Twilight of disturbance in the streets of Turin. What happened re- the Idols, by that time already printed and bound. From mains unknown, but an often-repeated tale from shortly November 1889 to February 1890, the art historian Julius 1.5 Citizenship, nationality, ethnicity 7

Peter Gast would “correct” Nietzsche’s writings after the philoso- pher’s breakdown and did so without his approval, an action severely criticized by modern scholars. The house Nietzsche stayed in while in Turin (background, right), as seen from across Piazza Carlo Alberto, where he is said to have of any kind of morality and to frame new laws had, if they had his breakdown. To the left is the rear façade of the Palazzo were not actually mad, no alternative but to make them- Carignano. selves or pretend to be mad” (Daybreak,14). The diagno- sis of syphilis has since been challenged and a diagnosis of "manic-depressive illness with periodic psychosis fol- Langbehn attempted to cure Nietzsche, claiming that the lowed by vascular dementia” was put forward by Cybul- methods of the medical doctors were ineffective in treat- ska prior to Schain’s study.[59][60] Leonard Sax suggested ing Nietzsche’s condition. Langbehn assumed progres- the slow growth of a right-sided retro-orbital meningioma sively greater control of Nietzsche until his secretiveness as an explanation of Nietzsche’s dementia;[61] Orth and discredited him. In March 1890, Franziska removed Ni- Trimble postulated frontotemporal dementia[62] while etzsche from the clinic and, in May 1890, brought him other researchers have proposed a hereditary stroke dis- to her home in Naumburg. During this process Over- order called CADASIL.[63][64] Poisoning by mercury, a beck and Gast contemplated what to do with Nietzsche’s treatment for syphilis at the time of Nietzsche’s death,[65] unpublished works. In February, they ordered a fifty- has also been suggested.[66] copy private edition of Nietzsche contra Wagner, but the In 1898 and 1899 Nietzsche suffered at least two strokes publisher C. G. Naumann secretly printed one hundred. which partially paralyzed him, leaving him unable to Overbeck and Gast decided to withhold publishing The speak or walk. He likely suffered from clinical hemi- Antichrist and Ecce Homo because of their more radical paresis/hemiplegia on the left side of his body by 1899. content. Nietzsche’s reception and recognition enjoyed After contracting pneumonia in mid-August 1900, he their first surge. had another stroke during the night of 24–25 August In 1893, Nietzsche’s sister Elisabeth returned from Nueva and died at about noon on 25 August.[67] Elisabeth had Germania in Paraguay following the suicide of her hus- him buried beside his father at the church in Röcken bei band. She read and studied Nietzsche’s works and, piece Lützen. His friend and secretary Gast gave his funeral by piece, took control of them and their publication. oration, proclaiming: “Holy be your name to all future Overbeck eventually suffered dismissal and Gast finally generations!"[68] Nietzsche had written in Ecce Homo (at co-operated. After the death of Franziska in 1897, Niet- that point still unpublished) of his fear that one day his zsche lived in Weimar, where Elisabeth cared for him and name would be regarded as “holy”. allowed visitors, including Rudolf Steiner (who in 1895 Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche compiled The Will to Power had written one of the first books praising Nietzsche),[55] from Nietzsche’s unpublished notebooks and published to meet her uncommunicative brother. Elisabeth at one it posthumously. Because his sister arranged the book point went so far as to employ Steiner as a tutor to based on her own conflation of several of Nietzsche’s help her to understand her brother’s philosophy. Steiner early outlines and took great liberties with the mate- abandoned the attempt after only a few months, declar- rial, the scholarly consensus has been that it does not re- ing that it was impossible to teach her anything about flect Nietzsche’s intent. (For example, Elisabeth removed philosophy.[56] aphorism 35 of The Antichrist, where Nietzsche rewrote Nietzsche’s mental illness was originally diagnosed as a passage of the Bible.) Indeed, Mazzino Montinari, the tertiary syphilis, in accordance with a prevailing med- editor of Nietzsche’s Nachlass, called it a forgery.[69] ical paradigm of the time. Although most commenta- tors regard his breakdown as unrelated to his philosophy, Georges Bataille dropped dark hints ("'Man incarnate' 1.5 Citizenship, nationality, ethnicity must also go mad”)[57] and René Girard's postmortem psychoanalysis posits a worshipful rivalry with Richard General commentators and Nietzsche scholars, whether Wagner.[58] Nietzsche had previously written, “all supe- emphasizing his cultural background or his lan- rior men who were irresistibly drawn to throw off the yoke guage, overwhelmingly label Nietzsche as a “German 8 2 PHILOSOPHY

philosopher”.[70][71][72][73] Others do not assign him a time.[89] The Nietzsche scholar Joachim Köhler has at- national category.[74][75][76] Germany had not yet been tempted to explain Nietzsche’s life history and philoso- unified into a nation-state but Nietzsche was born a phy by claiming that Nietzsche was homosexual. Köhler citizen of Prussia, which was then part of the German argues that Nietzsche’s syphilis, which is “usually consid- Confederation.[77] His birthplace, Röcken, is in the ered to be the product of his encounter with a prostitute modern German state of Saxony-Anhalt. When he in a brothel in Cologne or Leipzig, is equally likely, it accepted his post at Basel, Nietzsche applied for the is now held, to have been contracted in a male brothel annulment of his Prussian citizenship.[78] The official in Genoa”.[90] Köhler also suggests Nietzsche may have response confirming the revocation of his citizenship had a romantic relationship as well as a friendship with came in a document dated April 17, 1869,[79] and for the Paul Rée. Köhler’s views have not found wide accep- rest of his life he remained officially stateless. tance among Nietzsche scholars and commentators. Al- Nietzsche believed that his ancestors were Polish,[80] at lan Megill argues that while Köhler’s claim that Niet- zsche was in confrontation with homosexual desire can- least toward the end of his life. He wrote in 1888, “My ancestors were Polish noblemen (Nietzky); the type not simply be dismissed, “the evidence is very weak” and Köhler may be projecting twentieth-century under- seems to have been well preserved despite three genera- [81] standings of sexuality on nineteenth-century notions of tions of German mothers.” At one point Nietzsche be- [91] comes even more adamant about his Polish identity. “I am friendship. Other scholars have argued that Köhler’s sexuality-based interpretation is not helpful in under- a pure-blooded Polish nobleman, without a single drop of [92][93] bad blood, certainly not German blood.”[82] On yet an- standing Nietzsche’s philosophy. Some like Nigel other occasion Nietzsche stated “Germany is a great na- Rodgers and Mel Thompson have argued that continuous tion only because its people have so much Polish blood in sickness and headaches hindered Nietzsche from engag- their veins [...] I am proud of my Polish descent.”[83] Ni- ing much with women. Yet, they bring other examples in which Nietzsche expressed his affections to other women, etzsche believed his name might have been Germanized, [94] in one letter claiming, “I was taught to ascribe the ori- including Wagner’s wife Cosima Wagner. gin of my blood and name to Polish noblemen who were called Niëtzky and left their home and nobleness about a hundred years ago, finally yielding to unbearable suppres- 2 Philosophy sion: they were Protestants.”[84] Most scholars dispute Nietzsche’s account of his family’s origins. Hans von Müller debunked the genealogy put forward by Nietzsche’s sister in favor of a Polish noble heritage.[85] Max Oehler, the curator of the at Weimar, argued that all of Nietzsche’s an- cestors bore German names, even the wives’ families.[81] Oehler claims that Nietzsche came from a long line of German Lutheran clergymen on both sides of his fam- ily, and modern scholars regard the claim of Nietzsche’s Polish ancestry as a “pure invention”.[86] Colli and Mon- tinari, the editors of Nietzsche’s assembled letters, gloss Nietzsche’s claims as a “mistaken belief” and “without foundation.”[87][88] The name Nietzsche itself is not a Pol- ish name, but an exceptionally common one through- out central Germany, in this and cognate forms (such as Nitsche and Nitzke). The name derives from the forename Nikolaus, abbreviated to Nick; assimilated with the Slavic Nitz, it first became Nitsche and then Nietzsche.[81] It is not known why Nietzsche wanted to be thought of as Polish nobility. According to biographer R. J. Holling- dale, Nietzsche’s propagation of the Polish ancestry myth may have been part of the latter’s “campaign against Germany”.[81]

1.6 Relationships and sexuality

Nietzsche never married. Nietzsche proposed to Lou Salomé three times, but his proposal was rejected each Friedrich Nietzsche in 1869. 2.1 The “slave revolt” in morals 9

Main article: Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche ancient Jewish priesthood whom he claims antisemitic Christians paradoxically based their views upon.[104] Because of Nietzsche’s evocative style and his often out- rageous claims, his philosophy generates passionate re- 2.1 The “slave revolt” in morals actions. His works remain controversial, due to varying interpretations and misinterpretations of his work. In the Main article: Master–slave morality Western philosophy tradition, Nietzsche’s writings have been described as the unique case of free revolutionary thought, that is, revolutionary in its structure and prob- In Beyond Good and Evil and On the Genealogy of Moral- lems, although not tied to any revolutionary project.[95] ity, Nietzsche’s genealogical account of the development of modern moral systems occupies central place. For Ni- In Daybreak, Nietzsche begins his “Campaign against etzsche, a fundamental shift took place during human his- Morality”.[96][97] He calls himself an “immoralist” and tory from thinking in terms of “good” and “bad” toward harshly criticizes the prominent moral philosophies of his “good” and “evil”. day: Christianity, Kantianism, and utilitarianism. Niet- zsche is also known for being very critical of the Western The initial form of morality was set by a warrior belief in egalitarianism and rationality. Nietzsche’s con- aristocracy and other ruling castes of ancient civiliza- cept "" applies to the doctrines of Chris- tions. Aristocratic values of “good” and “bad” coin- tendom, though not to all other faiths: he claimed that cided with and reflected their relationship to lower castes Buddhism is a successful religion that he compliments for such as slaves. Nietzsche presents this “master moral- fostering critical thought.[98] Still, Nietzsche saw his phi- ity” as the original system of morality—perhaps best as- losophy as a counter-movement to nihilism through ap- sociated with Homeric Greece. To be “good” was to be preciation of art: happy and to have the things related to happiness: wealth, strength, health, power, etc. To be “bad” was to be like Art as the single superior counterforce the slaves over which the aristocracy ruled, poor, weak, against all will to negation of life, art as the sick, pathetic—an object of pity or disgust rather than anti-Christian, anti-Buddhist, anti-Nihilist par hatred. excellence.”[99] “Slave morality” comes about as a reaction to master- morality. Here, value emerges from the contrast be- Nietzsche claimed that the Christian faith as practised tween good and evil: good being associated with other- was not a proper representation of Jesus’ teachings, as it worldliness, charity, piety, restraint, meekness, and sub- forced people merely to believe in the way of Jesus but not mission; and evil seen as worldly, cruel, selfish, wealthy, to act as Jesus did, in particular his example of refusing and aggressive. Nietzsche sees slave morality as pes- to judge people, something that Christians had constantly simistic and fearful, values for them serving only to ease done the opposite of.[98] He condemned institutionalized the existence for those who suffer from the very same Christianity for emphasizing a morality of pity (Mitleid), thing. He associates slave-morality with the Jewish and which assumes an inherent illness in society:[100] Christian traditions, in a way that slave-morality is born out of the ressentiment of slaves. Nietzsche argued that Christianity is called the religion of pity. the idea of equality allowed slaves to overcome their own Pity stands opposed to the tonic emotions condition without hating themselves. And by denying the which heighten our vitality: it has a depressing inherent inequality of people (such as success, strength, effect. We are deprived of strength when we beauty or intelligence), slaves acquired a method of es- feel pity. That loss of strength which suffering cape, namely by generating new values on the basis of re- as such inflicts on life is still further increased jecting something that was seen as a perceived source of and multiplied by pity. Pity makes suffering frustration. It was used to overcome the slave’s own sense contagious.[101] of inferiority before the (better-off) masters. It does so by making out slave weakness to be a matter of choice, by, In Ecce Homo Nietzsche called the establishment of e.g., relabeling it as “meekness.” The “good man” of mas- moral systems based on a dichotomy of good and evil ter morality is precisely the “evil man” of slave morality, a “calamitous error”,[102] and wished to initiate a re- while the “bad man” is recast as the “good man.” evaluation of the values of the Judeo-Christian world.[103] Nietzsche sees the slave-morality as a source of the ni- He indicates his desire to bring about a new, more nat- hilism that has overtaken Europe. Modern Europe and uralistic source of value in the vital impulses of life it- Christianity exist in a hypocritical state due to a tension self. While Nietzsche attacked the principles of Judaism, between master and slave morality, both values contradic- he was not antisemitic: in his work On the Genealogy torily determining, to varying degrees, the values of most of Morality, he explicitly condemns antisemitism, and Europeans (who are motley). Nietzsche calls for excep- pointed out that his attack on Judaism was not an attack tional people to no longer be ashamed of their uniqueness on Jews as a people but specifically an attack upon the in the face of a supposed morality-for-all, which he deems 10 2 PHILOSOPHY

to be harmful to the flourishing of exceptional people. He world ought not to be, and that the world as it cautions, however, that morality, per se, is not bad; it is ought to be does not exist. According to this good for the masses, and should be left to them. Excep- view, our existence (action, suffering, willing, tional people, on the other hand, should follow their own feeling) has no meaning: this 'in vain' is the “inner law.” A favorite motto of Nietzsche, taken from nihilists’ pathos—an inconsistency on the part Pindar, reads: “Become what you are.” of the nihilists. A long standing assumption about Nietzsche is that he — Friedrich Nietzsche, KSA 12:9 [60], taken preferred master over slave morality. However, the Niet- from The Will to Power, section 585, translated by Walter Kaufmann zsche scholar Walter Kaufmann rejected this interpreta- tion, writing that Nietzsche’s analyses of these two types of morality were only used in a descriptive and historic Nietzsche approaches the problem of nihilism as a deeply sense, they were not meant for any kind of acceptance or personal one, stating that this problem of the mod- glorifications.[105] ern world is a problem that has “become conscious” in him.[109] Furthermore, he emphasizes both the danger of 2.2 Death of God and nihilism nihilism and the possibilities it offers, as seen in his state- ment that “I praise, I do not reproach, [nihilism’s] arrival. Main articles: God is dead and Nihilism I believe it is one of the greatest crises, a moment of the deepest self-reflection of humanity. Whether man recov- ers from it, whether he becomes master of this crisis, is a The statement God is dead, occurring in several of Niet- question of his strength!"[110] According to Nietzsche, it zsche’s works (notably in The Gay Science), has become is only when nihilism is overcome that a culture can have one of his best-known remarks. On the basis of it, most a true foundation upon which to thrive. He wished to [106] commentators regard Nietzsche as an atheist; others hasten its coming only so that he could also hasten its ul- (such as Kaufmann) suggest that this statement reflects a timate departure. Heidegger interprets the death of God more subtle understanding of divinity. Recent develop- with what he explains as the death of metaphysics. He ments in modern science and the increasing secularization concludes that metaphysics has reached its potential and of European society had effectively 'killed' the Abra- that the ultimate fate and downfall of metaphysics was hamic God, who had served as the basis for meaning proclaimed with the statement God is dead. and value in the West for more than a thousand years. The death of God may lead beyond bare to outright nihilism, the belief that nothing has any in- 2.3 herent importance and that life lacks purpose. Here he states that the Christian moral doctrine provides people Main article: Apollonian and Dionysian with intrinsic value, belief in God (which justifies the evil in the world) and a basis for objective knowledge. In this The Apollonian and Dionysian is a philosophical con- sense, in constructing a world where objective knowledge cept, or dichotomy, based on certain features of an- is possible, Christianity is an antidote to a primal form of cient Greek mythology: Apollo and Dionysus. While nihilism—the despair of meaninglessness. As Heidegger the concept is famously related to The Birth of Tragedy, put the problem, “If God as the suprasensory ground and poet Hölderlin spoke of them before, and Winckelmann goal of all reality is dead, if the suprasensory world of the talked of Bacchus. One year before the publication of ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory and above it The Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche wrote a fragment ti- its vitalizing and upbuilding power, then nothing more re- tled “On Music and Words”.[111] In it he asserted the mains to which man can cling and by which he can orient [107] Schopenhauerian judgment that music is a primary ex- himself.” pression of the essence of everything. Secondarily deriva- One such reaction to the loss of meaning is what Niet- tive are lyrical poetry and drama, which represent mere zsche calls 'passive nihilism', which he recognises in the phenomenal appearances of objects. In this way, tragedy pessimistic philosophy of Schopenhauer. Schopenhauer’s is born from music. doctrine, which Nietzsche also refers to as Western Bud- Nietzsche found in classical Athenian tragedy an art form dhism, advocates separating oneself from will and desires that transcended the pessimism found in the so-called in order to reduce suffering. Nietzsche characterises this wisdom of Silenus. The Greek spectators, by looking ascetic attitude as a “will to nothingness”, whereby life into the abyss of human suffering depicted by characters turns away from itself, as there is nothing of value to be on stage, passionately and joyously affirmed life, finding found in the world. This moving away of all value in the it worth living. A main theme in The Birth of Tragedy world is characteristic of the nihilist, although in this, the [108] was that the fusion of Dionysian and Apollonian "Kun- nihilist appears to be inconsistent: sttrieben" (“artistic impulses”) forms dramatic arts, or tragedies. He goes on to argue that this fusion has not A nihilist is a man who judges that the real been achieved since the ancient Greek tragedians. Apollo 2.4 Perspectivism 11 represents harmony, progress, clarity and logic, whereas edge. Plato continued with this path in his dialogues and Dionysus represents disorder, intoxication, emotion and modern world eventually inherited reason at the expense ecstasy. Nietzsche used these two forces because, for of artistic impulses that could be found only in the Apol- him, the world of mind and order on one side, and passion lonian and Dionysus dichotomy. This leads to his con- and chaos on the other formed principles that were fun- clusion that European culture from the time of Socrates damental to the Greek culture.[112][113] Apollonian side had always been only Apollonian and thus decadent and being a dreaming state, full of illusions; and Dionysian unhealthy.[119] He notes that whenever Apollonian culture being the state of intoxication, representing the libera- dominates, the Dionysian lacks the structure to make a tions of instinct and dissolution of boundaries. In this coherent art, and when Dionysian dominates, the Apollo- mold, man appears as the satyr. He is the horror of the nian lacks the necessary passion. Only the beautiful mid- annihilation of the principle of individuality and at the dle, the interplay of these two forces, brought together as same time someone who delights in its destruction.[114] an art represented real Greek tragedy.[120] Both of these principles are meant to represent cognitive An example of the impact of this idea can be seen in states that appear through art as the power of nature in [115] the book Patterns of Culture, where anthropologist Ruth man. Benedict uses Nietzschean opposites of “Apollonian” and The relationship between the Apollonian and Dionysian “Dionysian” as the stimulus for her thoughts about Na- juxtapositions is apparent, in the interplay of tragedy: the tive American cultures.[121] Carl Jung has written ex- tragic hero of the drama, the main protagonist, struggles tensively on the dichotomy in Psychological Types.[122] to make order (in the Apollonian sense) of his unjust and Michel Foucault has commented that his book Madness chaotic (Dionysian) fate, though he dies unfulfilled in the and Civilization should be read “under the sun of the great end. Elaborating on the conception of Hamlet as an in- Nietzschean inquiry”. Here Foucault references Niet- tellectual who cannot make up his mind, and therefore zsche’s description of the birth and death of tragedy and is a living antithesis to the man of action, Nietzsche ar- his explanation that the subsequent tragedy of the West- gues that a Dionysian figure possesses knowledge to real- ern world was the refusal of tragic and, with that, refusal ize that his actions cannot change the eternal balance of of the sacred.[123] Painter Mark Rothko was influenced things, and it disgusts him enough not to be able to make by Nietzsche’s view of tragedy, which were presented in any act at all. Hamlet falls under this category – he has The Birth of Tragedy. glimpsed the supernatural reality through the Ghost, he has gained true knowledge and knows that no action of his has the power to change this.[116][117] For the audi- 2.4 Perspectivism ence of such drama, this tragedy allows them to sense an underlying essence, what Nietzsche called the Primordial Main article: Perspectivism Unity, which revives Dionysian nature. He describes this primordial unity as the increase of strength, experience of fullness and plenitude bestowed by frenzy. Frenzy acts as Nietzsche claimed the death of God would eventu- an intoxication, and is crucial for the physiological con- ally lead to the loss of any universal perspective on dition that enables making of any art.[118] Stimulated by things, and along with it any coherent sense of ob- [124][125] this state, person’s artistic will is enhanced: jective truth. Nietzsche himself rejected the idea of objective reality arguing that knowledge is “In this state one enriches everything out of contingent and conditional, relative to various fluid per- [126] one’s own fullness: whatever one sees, what- spectives or interests. This leads to constant reassess- ever wills is seen swelled, taut, strong, over- ment of rules (i.e., those of philosophy, the scientific loaded with strength. A man in this state trans- method, etc.) according to the circumstances of indi- [127] forms things until they mirror his power—until vidual perspectives. This view has acquired the name they are reflections of his perfection. This hav- perspectivism. ing to transform into perfection is—art.” In Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Nietzsche proclaims that a ta- ble of values hangs above every great person. He points Nietzsche is adamant that the works of Aeschylus and out that what is common among different peoples is the Sophocles represent the apex of artistic creation, the true act of esteeming, of creating values, even if the values realization of tragedy; it is with Euripides, he states, that are different from one people to the next. Nietzsche as- tragedy begins its "Untergang" (literally “going under”, serts that what made people great was not the content of meaning decline, deterioration, downfall, death, etc.). their beliefs, but the act of valuing. Thus the values a Nietzsche objects to Euripides’ use of Socratic rational- community strives to articulate are not as important as ism and morality in his tragedies, claiming that the infu- the collective will to see those values come to pass. The sion of ethics and reason robs tragedy of its foundation, willing is more essential than the intrinsic worth of the namely the fragile balance of the Dionysian and Apollo- goal itself, according to Nietzsche. “A thousand goals nian. Socrates emphasized reason to such a degree that he have there been so far,” says Zarathustra, “for there are a diffused the value of myth and suffering to human knowl- thousand peoples. Only the yoke for the thousand necks 12 2 PHILOSOPHY

is still lacking: the one goal is lacking. Humanity still happiness is not an aim per se—it is instead a consequence has no goal.” Hence, the title of the aphorism, “On The of a successful pursuit of one’s aims, of the overcoming Thousand And One Goals”. The idea that one value- of hurdles to one’s actions—in other words, of the fulfill- system is no more worthy than the next, although it may ment of the will.[139] not be directly ascribed to Nietzsche, has become a com- Related to his theory of the will to power, is his specula- mon premise in modern social science. Max Weber and tion, which he did not deem final,[140] regarding the reality Martin Heidegger absorbed it and made it their own. It of the physical world, including inorganic matter—that, shaped their philosophical and cultural endeavor, as well like man’s affections and impulses, the material world is as their political understanding. Weber for example, re- also set by the dynamics of a form of the will to power. lies on Nietzsche’s perspectivism by maintaining that ob- At the core of his theory is a rejection of atomism—the jectivity is still possible—but only after a particular per- [128][129] idea that matter is composed of stable, indivisible units spective, value, or end has been established. (atoms). Instead, he seems to have accepted the conclu- Among his critique of traditional philosophy of Kant, sions of Ruđer Bošković, who explained the qualities of Descartes and Plato in Beyond Good and Evil, Nietzsche matter as a result of an interplay of forces.[141][142] One attacked thing in itself and cogito ergo sum (I think, there- study of Nietzsche defines his fully developed concept of fore I am) as unfalsifiable beliefs based on naive accep- the will to power as “the element from which derive both tance of previous notions and fallacies.[130] Philosopher the quantitative difference of related forces and the qual- Alasdair MacIntyre puts Nietzsche in a high place in the ity that devolves into each force in this relation” reveal- history of philosophy. While criticizing nihilism and Ni- ing the will to power as “the principle of the synthesis etzsche together as a sign of general decay,[131] he still of forces.”[143] Of such forces Nietzsche said they could commends him for recognizing psychological motives be- perhaps be viewed as a primitive form of the will. Like- hind Kant and Hume's moral philosophy:[132] wise he rejected as a mere interpretation the view that the movement of bodies is ruled by inexorable laws of nature, positing instead that movement was governed by For it was Nietzsche’s historic achieve- [144] ment to understand more clearly than any the power relations between bodies and forces. Other other philosopher...not only that what pur- scholars disagree that Nietzsche considered the material ported to be appeals of objectivity were in world to be a form of the will to power. Nietzsche thor- fact expressions of subjective will, but also oughly criticized metaphysics, and by including the will the nature of the problems that this posed for to power in the material world, he would simply be setting philosophy.[133] up a new metaphysics. Other than aphorism 36 in Beyond Good and Evil, where he raised a question regarding will to power as being in the material world, it was only in his 2.5 Will to power notes (unpublished by himself), where he wrote about a metaphysical will to power. Nietzsche directed his land- Main article: Will to power lord to burn those notes in 1888 when he left Sils Maria for the last time.[145]

A basic element in Nietzsche’s philosophical outlook is the will to power (der Wille zur Macht), which 2.6 he maintained provides a basis for understanding hu- man behavior—more so than competing explanations, Main article: Eternal return such as the ones based on pressure for adaptation or [134][135][136] survival. As such, according to Nietzsche, the Eternal return (also known as “eternal recurrence”) is a drive for conservation appears as the major motivator hypothetical concept which posits that the universe has of human or animal behavior only in exceptions, as the been recurring, and will continue to recur, in a self- general condition of life is not one of emergency, of [137] similar form an infinite number of times across infinite 'struggle for existence'. More often than not, self- time or space. It is a purely physical concept, involving no conservation is but a consequence of a creature’s will to supernatural reincarnation, but the return of beings in the exert its strength on the outside world. same bodies. The idea of eternal return is first invoked by In presenting his theory of human behavior, Nietzsche Nietzsche in a parable in Section 341 of The Gay Science, also addressed, and attacked, concepts from philosophies and also in the chapter “Of the Vision and the Riddle” popularly embraced in his days, such as Schopenhauer’s in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, among other places.[146] Ni- notion of an aimless will or that of utilitarianism. Utilitar- etzsche contemplates the idea as potentially “horrifying ians claim that what moves people is mainly the desire to and paralyzing”, and says that its burden is the “heaviest be happy, to accumulate pleasure in their lives. But such a weight” imaginable ("das schwerste Gewicht").[147] The conception of happiness Nietzsche rejected as something wish for the eternal return of all events would mark the limited to, and characteristic of, the bourgeois lifestyle of ultimate affirmation of life, a reaction to Schopenhauer's the English society,[138] and instead put forth the idea that praise of denying the will‐to‐live. To comprehend eter- 2.7 Übermensch 13

nal recurrence in his thought, and to not merely come overman is given to a mankind not aware of the problem to peace with it but to embrace it, requires , to which the overman is the solution.”[156] Zarathustra “love of fate”.[148] As Heidegger points out in his lec- presents the overman as the creator of new values, and tures on Nietzsche, Nietzsche’s first mention of eternal he appears as a solution to the problem of the death of recurrence presents this concept as a hypothetical ques- God and nihilism. The overman does not follow morality tion rather than postulating it as a fact. According to Hei- of common people since it favors mediocrity but instead degger, it is the burden imposed by the question of eternal rises above the notion of good and evil and above the recurrence—whether or not such a thing could possibly herd.[157] In this way Zarathustra proclaims his ultimate be true—that is so significant in modern thought: “The goal as the journey towards the state of overman. He way Nietzsche here patterns the first communication of wants a kind of spiritual evolution of self-awareness and the thought of the 'greatest burden' [of eternal recurrence] overcoming of traditional views on morality and justice makes it clear that this 'thought of thoughts’ is at the same that stem from the superstition beliefs still deeply rooted time 'the most burdensome thought.' "[149] or related to the notion of God and Christianity.[158] Not only does Nietzsche posit that the universe is recur- While interpretations of Nietzsche’s overman vary wildly, ring over infinite time and space, but that the different here is one of his quotations from Thus Spoke Zarathustra versions of events that have occurred in the past may at (Prologue, §§3–4): one point or another take place again, hence “all config- urations that have previously existed on this earth must [150] I teach you the overman. Man is something yet meet...” And with each version of events is hop- that shall be overcome. What have you done ing that some knowledge or awareness is gained to bet- to overcome him?... All beings so far have ter the individual hence “And thus it will happen one created something beyond themselves; and do day that a man will be born again, just like me and a you want to be the ebb of this great flood, and woman will be born, just like Mary – only that it is hoped even go back to the beasts rather than overcome to be that the head of this man may contain a little less [150] man? What is ape to man? A laughing stock or foolishness...” painful embarrassment. And man shall be that Alexander Nehamas writes in Nietzsche: Life as Litera- to overman: a laughingstock or painful embar- ture of three ways of seeing the eternal recurrence: "(A) rassment. You have made your way from worm My life will recur in exactly identical fashion.” This ex- to man, and much in you is still worm. Once presses a totally fatalistic approach to the idea. "(B) My you were apes, and even now, too, man is more life may recur in exactly identical fashion.” This second ape than any ape... The overman is the mean- view conditionally asserts cosmology, but fails to capture ing of the earth. Let your will say: the overman what Nietzsche refers to in The Gay Science, 341. Finally, shall be the meaning of the earth... Man is a "(C) If my life were to recur, then it could recur only in rope, tied between beast and overman—a rope identical fashion.” Nehamas shows that this interpretation over an abyss ... what is great in man is that he exists totally independently of physics and does not pre- is a bridge and not an end. suppose the truth of cosmology. Nehamas draws the con- clusion that if individuals constitute themselves through Zarathustra contrasts the overman with the their actions, then they can only maintain themselves in of egalitarian modernity (most obvious example being their current state by living in a recurrence of past actions democracy), an alternative goal which humanity might (Nehamas 153). Nietzsche’s thought is the negation of set for itself. The last man is possible only by mankind’s [151] the idea of a history of salvation. having bred an apathetic creature who has no great pas- sion or commitment, who is unable to dream, who merely earns his living and keeps warm. This concept appears 2.7 Übermensch only in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, and is presented as a condition that would render the creation of the overman Main article: Übermensch impossible.[159] Some have suggested that the notion of eternal return Another concept important to an understanding of is related to the overman since willing the eternal re- Nietzsche’s thought is the Übermensch (translated turn of the same is a necessary step if the overman is to variously as “overman”, “superman”, or “super- create new values, untainted by the spirit of gravity or human”).[152][153][154][155] Developing the idea of asceticism. Values involve a rank-ordering of things, and nihilism, Nietzsche wrote Thus Spoke Zarathustra, so are inseparable from approval and disapproval; yet it therein introducing the concept of a value-creating was dissatisfaction that prompted men to seek refuge in Übermensch, not as a project, but as an anti-project, the other-worldliness and embrace other-worldly values. It absence of any project.[95] According to Lampert, “the could seem that the overman, in being devoted to any death of God must be followed by a long twilight of piety values at all, would necessarily fail to create values that and nihilism (II. 19; III. 8). ... Zarathustra’s gift of the did not share some bit of asceticism. Willing the eternal 14 3 READING AND INFLUENCE recurrence is presented as accepting the existence of the “How much of personal timidity and vulnerability does low while still recognizing it as the low, and thus as over- this masquerade of a sickly recluse betray?".[163] coming the spirit of gravity or asceticism. One must have Nietzsche’s philosophy, while innovative and revolution- the strength of the overman in order to will the eternal re- ary, was indebted to many predecessors. While at currence; that is, only the overman will have the strength Basel, Nietzsche offered lecture courses on pre-Platonic to fully accept all of his past life, including his failures philosophers for several years, and the text of this lec- and misdeeds, and to truly will their eternal return. This ture series has been characterized as a “lost link” in the action nearly kills Zarathustra, for example, and most hu- development of his thought. “In it concepts such as man beings cannot avoid other-worldliness because they the will to power, the eternal return of the same, the really are sick, not because of any choice they made. overman, gay science, self-overcoming and so on re- ceive rough, unnamed formulations and are linked to spe- cific pre-Platonics, especially Heraclitus, who emerges as 2.8 Critique of mass culture a pre-Platonic Nietzsche.”[164] The pre-Socratic thinker Heraclitus was known for the rejection of the concept of Friedrich Nietzsche held a pessimistic view on modern being as a constant and eternal principle of universe, and society and culture. His views stand against the concept his embrace of “flux” and incessant change. His sym- of popular culture. He believed the press and mass cul- bolism of the world as “child play” marked by amoral ture led to conformity and brought about mediocrity. Ni- spontaneity and lack of definite rules was appreciated etzsche saw a lack of progression, leading to the decline by Nietzsche.[165] From his Heraclitean sympathy, Niet- of the human species. According to Nietzsche, individ- zsche was also a vociferous detractor of Parmenides, who uals needed to overcome this form of mass culture. He opposed Heraclitus and believed all world is a single Be- believed some people were able to become superior in- ing with no change at all.[166] dividuals through the use of will power. By rising above mass culture, society would produce higher and healthier In his Egotism in German Philosophy, Santayana claimed human beings.[160] that Nietzsche’s whole philosophy was a reaction to Schopenhauer. Santayana wrote that Nietzsche’s work was “an emendation of that of Schopenhauer. The will to live would become the will to dominate; pes- 3 Reading and influence simism founded on reflection would become optimism founded on courage; the suspense of the will in contem- plation would yield to a more biological account of in- telligence and taste; finally in the place of pity and as- ceticism (Schopenhauer’s two principles of morals) Niet- zsche would set up the duty of asserting the will at all costs and being cruelly but beautifully strong. These points of difference from Schopenhauer cover the whole philoso- phy of Nietzsche.”[167] Nietzsche expressed admiration for 17th-century French moralists such as La Rochefoucauld, La Bruyère and Vauvenargues,[168] as well as for Stendhal.[169] The organicism of Paul Bourget influenced Nietzsche,[170] as did that of Rudolf Virchow and Alfred Espinas.[171] Nietzsche wrote in a letter in 1867 that he was try- ing to improve his German style of writing with the help of Lessing, Lichtenberg and Schopenhauer. It The residence of Nietzsche’s last three years, along with archive was probably Lichtenberg (along with Paul Rée) whose in Weimar, Germany, which holds many of Nietzsche’s papers. aphoristic style of writing contributed to Nietzsche’s own use of aphorism instead of an essay.[172] Nietzsche Main article: Library of Friedrich Nietzsche early learned of Darwinism through Friedrich Albert Lange.[173] The essays of Ralph Waldo Emerson had A trained philologist, Nietzsche had a thorough knowl- a profound influence on Nietzsche, who “loved Emer- [174] edge of Greek philosophy. He read Kant, Plato, Mill, son from first to last”, wrote “Never have I felt so Schopenhauer and Spir,[161] who became his main oppo- much at home in a book”, and called him "[the] author [175] nents in his philosophy, and later Spinoza, whom he saw who has been richest in ideas in this century so far”. as his “precursor” in many respects[162] but as a person- Hippolyte Taine influenced Nietzsche’s view on Rousseau [176] ification of the “ascetic ideal” in others. However, Ni- and Napoleon. Notably, he also read some of the [177] etzsche referred to Kant as a “moral fanatic”, Plato as posthumous works of Charles Baudelaire, Tolstoy's “boring”, Mill as a “blockhead”, and of Spinoza he said: My Religion, Ernest Renan's Life of Jesus and Fyodor 15

Dostoyevsky's Demons.[177][178] Nietzsche called Dosto- particularly in France and the United States.[191][192][193] evsky “the only psychologist from whom I have any- H. L. Mencken produced the first book on Nietzsche thing to learn.”[179] While Nietzsche never mentions Max in English in 1907, The Philosophy of Friedrich Niet- Stirner, the similarities in their ideas have prompted zsche, and in 1910, a book of translated paragraphs a minority of interpreters to suggest a relationship be- from Nietzsche, increasing knowledge of his philoso- tween the two.[180][181][182][183][184][185][186] In 1861 Niet- phy in the United States.[194] Nietzsche is known today zsche wrote an enthusiastic essay on his “favorite poet”, as a precursor to expressionism,[195] existentialism, and Friedrich Hölderlin, mostly forgotten at that time.[187] He postmodernism.[196] also expressed deep appreciation for Stifter’s Indian Sum- [188] [189] W. B. Yeats and Arthur Symons described Nietzsche as mer, Byron’s Manfred and Twain’s Tom Sawyer. the intellectual heir to William Blake. Symons went on to compare the ideas of the two thinkers in The Sym- bolist Movement in Literature while Yeats tried to raise 4 Reception awareness of Nietzsche in Ireland.[197][198][199] A similar notion was espoused by W. H. Auden who wrote of Ni- Main article: Influence and reception of Friedrich Niet- etzsche in his New Year Letter (released in 1941 in The zsche Double Man): “O masterly debunker of our liberal falla- Nietzsche’s works did not reach a wide readership during cies [...] all your life you stormed, like your English fore- runner Blake”.[200][201][202] Nietzsche made an impact on composers during the 1890s. Writer on music Donald Mitchell notes that Gustav Mahler was “attracted to the poetic fire of Zarathustra, but repelled by the intellec- tual core of its writings.” He also quotes Gustav himself, and adds that he was influenced by Nietzsche’s concep- tion and affirmative approach to nature, which Mahler presented in Third Symphony using Zarathustra’s rounde- lay. Frederick Delius has produced a piece of choral music A Mass of Life based on a text of Thus Spoke Zarathustra, while Richard Strauss (who also based his Also sprach Zarathustra on the same book), was only interested in finishing “another chapter of symphonic autobiography”.[203] Famous writers and poets influenced by Nietzsche include André Gide, August Strindberg, Robinson Jeffers, Pío Baroja, D. H. Lawrence, Edith Södergran and Yukio Mishima. Nietzsche was an early influence on the poetry of Rainer Maria Rilke. Knut Hamsun counted Nietzsche, along with Strindberg and Dostoyevsky as one of his pri- mary influences.[204] Author Jack London wrote that he was more stimulated by Nietzsche than by any other writer.[205] Critics have suggested that the char- acter of David Grief in A Son of the Sun was based Portrait of Friedrich Nietzsche by Edvard Munch, 1906. on Nietzsche.[206] Nietzsche’s influence on Muhammad Iqbal is most evidenced in Asrar-i-Khudi (The Secrets of his active writing career. However, in 1888 the influential the Self).[207] Wallace Stevens[208] was another reader of Danish critic Georg Brandes aroused considerable excite- Nietzsche and elements of Nietzsche’s philosophy were ment about Nietzsche through a series of lectures he gave found throughout Harmonium.[209][210] Olaf Stapledon at the University of Copenhagen. In the years after Niet- was influenced by the idea of Übermensch and it is cen- zsche’s death in 1900, his works became better known, tral theme in his books Odd John and Sirius.[211] In Russia, and readers have responded to them in complex and Nietzsche has influenced Russian symbolism[212] and fig- [190] sometimes controversial ways. Many Germans even- ures such as Dmitry Merezhkovsky,[213] Andrei Bely,[214] tually discovered his appeals for greater individualism and and Alexander Scriabin have all in- personality development in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, but corporated or discussed parts of Nietzsche philosophy in responded to them divergently. He had some follow- their works. Thomas Mann's novel Death in Venice[215] ing among left-wing Germans in the 1890s; in 1894– shows a use of Apollonian and Dionysian, and in Doctor 1895 German conservatives wanted to ban his work as Faustus Nietzsche was a central source for the charac- subversive. During the late 19th century Nietzsche’s ter of Adrian Leverkühn.[216][217] Hermann Hesse, simi- ideas were commonly associated with anarchist move- larly, in his Narcissus and Goldmund presents two main ments and appear to have had influence within them, 16 5 WORKS

characters in the sense of Apollonian and Dionysian as people of literary and artistic culture, but warned that the the two opposite yet intertwined spirits. Painter Giovanni attempt to put Nietzsche’s philosophy of aristocracy into Segantini was fascinated by Thus Spoke Zarathustra, and practice could only be done by an organization similar to he drew an illustration for the first Italian translation of the Fascist or the Nazi party.[4] the book. The Russian painter Lena Hades created the A decade after World War II, there was a revival of oil painting cycle "Also Sprach Zarathustra" dedicated to [218] Nietzsche’s philosophical writings thanks to exhaustive the book Thus Spoke Zarathustra. translations and analyses by Walter Kaufmann and R.J. By World War I, Nietzsche had acquired a reputation as Hollingdale. Others, well known philosophers in their an inspiration for both right-wing German militarism and own right, wrote commentaries on Nietzsche’s philoso- leftist politics. German soldiers received copies of Thus phy, including Martin Heidegger, who produced a four- Spoke Zarathustra as gifts during World War I.[219][220] volume study and Lev Shestov who wrote a book called The Dreyfus Affair provides a contrasting example of his Dostoyevski, Tolstoy and Nietzsche where he portrays Ni- reception: the French antisemitic Right labelled the Jew- etzsche and Dostoyevski as the “thinkers of tragedy”.[244] ish and Leftist intellectuals who defended Alfred Dreyfus Georg Simmel compares Nietzsche’s importance to ethics as “Nietzscheans”.[221] Nietzsche had a distinct appeal for to that of Copernicus for cosmology.[245] Sociologist many Zionist thinkers around the start of the 20th century Ferdinand Tönnies read Nietzsche avidly from his early most notable being Ahad Ha'am,[222] Hillel Zeitlin,[223] life, and later frequently discussed many of his concepts Micha Josef Berdyczewski, A. D. Gordon[224] and Martin in his own works. Nietzsche has influenced philosophers Buber who went so far as to extoll Nietzsche as a “cre- such as Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre,[246] Oswald ator” and “emissary of life”.[225] Chaim Weizmann was a Spengler,[247] George Grant,[248] Emil Cioran,[249] Albert great admirer of Nietzsche; the first president of Israel Camus, Ayn Rand,[250] Jacques Derrida, Leo Strauss,[251] sent Nietzsche’s books to his wife, adding a comment Max Scheler, Michel Foucault and Bernard Williams. in a letter that “This was the best and finest thing I can Camus described Nietzsche as “the only artist to have de- send to you”.[226] Israel Eldad, the ideological chief of rived the extreme consequences of an aesthetics of the the Stern Group that fought the British in Palestine in the absurd".[252] Paul Ricœur called Nietzsche one of the 1940s, wrote about Nietzsche in his underground news- masters of the “school of suspicion”, alongside Karl Marx paper and later translated most of Nietzsche’s books into and Sigmund Freud.[253] Carl Jung was also influenced Hebrew.[227] Eugene O'Neill remarked that Zarathustra by Nietzsche.[254] In Memories, Dreams, Reflections, a bi- influenced him more than any other book he ever read. ography transcribed by his secretary, he cites Nietzsche He also shared Nietzsche’s view of tragedy.[228] Plays The as a large influence.[255] Aspects of Nietzsche’s philos- Great God Brown and Lazarus Laughed are an example of ophy, especially his ideas of the self and his relation Nietzsche’s influence on O'Neill.[229][230][231] Nietzsche’s to society, also run through much of late-twentieth and influence on the works of Frankfurt School philosophers early twenty-first century thought.[256][257] His deepening Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno[232] can be of the romantic-heroic tradition of the nineteenth cen- seen in the popular Dialectic of Enlightenment. Adorno tury, for example, as expressed in the ideal of the “grand summed up Nietzsche’s philosophy as expressing the striver” appears in the work of thinkers from Cornelius "humane in a world in which humanity has become a Castoriadis to Roberto Mangabeira Unger.[258] For Ni- sham”.[233] etzsche this grand striver overcomes obstacles, engages Nietzsche’s growing prominence suffered a severe set- in epic struggles, pursues new goals, embraces recurrent back when his works became closely associated with novelty, and transcends existing structures and contexts. No social or cultural construct can contain this idealized Adolf Hitler and the German Reich. Many politi- [259] cal leaders of the twentieth century were at least su- individual. perficially familiar with Nietzsche’s ideas, although it is not always possible to determine whether they ac- tually read his work. Hitler, for example, probably 5 Works never read Nietzsche and, if he did, his reading was not extensive,[234][235][236][237] although he was a frequent Main article: Friedrich Nietzsche bibliography visitor to the Nietzsche museum in Weimar and did See also: List of works about Friedrich Nietzsche use expressions of Nietzsche’s, such as “lords of the earth” in Mein Kampf.[238] The Nazis made selective use of Nietzsche’s philosophy. Mussolini,[239][240] Charles • The Greek Music Drama (1870) de Gaulle[241] and Huey P. Newton[242] read Nietzsche. Richard Nixon read Nietzsche with “curious interest,” • The Greek State (1871) and his book Beyond Peace might have taken its title from • The Birth of Tragedy (1872) Nietzsche’s book Beyond Good and Evil which Nixon read beforehand.[243] Bertrand Russell wrote that Niet- • On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense (1873) zsche had exerted great influence on philosophers and on • Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks (1873) 17

7 References

[1] Wells, John C (1990), “Nietzsche”, Longman pronunci- ation dictionary, Harlow, ENG, UK: Longman, p. 478, ISBN 0-582-05383-8

[2] “Friedrich Nietzsche,” by Dale Wilkerson, The Inter- net Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ISSN 2161-0002, http: //www.iep.utm.edu/nietzch/. 14 October2015.

[3] Raymond A. Belliotti, Jesus Or Nietzsche: How Should We Live Our Lives? (Rodopi, 2013), 195–201

[4] Russell, Bertrand (1945). A History of Western Philoso- phy. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 766 & 770. ISBN 0-671-20158-1. The Nietzsche Stone, near Surlej, the inspiration for Thus Spoke Zarathustra [5] Wicks, R. (Summer 2011) “Friedrich Nietzsche”. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Retrieved 2011-10-06. • We Philologists (1874, posthumous) [6] Brobjer, Thomas. “Nietzsche’s philosophical context: an • Untimely Meditations (1876) intellectual biography”, p. 42. University of Illinois Press, 2008. • Human, All Too Human (1878) [7] Bernd, Magnus. “Nietzsche, Friedrich”. Encyclopædia • The Dawn (1881) Britannica. Retrieved May 19, 2012. [8] Robert Matthews (4 May 2003), "'Madness’ of Nietzsche • The Gay Science (1882) was cancer not syphilis”, The Daily Telegraph.

• Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1883) [9] McKinnon, AM. (2012). 'Metaphors in and for the So- ciology of Religion: Towards a Theory after Nietzsche'. • Beyond Good and Evil (1886) Journal of Contemporary Religion, vol 27, no. 2, pp. 203–216 • On the Genealogy of Morality (1887) [10] See his own words: F. Nietzsche (1888), Twilight of the • Idols. “Four Great Errors”, 1, tr. W. Kaufmann & R.J. (1888) Hollingdale (online version). A strict example of a cause- and-effect mismatch, with regard to the God-creator as • Twilight of the Idols (1888) the cause and our concepts as the effects, is perhaps not fully stressed in this fragment, but the more explicite it is • The Antichrist (1888) stressed in the same book, chapter "»Reason« in philos- ophy”, 4, as well as in The Antichrist (57, where real and • Ecce Homo (1888) imaginary origins are contrasted, and 62, where he calls Christianity 'a fatality' – 'fatal' also meaning 'unavoidable') • Nietzsche contra Wagner (1888) and in The Genealogy of Morals, books 1-3, amongst oth- ers. The topic of "false origins” of ideas is also suggested • The Will to Power (unpublished manuscripts edited in The Four Great Errors, 3, and (precisely about morality) by Elisabeth) in e.g. The Will to Power, tr. W. Kaufmann, 343 (online text here).

[11] K. Gemes, J. Richardson, The Oxford Handbook of Niet- 6 See also zsche, Oxford Univ. Press, 2013, p. 177-178 (“The Dual- ity of Nietzsche’s Theory of the Will to Power: The Psy- chological and Cosmological Aspects”). Read online here • Anarchism and Friedrich Nietzsche [12] Golomb, Jacob and Robert S. Wistrich (eds.), 2002, Niet- • The Antichrist zsche, Godfather of Fascism?: On the Uses and Abuses of a Philosophy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. • Friedrich Nietzsche and free will [13] Marianne Constable, “Genealogy and Jurisprudence: Ni- etzsche, Nihilism, and the Social Scientification of Law,” • Genealogy (philosophy) Law & Social Inquiry 19, no. 3 (July 1, 1994): 551–590.

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[249] Romanian Philosophical Culture, Globalization, and Edu- • Brunger, Jeremy. 2015. "Public Opinions, Private cation. Laziness: The Epistemological Break in Nietzsche. Numero Cinq magazine (August). [250] The Transformation of Nietzschean Ideas in The Fountain- head. • Cate, Curtis (2005). Friedrich Nietzsche. Wood- [251] Lampert, Laurence (1996). Leo Strauss and Nietzsche. stock, NY, USA: The Overlook Press. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. • Corriero, Emilio Carlo, Nietzsche oltre l'abisso. De- [252] The Absurd in Literature. clinazioni italiane della 'morte di Dio', Marco Vale- rio, Torino, 2007 [253] Ricœur, Paul (1970). Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation. New Haven and London: Yale University • Deleuze, Gilles (2006) [1983]. Nietzsche and Phi- Press. p. 32. ISBN 0-300-02189-5. losophy. trans. Hugh Tomlinson. Athlone Press. [254] “Jarrett, J.L., ed.: Jung’s Seminar on Nietzsche’s ISBN 0-485-11233-7. Zarathustra: (Abridged edition). (Abridged) (Paper- • back)". Press.princeton.edu. Retrieved 2014-08-22. Eilon, Eli. Nietzsche’s Principle of Abundance as Guiding Aesthetic Value. Nietzsche-Studien, De- [255] “Jung’s Reception of Friedrich Nietzsche: A Roadmap for cember 2001 (30). pp. 200–221. the Uninitiated by Dr. Ritske Rensma”. Depth Insights. Retrieved 2014-08-22. • Gemes, Ken; May, Simon, eds. (2002). Niet- zsche on Freedom and Autonomy. Oxford Univer- [256] Raymond A. Belliotti, Jesus Or Nietzsche: How Should sity Press.. We Live Our Lives? (Rodopi, 2013). • Golomb, Jacob, ed. (1997). Nietzsche and Jewish [257] Ronald A. Kuipers, “Turning Memory into Prophecy: Roberto Unger and Paul Ricoeur on the Human Condition culture. Routledge.. Between Past and Future,” The Heythrop Journal (2011): • 1–10. Heidegger, Martin. The Word of Nietzsche..

[258] Richard Rorty, “Unger, Castoriadis, and the Romance of • Kaplama, Erman. Cosmological Aesthetics through a National Future,” Northwestern University Law Review the Kantian Sublime and Nietzschean Dionysian. 82 (1988 1987): 39. Lanham: UPA, Rowman & Littlefield, 2014.

[259] Raymond A. Belliotti, Jesus Or Nietzsche: How Should • Kaufmann, Walter (1974). Nietzsche: Philosopher, We Live Our Lives? (Rodopi, 2013), 195. Psychologist, Antichrist. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01983-5. 8 Further reading • Kopić, Mario, S Nietzscheom o Europi, Jesenski i Turk, Zagreb, 2001 ISBN 978-953-222-016-2 • Arena, Leonardo Vittorio (2012), Nietzsche in China • Lampert, Laurence (1986). Nietzsche’s Teaching: in the XXth Century, ebook An Interpretation of “Thus Spoke Zarathustra”. New • Babich, Babette E. (1994) Nietzsche’s Philosophy Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04430- of Science, Albany: State University of New York 5. Press. • Magnus and Higgins, “Nietzsche’s works and their • Baird, Forrest E; Walter Kaufmann (2008), From themes”, in The Cambridge Companion to Nietzsche, Plato to Derrida, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Magnus and Higgins (ed.), University of Cambridge Prentice Hall, pp. 1011–38, ISBN 0-13-158591-6 Press, 1996, pp. 21–58. ISBN 0-521-36767-0

• Benson, Bruce Ellis (2007). Pious Nietzsche: Deca- • O'Flaherty, James C., Sellner, Timothy F., Helm, dence and Dionysian Faith. Indiana University Robert M., “Studies in Nietzsche and the Classi- Press. p. 296. cal Tradition” (University of North Carolina Press) 1979 ISBN 0-8078-8085-X • Breitschmid, Markus, Der bauende Geist. Friedrich Nietzsche und die Architektur. Lucerne: Quart Ver- • O'Flaherty, James C., Sellner, Timothy F., Helm, lag, 2001, ISBN 3-907631-23-4 Robert M., “Studies in Nietzsche and the Judaeo- Christian Tradition” (University of North Carolina • Breitschmid, Markus, Nietzsche’s Denkraum. Press) 1985 ISBN 0-8078-8104-X Zurich: Edition Didacta, 2006, Hardcover Edition: ISBN 978-3-033-01206-6; Paperback Edition: • Owen, David. Nietzsche, Politics & Modernity (Lon- ISBN 978-3-033-01148-9 don: Sage Publications, 1995). 24 9 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Pérez, Rolando. Towards a Genealogy of the • Works by Friedrich Nietzsche at LibriVox (public Gay Science: From Toulouse and Barcelona to domain audiobooks) Nietzsche and Beyond. eHumanista/IVITRA. Volume 5, 2014. http://www.ehumanista.ucsb.edu/ • Publications by and about Friedrich Nietzsche in the eHumanista%20IVITRA/Volume%205/Volum% catalogue Helveticat of the Swiss National Library 20Regular/7_Perez.pdf • Audio link Pronunciation (English and German) for • Porter, James I. “Nietzsche and the Philology of the Friedrich Nietzsche Future” (Stanford University Press, 2000). ISBN 0- • Friedrich Nietzsche entry by Dale Wilkerson in the 8047-3698-7 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2009 • Porter, James I (2000). The Invention of Dionysus: • Nietzsche’s Philosophy of History entry by An Essay on The Birth of Tragedy. Stanford Univer- Anthony K. Jensen in the Internet Encyclope- sity Press. ISBN 0-8047-3700-2.. dia of Philosophy

• Ratner-Rosenhagen, Jennifer (2011), American Ni- • Friedrich Nietzsche entry by Robert Wicks in the etzsche: A History of an Icon and His Ideas. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2007-11-14 Chicago: University of Chicago Press. • Nietzsche’s Moral and Political Philosophy en- • Roochnik, David (2004). Retrieving the Ancients.. try by Brian Leiter in the Stanford Encyclope- dia of Philosophy, 2007-07-27 • Russell, Bertrand (2004). A History of Western Phi- losophy. Routledge.. • Nietzsche Source: Digital version of the German critical edition of the complete works and Digital • Santayana, George (1916). “XI”. Egotism in Ger- facsimile edition of the entire Nietzsche estate man Philosophy. London & Toronto: JM Dent & Sons.. • Lexido: Searchable Database index of Public Do- main editions of all Nietzsche’s major works • Sedgwick, Peter R (2009). Nietzsche: the key con- • cepts. Routledge, Oxon, ENG, UK: Routledge.. Friedrich Nietzsche at DMOZ • • Seung, T.K. Nietzsche’s Epic of the Soul: Thus Spoke Free scores by Friedrich Nietzsche at the Zarathustra. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, International Music Score Library Project 2005. ISBN 0-7391-1130-2 • Timeline of German Philosophers

• Tanner, Michael (1994). Nietzsche. Oxford: Oxford • Walter Kaufmann 1960 Prof. Nietzsche and the University Press. ISBN 0-19-287680-5. Crisis in Philosophy Audio

• von Vacano, Diego (2007). The Art of Power: • Kierans, Kenneth (2010). “On the Unity of Niet- Machiavelli, Nietzsche and the Making of Aesthetic zsche’s Philosophy” (PDF). Animus 14. ISSN 1209- Political Theory. Lanham, MD: Lexington.. 0689. Retrieved August 17, 2011.

• Wicks, Robert. “Friedrich Nietzsche”. In Edward • Brian Leiter’s Nietzsche Blog: News, polls, and dis- N. Zalta. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy cussion about Nietzsche and current events in Niet- (Fall 2004 ed.). zsche scholarship from Brian Leiter (University of Chicago). • Young, Julian. Friedrich Nietzsche: A Philosophical Biography (Cambridge University Press; 2010) 649 • BBC (1999). “Beyond Good and Evil”. Human, All pp. Too Human.

• Luchte, James (2008). Nietzsche’s Thus Spoke Zarathustra: Before Sunrise. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1441116536..

9 External links

• Works by Friedrich Nietzsche at Project Gutenberg

• Works by or about Friedrich Nietzsche at Internet Archive 25

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1 Text

• Friedrich Nietzsche Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche?oldid=694983722 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Kp- jas, Derek Ross, CYD, Brion VIBBER, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Tarquin, Slrubenstein, Ed Poor, LarsErikKolden, Oskar Flordal, Andre Engels, Danny, XJaM, Deb, William Avery, Shii, Heron, Ryguasu, Atlan, Mkmcconn, Lisiate, DennisDaniels, Mike Sarfati, JohnOwens, Paul Barlow, Kwertii, Lezek, Jahsonic, BoNoMoJo (old), Gabbe, Sam Francis, Kalki, IZAK, Frank Shearar, Axlrosen, Egil, Ihcoyc, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Snoyes, Suisui, Notheruser, Angela, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Jebba, Marteau, Poor Yorick, Nikai, Dpol, Jimregan, Sethmahoney, GCarty, John K, Raven in Orbit, Adam Conover, Hashar, PatriceNeff, Charles Matthews, RickK, Radgeek, Wik, Reynwah, Pedant17, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Sidharthan, Saltine, Martinphi, Buridan, J D, CecilTyme, Mackensen, Geraki, Khranus, Fvw, Vincent kraeutler, Dbabbitt, Scott Sanchez, Lunchboxhero, Pollinator, SD6-Agent, Dimadick, Robbot, Sander123, Cgranade, ChrisG, Moriori, Fredrik, RedWolf, Goethean, Altenmann, Naddy, Arkuat, Mayooranathan, Stewartadcock, Hemanshu, Tex- ture, LGagnon, Halibutt, Sunray, Hadal, GeerBawks, Phthoggos, JackofOz, Mywyb2, Aetheling, Carlj7, Anthony, TPK, Walloon, As- paragus, Wile E. 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Anarchei, Kreuzkümmel, FINginga, Tillander, Caute AF, Yihaa, Shadic Sx, Olesya Maryenko, Ray Andrews II, Goose friend, Benjamin9832, Eshade, Snotbot, Ashrzr, Vincent Moon, Polyesterthought, O.Koslowski, FiachraByrne, Estherm12, Widr, Ja Godfrey, Helpful Pixie Bot, Edisonqv, JackHeslop, Krist Wood, Rickbramhall, TotalFailure, Nietzschelover, HMSSolent, SchroCat, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Brownhole69, Bmusician, Iconofiler, Archivingcontext, Solomon.kidus, Ebriceno, ZARATHUSTRA, RaInBoWx- DaShX, Conservative Philosopher, ArsenDedic, Mesobotania, UnlovedChildren, Sexymamma123, The Almightey Drill, Umeno94, Hari- zotoh9, Artailicous, JABacchetta, Ernio48, WikiHannibal, TomeHale, P. lakustai, Yekshemesh, Trannylover3, Amashari, TheBob193892, Vincentnufcr1, RudolfRed, OzanTaş4493, Bill.D Nguyen, Anthrophilos, Mfhiller, Vanished user lt94ma34le12, LAISD, Jimw338, Cyber- bot II, ChrisGualtieri, Comatmebro, Khazar2, EuroCarGT, Thedeathcap, Oskoreii, Schelmentraum, Samuel Gardner-Medwin, JYBot, Je- 10.2 Images 27

susCrispusAttucks, JesusCrispusAttuckstheThird, Spinazo, ÄDA - DÄP, Pirhayati, Dexbot, Belisariusgroup, Govert van Drimmelen, Gen- tleCollapse16, Jackninja5, Cerabot~enwiki, Numbermaniac, Lugia2453, GentleDjinn, Rutyei, Drtywmn, SFK2, MeteMetheus, RideLight- ning, Nightshade666, Nietzsche123, XXZIP, KingQueenPrince, Polophill, Limit-theorem, BurritoBazooka, Albatrossbatman, BilalSaleh, Epicgenius, Moagim, Subert81, Peter wilson wong, Lekoren, Ketxus, Ilike4chan, Dustin V. S., Lakewind, RaphaelQS, Mmmitler, New worl, DhDHdhDHdhDH, Elendrahir, Slavić, Clr324, Medea48, Akellym17, Zinoural, Madprof21, StraightOuttaBrisbane, Aubreybardo, TGUSAGI, VeryCrocker, Nizolan, Vila Velebita, LanceRGoebel, Mepalani, MonotoneCreeper, SoberPhilo, JaconaFrere, FelixRosch, Ae- naos II, Jpell96, AT-Walkerman, Mirogeorgiev1997, Monkbot, Zumoarirodoka, Xasedrosa, Wattkins, Vieque, AntiqueReader, Happy Attack Dog, Jim Carter, Pieter202, BethNaught, Nickman33, Cinebuns5000, Anarchon88, Mujum, Mumum222, Yesenadam, Mark Osan, TerryAlex, Mjtk24, ხმელი ფოთოლი, Isenhiem, Michael Dominik Fischer, , Dkong015, Piotrniz, SSoheilHosseini, Chuangzi, Spider- jerky, Rperez39103, Heuh0, Social Theory, SethRojello, Godsy, Rpearlstuart, HHofmeister, User000name, KobraKaiKarate, Mj thenove- latre, Whenthedaycomes, Nøkkenbuer, KasparBot, Quessler, Hcandersen123, Ronaldwikiwiz, Omsthechef, Philthemagician, Drowthorn, Intellectasaguide, Parrhesiast, UnrelatedParrhesiast, NotParrhesiast, TheOldPhilologist, Λ271, Thetoaster691, Montaire, Saltgranat and Anonymous: 2329

10.2 Images

• File:Atheism_template.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Atheism_template.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: • Atom_of_Atheism-Zanaq.svg Original artist: Atom_of_Atheism-Zanaq.svg: User:Zanaq • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Eh-dm-27.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Eh-dm-27.JPG License: Public domain Contribu- tors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by- sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Frankfurt_Am_Main-Portraits-Arthur_Schopenhauer-1845.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/ 68/Frankfurt_Am_Main-Portraits-Arthur_Schopenhauer-1845.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Eberhard Mayer-Wegelin: Frühe Photographie in Frankfurt am Main: 1839–1870. Schirmer/Mosel Verlag GmbH, München 1982, ISBN 3-921375-87-8 Original artist: Unknown • File:Friederich_Nietzsche.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Friederich_Nietzsche.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: http://www.munch150.no/no/Presse/Pressebilder Original artist: Edvard Munch • File:Friedrich_Nietzsche-1872.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Friedrich_Nietzsche-1872.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mv-naumburg.de/images/stories/FN/friedrich-nietzsche-1872.jpg Original artist: Hart- mann, Basel. • File:Friedrich_Nietzsche_Signature.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Friedrich_Nietzsche_ Signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Traced in Adobe Illustrator from File:Nietzsche - Ainsi parlait Zarathoustra.djvu Original artist: Friedrich Nietzsche • File:Friedrich_Nietzsche_drawn_by_Hans_Olde.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Friedrich_ Nietzsche_drawn_by_Hans_Olde.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Reproduction of a reproduction on a book cover Original artist: Hans Olde • File:Nietzsche-21.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Nietzsche-21.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: Isenhiem • File:Nietzsche-Stein_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Nietzsche-Stein_01.jpg License: CC BY- SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kuebi = Armin Kübelbeck • File:Nietzsche1861.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Nietzsche1861.jpg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Scan processed by Anton (2005). Free to use according to Original artist: Unknown • File:Nietzsche187c.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Nietzsche187c.jpg License: Public domain Con- tributors: http://ora-web.swkk.de/nie_brief_online/nietzsche.digitalisate?id=234&nr=1 Original artist: Unknown • File:NietzscheHouseTurin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/NietzscheHouseTurin.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: DWRZ David Wen Riccardi-Zhu • File:Nietzsche_Archives_in_Weimar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Nietzsche_Archives_in_ Weimar.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: DWRZ David Wen Riccardi-Zhu • File:Nietzsche_paul-ree_lou-von-salome188.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Nietzsche_ paul-ree_lou-von-salome188.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scan processed by Anton (2005) Original artist: Un- known 28 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open- Clipart Original artist: OpenClipart • File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Rohde_Gersdorff_Nietzsche.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Rohde_Gersdorff_Nietzsche. JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Reproduction of a reproduction in a book Original artist: Friedrich Henning, photographer at Naumburg • File:Socrates.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Socrates.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Magnus Manske at English Wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Optimager at en.wikipedia. • File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Mobius assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau • File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky

10.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0