The War of the Barbary Pirates Breaking the Barrier to Mediterranean Trade in the Early Republic
Ella Parsons Junior Division Historical Paper Paper Length: 2,500 words
“F rom the Halls of Montezuma To the shores of Tripoli, We fight our country's battle In the air, on land, and sea”1
Introduction
These lines from the Marines’ Hymn commemorate the First Barbary War,2 when
American forces clashed with pirates - a war of which most Americans today are unaware.
These pirates were more specifically corsairs, men sent by the Ottoman government to raid ships in the Mediterranean Sea. After the Revolutionary War, Barbary pirates took over numerous American trade ships in the Mediterranean Sea, near the Tripolitan coast, demanding tribute in exchange for access to trade, which the United States reluctantly paid in the days of the early republic. The pirates’ offenses were a barrier to the growth of
America’s economy, until President Thomas Jefferson decided to use a military approach, leading to the creation of the United States Navy. When Congress created and sent the
U.S. Navy to fight Tripoli from 1801- 1805, it broke the barrier to free trade, invigorated the economy, showed America’s determination to stand up for itself, and strengthened
America’s navy, which would prove to be vital during the War of 1812.
Historical Context
After the signing of the T reaty of Paris in 1783, America was in a dire economic condition. According to Alexander Hamilton's R eport Relative to a Provision for the Support
1 United States Marines, “The Marines Hymn” Web Accessed Feb. 26, 2020. 2 This paper tells of the First Barbary War, not the Second Barbary War, fought from 1815-1816. For more information on the Second Barbary War, read “The End of Barbary Terror: America’s 1815 War Against the Pirates of North Africa” by Fredrick Leiner.
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of Public Credit, America was in debt "54,124,464 dollars, and 56 cents"3 in 1790, less than a decade following the Revolutionary War. In order to keep the economy stable, America depended mainly on trade, primarily in Europe; but after the War, “the French and the
English were being pesky about trading with Americans,”4 so America turned to
Mediterranean trade ports. However, since America was independent of Britain, “the
British Royal Navy stopped protecting Americans from corsair attacks.”5 At this time,
America was an easy target for the Barbary pirates. Since “the Mediterranean accounted for 1/7 of all American trade,”6 this became a critical foreign policy situation.
Image Courtesy of: Liberal Dictionary
America’s Barrier in the Mediterranean
The Barbary pirates originated from Morocco and terrorized the Northern part of
Africa, taking over states like Tunis, Algiers, Tripoli, and Libya. Not only did they
3 National Archives “Alexander Hamilton, Report Relative to a Provision for the Support of Public Credit Jan. 3, 1790” Web Accessed Nov. 18, 2019. 4 Christine Sears, Phone Interview, Dec. 2, 2019. 5 Benjamin Armstrong, Email Interview, Nov. 28, 2019. 6 Robert Allison, Skype Interview, Feb. 28,2019.
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terrorize on land, but also in the Mediterranean. The “government licensed men to capture particular ships”7 for goods and to enslave the men, women, and children aboard the captured ship. The pirates would sell the captured and press them into hard labor, and even torture them.8 Harrie Slootbeak, the collection manager at the U.S.S. Constitution
Museum, an expert of the First Barbary War, stated: “The only way they [the Barbary pirates] could make money was extorting it from other people.” No matter who they were or where they were from, ships in the Mediterranean were vulnerable to the pirates.
The pirates believed that non- Islamic nations were reprobates, and it was the pirates’ duty to make them suffer. Sidi Haji Abdrahaman stated, “all nations who should not have acknowledged their authority were sinners, that it was their right and duty to make war upon them wherever they could be found."9 Only nations that paid tribute could be saved from attack, and the bashaws,10 or rulers, of each Ottoman state could make the tribute cost as large as they wanted.
When Thomas Jefferson11 became Secretary of State in 1790, he immediately addressed the quandary over the Barbary pirates to President George Washington and to
Congress with dispatches entitled, Prisoners in Algiers and Mediterranean Trade. These detailed reports told of the numbers of Americans captured and the price Barbary bashaws demanded for their release. It also explained ways to address the situation: either, “obtain
Peace by purchasing it," or “repel Force by Force."12 Jefferson was “determined to use the
7 Christine Sears, Phone Interview, Dec. 2, 2019. 8 See Appendix A. 9 National Archives, “Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, letter to John Jay, 28 Mar. 1786” Web. Accessed Oct. 27, 2019. 10 Bashaw or Dey was a title for a governor or ruler in the Barbary States. 11 See Appendix B. 12 National Archives “Thomas Jefferson, Report on American Trade in The Mediteranian, Dec. 28, 1790” Web. Accessed, Nov. 18, 2019.
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navy to force the Barbary powers to respect the American flag,”13 and these two reports showed his determination. After listening to the reports, some congressmen believed that building a navy would help rid America of this barrier to economic success, but with the small amount of money in the treasury, use of force could not be funded, and it seemed that paying tribute was the more frugal and practical option. “Many in Congress were happier paying the Barbary kingdoms tribute in order to stop the attacks because it was less expensive than building and keeping a navy.”14 So, for the next 6 years, America paid millions to keep its ships from being attacked.
“C ongress’s interest went beyond the enslaved men because the continuing threat to ships had meant that American trade in the Mediterranean was dwindling at a great cost to the otherwise healthy American economy. ”15 - Brian Kilmeade
By the time John Adams became president in 1797, the cost of tribute was consuming much of the national budget, and America could not keep up with the high and changing demands. “By the turn of the century, Congress was paying twenty percent of the U.S.'s annual revenue to the pirates."16 So the A ct to Provide a Naval Armament was created, and “authorized to build, equipt, and employ, four ships, to carry forty four guns
13 George C. Daughan, “If By Sea: The Forging of The American Navy - From the Revolution to The War of 1812”, (Basic Books, 2011) pg. 353. 14 Benjamin Armstrong, Email Interview, Nov. 28, 2019. 15 Brian Kilmeade, “Thomas Jefferson and The Tripoli Pirates: The Forgotten War That Changed American History”, (New York: Sentinel, 2015) pg 22. 16 “Commander in Chief: Barbary Pirates”, Web. Accessed Dec 10, 2019.
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each, and two ships to carry thirty six guns each.”17 Though the United States was young,
Americans had some naval experience with the Quasi- War,18 which was fought from 1798 to 1800. Still, they were intimidated by these pirates, which was a cause for the building of these ships. Though the ships were there for protection they were not needed, for America was still making tribute with the Barbary states that were relatively low in cost. However,
Tripoli’s bashaw, Yusuf Karamanli,19 grew increasingly frustrated because America’s tribute payments were small in comparison to its tributes from other states. His anger escalated, and he demanded higher payments of tribute for peace, threatening war if not fulfilled.
Breaking the Barrier to Free Trade in the Mediterranean
Karamanli's threat became reality when on February 26, 1801, he declared war on the
United States, through the cutting- down of an American flagpole. Months later, after the leader learned of Tripoli’s declaration, the small U.S. Navy was sent to protect ships, but were not ordered to attack, since “the Constitution gives Congress the power to declare war”20 and Congress had not declared or confirmed that America was at war with Tripoli.
The American Navy met with Swedish ships who were already fighting Tripoli, and together, on July 24, 1801, they blocked central ports, not allowing Barbary ships to go in or out. However, soon afterward these blockades proved ineffective, as the crews of trapped
Barbary ships escaped on land. Over time, America created more blockades but had similar disappointing results.
17 “An Act to provide a Naval Armament,” National Archives Mar. 27, 1794 Web. Accessed Dec. 8, 2019. 18 The Quasi War was an undeclared war that happened from 1798 to 1800 between American, France, and Britain. This war was mainly fought at sea and ended with the signing of the Treaty of Mortefontaine in 1800. For more information visit : h ttps://history.state.gov/milestones/1784-1800/xyz 19 See Appendix C. 20 Benjamin Armstrong, Email Interview, Nov. 18, 2019.
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Two years of small battles went on and America’s navy slowly increased in size.
“Congress had enacted new legislation empowering President Jefferson to add to the U.S.
Navy four warships.”21 In 1803, the brand- new U .S.S. Constitution, lead by Captain Edward
Preble, the U .S.S Philadelphia, lead by Captain William Bainbridge, and three smaller frigates sailed from America to the Mediterranean. Morocco had declared war on America for not paying enough tribute, and to keep the barbary state in line, all the ships except the
Philadelphia and Vixen sailed to Morocco. The other ships sailed to Tripoli, where Preble wanted the ships to protect U.S. merchant ships by blockading entries. This followed as planned, until the 31st of October, 1803, when the P hiladelphia was captured. That morning
Captain Bainbridge spotted a suspicious ship trying to pass the blockade his forces created.
Bainbridge ordered the ship to follow and the chase was on. As ships moved closer to shore, Captain Bainbridge ordered the depth of water to be measured, as a precaution, so the ship would not get stuck and “the surrounding showed 48 feet.”22 This depth was enough for the ship to still sail, yet “shortly thereafter his frigate ran hard aground on an uncharted reef in 12 feet of water.”23 Eventually, the Tripolitans realized this blunder, and they started heading toward the ship to investigate. Realizing they could not move,
Bainbridge decided that if he was going to hand over the ship, he “was going to make sure it was as worthless a prize as possible.”24 “Pistols, muskets, cutlasses, pikes, and other weapons were tossed into the sea.”25 Important papers and documents were burned and thrown overboard, and seven hours after the Philadelphia became stuck, the ship wore the
21 Brian Killmeade, T homas Jefferson and the Tripoli Pirates pg 132. 22 Glen Tucker, “Dawn Like Thunder: The Barbary Wars and The Birth of The US Navy”. (Bowsprit Books 2019) pg 207. 23 Gregory Frement-Barnes, “The Wars of the Barbary Pirates: To the shores of Tripoli the rise of the US Navy and Marines” (Osprey Publishing 2006) pg 46. 24 Brian Kilmeade, T homas Jefferson and the Tripoli Pirates pg. 141. 25 Ibid.
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enemies’ colors. When Jefferson found out about the wreck months later, he addressed the matter, stating: “This accident renders it expedient to increase our force, and enlarge our expences in the Mediterranean.”26
307 men aboard the ship were captured, and after being set free by large waves, the
Philadelphia underwent repairs to fight on the enemy's side. It would be months before
Captain Preble and Captain Stephen Decatur heard about the capture of the P hiladelphia, and when they did, they were frightened of the damage the new ship could do in the wrong hands. Bainbridge, who was in prison at the time, used lime juice as invisible ink to write reports in letters to Preble. Further, Decatur, Captain of Intrepid, spent many days watching the ship off the coast of Tripoli, and together they planned a mission to “destroy the Philadelphia in Tripoli harbor, right under the bashaw’s nose.”27 Soon, the plan was drafted and put into action.
On February 16, 1804, I ntrepid slowly moved into Tripoli’s harbor during the dead of night. Once in harbor and aboard the Philadelphia, Decatur and his team began to burn the ship, and chaos ensued.28 Decatur addressed Preble in a report describing: “I immediately fired her in the store-rooms, gun- room, cock- pit, and birth- deck, and remained on board until the flames had issued from the spar-d eck, hatchways, and ports, and before I had got from alongside, the fire had communicated to the rigging and tops.”29 Decatur’s mission was a success. In a letter to Preble, Decatur reported that all men in the mission were safe and alive. “I boarded with sixty men and officers, leaving a guard on board the ketch for
26 See Appendix D. 27 Joseph Wheelan, “Jefferson’s War: America’s First War of Terror, 1801-1805”, (Caroll and Graf Publishers, 2004) pg. 181. 28 See Appendix E. 29 “Documents, Official and Unofficial, Relating to the Case of the Capture and Destruction of the Frigate Philadelphia at Tripoli, on the 16th February 1804.” (John T. Towers 1850).
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her defense, and it is the greatest pleasure I inform you, I had not a man killed in this affair, and but one slightly wounded.”30 This mission broke the barrier the Philadelphia would have created - if the P hiladelphia was sailed as a Tripolitan ship, it would pose as another barrier for American merchants attempting to trade. Luckily, with the ship gone, America did not have to worry about a ship being in the enemy’s hands.
Image Courtesy of: Naval Historical Center
“Oil painting of Decatur Boarding the Tripolitan Gunboat during the bombardment of Tripoli, 3 August 1804. Lieutenant Stephen Decatur (lower right center) in mortal combat with the Tripolitan Captain.”31
After the loss of the U .S.S. Philadelphia, America placed more blockades against
Tripolitan ships at sea, but they proved ineffective. Thereafter, America decided to change
30 Ibid. 31 Elizebeth Ellen Carter, “To the Shores of Tripoli… The Birth of the U.S. Marines”, 2017, Web, Accessed 25 Feb. 2020.
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its tactics, going by land rather than by water. American soldiers landed on the coast of
Alexandria, Egypt, took the already-imprisoned brother of the bashaw and marched to
Tripoli.32 They brought along the bashaw’s brother, who was himself meant to be the bashaw of Tripoli but was taken captive by his younger brother so that he could rule instead. This usurpation further illustrated the aggressive and unrespectful demeanor and operations of the Tripolitan pirates and their leader. 6,000 American soldiers, lead by
Lieutenant William Eaton, traveled about 1,000 miles before reaching a city in Tripoli called Derna. They conquered the city and held it captive for a few days, until Tripoli’s bashaw p leaded for peace. America agreed to the deal and a treaty was drafted. America paid for the hostages who were taken, which included Bainbridge and his men, but
America would not have to pay the tribute. This T reaty of Peace and Amity was signed on
June 4, 1805. As a result of this agreement, the bashaw o f Tripoli was forced to “deliver up to the American Squadron now off Tripoli, all Americans in his possession.”33 Also, this treaty created rules regarding ships and their cargo, that “no attempt shall be made to take or detain them.”34 One of the barriers to America’s economic success was now broken.
Historical Impact
By establishing peace with Tripoli and Morocco, the United States could freely trade in the Mediterranean without fear of Tripolitan attacks; the national debt was reduced with the money made from trade. In 1805, America owed 82,312,150 dollars; but it was lowered to 53,173,217 dollars by 1810. With the influx of revenues and a freshly
32 See Appendix F. 33 “Treaty of Peace and Amity Between the United States of America and the Bashaw, Bey and Subjects of Tripoli in Barbary” Avalon Project Yale Law Web. Accessed January 10, 2020. 34 Ibid.
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stimulated economy, Congress passed the Act for Gradual Increase of The Navy, in 1816.
This law authorized over 8 million dollars to build nine ships and 12 frigates.
Moreover, America realized the importance of having a standing navy. Before the
First Barbary War, many Americans believed that creating and sustaining a navy would cost too much and would not be necessary. They held “that the wide expanse of the
Atlantic ocean would help protect American shores. However, the Barbary War showed
Americans that U.S. interests existed in other places, not just on our own shores."35 The strengthened navy would prove vital in the near future, as America waged war against
Britain in the War of 1812. During that conflict, six ship- to-ship encounterments with the
Royal Navy occured, and the American Navy came out victorious in five of those six.
Without the expanded navy, the U.S. may have lost to Britain.
“...the pirates were attacking not just American ships but also America’s honor.”36
- Wendy Bergeron
Conclusion and Analysis
Interestingly, many scholars today claim that the Barbary War was simply a struggle over economic issues, and fail to see the religious aspect. Some believe that “what divided the United States and Tripoli was an economic disagreement over commercial access to
35 Benjamin Armstrong, Email Interview, Nov. 18, 2019. 36 Wendy Bergeron, “The Importance of the Barbary Wars,” Nov. 17, 2014. Web. Accessed Dec. 2, 2019.
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Mediterranean ports.”37 However, it is clear from the primary sources that the pirates’ motive was more religious than economical. Taking over ships and enslaving people was believed to lead to prosperity in the afterlife. Sidi Abdrahaman, one of Tripoli's ambassadors, told Jefferson and Adams, “Every Mussulman,38 who should be slain in battle was sure to go to paradise."39 With the combination of economical and religous influences, this started a war some historians call America’s first war on terrorism.40
Many suffered in captivity before America’s intervention rid North African piracy from the world. Only military actions proved successful in ending this terror on the seas.
The First Barbary War established a proud American Navy and Marine Corps, and “gave
America credibility as a military power.”41 In fact, “Americans praised themselves in the wake of the Barbary War,”42 as they realized they could be victorious overseas. By breaking the barrier to Mediterranean trade in the nation's early years, America developed the courage to exercise its strength in the world when its interests were threatened.
37Spellberg, Denise, “Laws of the Profit: Language, Religion, and Money in the Founding Fathers’ Diplomacy With a Muslin Kingdom” Aug. 17, 2014. Web. Accessed April 15, 2020 38 This was a term for Muslim in the early 20th century. 39 National Archives, “Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, letter to John Jay, 28 Mar. 1786” Web. Accessed Oct. 27, 2019. 40 Author Joseph Wheelan has published a work arguing this premise. For more information, see Jefferson’s War: America’s First War of Terror, 1801-1805, (Caroll and Graf Publishers, 2004). 41 H istory.org, “To the Shores of Tripoli, Thomas Jefferson Wages America’s First War of Terrorism” Web. Accessed Feb. 27, 2020 42 Robert Allison, Skype Interview, Feb. 28, 2020.
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Appendices
Appendix A:
Image Courtesy of: Hulton Archive/Getty Images
“Twenty two different tortures inflicted on Christian slaves in the Barbary States of North Africa in the 1600's.”43
43 Hulton Archive, “Twenty-Two Tourtures” Web. Accessed Feb. 28, 2020.
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Appendix B:
Image Courtesy of: Library of Congress
“In March of 1785, Future president Thomas Jefferson went to London to negotiate with Tripoli’s envoy, Ambassador Sidi Haji Abdrahaman”44
44 Front Page Map Archive, “Thomas Jefferson and Radical Islam’s War on the West” Web. Accessed Feb. 26, 2020.
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Appendix C:
Image Courtesy of: gutenburg.org
“Yusuf Karamanli was a member of the Karamanli dynasty” and “Pasha (or ruler) of Tripoli (1795-1832)”45
45 Spencer Tucker, “The Encyclopedia of the Wars of the Early American Republic 1783-1812: A Political, Social, and Military History” (ABC-CLIO Publisher, 2014) pg. 348.
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Appendix D:
Image Courtesy of: Personal Artifact. New York Herald, March 28, 1804
This segment from an original edition of the New-York Herald, which I purchased online, is one of the first newspapers to report the capture of the Philadelphia.
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Appendix E:
Image Courtesy of: Naval History and Heritage Command
“On February 16, 1804, American naval lieutenant Stephen Decatur led a covert mission to burn the U.S.S. P hiladelphia, an American ship that had fallen into Tripolitan hands, during the First Barbary War.”46
46 Fold3 Military Records, “Stephen Decatur Burns the USS Philadelphia: February 16, 1804” Web. Accessed Feb. 26, 2020.
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Appendix F:
Image Courtesy of: Pritzker Military Museum and Library
“A U.S. Marine painter, Charles H. Waterhouse, depicts ‘The Assault on Derna, Tripoli, 27 April 1805.’”47
47 Hoover Institution, “Back to The Shores of Tripoli?” Web. Accessed Feb. 28, 2020.
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Annotated Bibliography
Primary Sources
Documents
United States. Office of Naval Records and Library. Naval Documents Related to the
United States Wars With the Barbary Powers ..: Naval Operations Including
Diplomatic Background ... Published Under Direction of the ... Secretary of the
Navy. Washington: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 193944, 1804.
These documents helped me understand and observe how many boats were
captured and what year they were captured in. These should come helpful when
writing on how many ships were captured, and to express just how strong the
Barbary force was.
United States, Congress, Charles, De Selding. “Documents, Official and Unofficial,
Relating to the Case of the Capture and Destruction of the Frigate Philadelphia at
Tripoli, on the 16th February 1804.” D ocuments, Official and Unofficial, Relating to the
Case of the Capture and Destruction of the Frigate Philadelphia at Tripoli, on the 16th
February 1804., John T. Towers, 1850.
These documents were records of the official documents, letters, and records on the
capture and the destruction of the U .S.S. Philadelphia including many letters from
Captain Edward Preble and Captain Stephen Decatur. I used these letters
throughout my “Breaking the Barrier” when talking about the burning of the
Philadelphia.
18
House of Representatives, and Senate. “Act to Provide A Naval Armament.” Mar. 1794.
In March, 1794, the House of Representatives and the Senates passed the “Act to
Provide A Naval Armament” which allowed the president to build 6 frigates and
send them out into the sea. This act built up the navy to protect merchant sailing in
the Mediterranean against the pirates. This act is mentioned in my context section
when it talks about the funding and building up of the small U.S. Navy.
Manuscripts
Jefferson, Thomas. “Thomas Jefferson to John Adams.” Received by John Adams, 11 July
1786.
This letter from Thomas Jefferson to John Adams talks about how these two men
had two different opinions on how to deal with the Barbary powers. Adams believed
that paying tribute was the best option for the economy, while Jefferson believed
that force would help America in the long run This helps to explain the origin of
these main options for dealing with the Barbary states, which I used in my context
section.
Jefferson, Thomas. “From Thomas Jefferson to John Adams, 11 July 1786.” Received by John
Adams, 11 July 1786.
This online translated letter was a letter from Thomas Jefferson to John Adams
regarding what to do about the Barbary States. These men were having
conversations about it back and forth, and in this letter Jefferson lists reasons why
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he believed fighting would be more logical than paying tribute. I used this in my
paper to show the two main ways America could have dealt with these pirates.
“American Commissioners to John Jay, 28 March 1786.” 28 Mar. 1786,
founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-09-02-0315.
This source is an online transcript of a letter Thomas Jefferson and John Adams
wrote to John Jay, after meeting with Tripoli ambassador Sidi Abdrahaman. Thomas
Jefferson took notes of the conversation they had and then wrote the conversation
they had to John Jay. Jefferson and Adams met with Abdrahaman to discuss a peace
agreement with America and Tripoli, so that America would not have to pay too
much for tribute. This letter was used in my context, when I used a quote
Abdrahaman said to Jefferson and Adams about how the pirates believed in the
Prophet and that any nation that does not believe had to be hurt by them.
Jefferson, Thomas. “ Thomas Jefferson to Wilson Cary Nicholas.” 11 June 1801,
Washington.
This letter from Thomas Jefferson to Wilson Cary Nicholas not only shows
Jeffersons’ concern with the declaration of war from the bashaw of Tripoli, but also
how he as President plans to deal with it, by building up the navy and sending it to
protect and fight.
Jefferson, Thomas. Received by James Monroe, 24 Nov. 1801, Washington.
This letter from Thomas Jefferson to James Monroe, the governor of Virginia at the
time, explains Thomas Jefferson’s conflicts concerning the Barbary pirates. I used
this letter when I explain what problem the Barbary pirates cause America to have.
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Personal Artifacts
“New-York Herald.” New-York Herald, 28 Mar. 1804.
This newspaper was one of the first newspapers published reporting the capture of
the U .S.S. Philadelphia. I bought this real 1804 newspaper to use in my paper. The
section starts off with a note from the president at the time, Thomas Jefferson telling
of the unfortunate event. Then it goes on to cite a letter the president received from
Captain Bainbridge, the Captain in charge of the Philadelphia. This newspaper was a
great primary source, because of all the facts and numbers Captain Bainbridge put
into his letter, like exactly how many people were captured in total, and this makes
my paper more accurate.
Pictures
Carter, Dennis. “Decatur Boarding the Tripolitan Gunboat.” Naval History and Heritage
Command, 1841,
www.history.navy.mil/content/history/nhhc/our-collections/photography/us-peo
ple/d/decatur-stephen-actions-activities/nh-44647-kn.html.
This painting created in 1841 illustrates Captain Stephen Decatur and his crew
boarding a Tripolitan ship and taking control of it. This painting is used within my
paper to show the reader what raiding a ship looks like, and the strength of Stephen
Decatur and his team.
21
Dan, Pierre. “Twenty Two Different Tortures Inflicted on Christian Slaves in the Barbary
States of North Africa in the 1600's.” H ulton Archives/ Getty Images, Pierre Roccolet,
Paris, 1639,
www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/circa-1635-twenty-two-different-tortures-
inflicted-on-news-photo/51241680
This picture was created in 1639, showing twenty-two ways the Barbary States
tortured Christian captives, which was originally in a French book, on the Barbary
States. I used this picture in my appendices to not only show the reader what they
would do, but to also show how cruel and harsh these pirates were.
“Gutenberg.” G utenberg, 22 Oct. 2005,
www.gutenberg.org/files/17253/17253-h/images/216.png.
This picture was a drawing of Captain William Bainbridge meeting Yusuf
Karamanli, the dey or leader of Tripoli. Captain William Bainbridge was delivering
tribute to this leader so that the Tripolitan pirates would not attack American
vessels. Karamanli was a very important character in the First Barbary War so I
decided to insert a picture, that way readers could see what he looked like.
“Liberal Dictionary.” Liberal Dictionary, www.liberaldictionary.com/barbary-states/.
This picture is a map of the Mediterranean, including the Barbary states, and the
seas around them. I used this picture within my context when talking about the
origins of the pirates, and this map shows the reader precisely where the states were
located.
22
“Thomas Jefferson.” Library of Congress, Boston, 1897, Library of Congress,
www.loc.gov/item/2018697338/.
This illustration is a portrait of Thomas Jefferson, who was president during the
First Barbary War. Jefferson was very passionate about using force to stop the
Barbary pirates and the endless tribute. I inserted this picture to show the readers
what Jefferson looked like, especially since he plays a role in the situation.
Morgan, Edward. B urning of the Frigate Philadelphia in the Harbor of Tripoli, February 16, 1804.
1897.
This painting created in 1897 illustrates what the night of February 16, 1804 looked
like, when Captain Stephen Decatur and 60 other men boarded the captured U.S.S.
Philadelphia and burned it down so Tripoli could not use it against them. This event
was a very important part in the war so I made sure I included a picture of the
burning so that readers can imagine what it looked like, as if they were there to see
it.
Waterhouse, Charles H. “Pritzker Military Museum and Library.” P ritzker Military Museum
and Library, 1985,
www.pritzkermilitary.org/explore/museum/digital-collection/view/oclc/792819155.
This painting reenacts the attack on Tripoli on the 27th of April 1805, led by William
Eaton. This attack was an important part of the war as it was the last military attack
of the war, leading to the bashaw of Tripoli pleading for peace. This picture was
inserted into my paper, to give the readers a view into the attack.
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Reprinted Work
Jefferson, Thomas. “Report on American Trade in the Mediterranean, 28 December 1790.”
Report on American Trade in the Mediterranean, 28 December 1790, 28 Dec. 1790.
National Archives.
This online transcript was from one of two reports Thomas Jefferson presented to
Congress in 1790, talking about the situation happening overseas. This report
brought attention to people that America needed a navy, and it showed Jefferson's
determination to stop the pirates using force. I used this report in my context
section when talking about what was going on before the start of the war.
“Report Relative to a Provision for the Support of Public Credit, [9 January 1790].” 9 Jan.
1790, founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-06-02-0076-0002-0001.
This online transcript is of the first report on US debt by Alexander Hamilton, and
it explains the debt America had after the Revolutionary War. He stated America
had almost 60 million dollars in debt. This was important, so I could show the reader
that America was already in debt and the attacks the pirates were doing to American
vessels was worsening America’s economy.
Secondary Sources
Books
Daughan, George C. If by Sea: the Forging of the American Navy-- from the American Revolution
to the War of 1812. Basic Books, 2011.
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This book explains the building of the U.S. Navy from the Revolution to the War of
1812. Though this book has only a chapter focused on the First Barbary War, but it
goes into depth about the context and what was happening outside of the war. I
used multiple quotes from this book in my context and war paragraphs in my paper.
Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. T he Wars of the Barbary Pirates: To the Shores of Tripoli: the Rise of
the US Navy and Marines. Osprey Publishing Ltd., 2006.
This book and secondary source explain in depth the origin of the Barbary pirates,
how they got their name, and how they came to become these “monsters of the sea”.
I included multiple quotes in my context and Barbary pirates paragraph of my
paper when talking about where these people originated from.
Kilmeade, Brian. T homas Jefferson And The Tripoli Pirates: The Forgotten War That Changed
American History. Portfolio Penguin, 2017.
This book by Brian Kilmeade includes a considerable amount of information on the
Tripoli pirates, how Thomas Jefferson created the first strong American navy and
how it impacted America forever. I used multiple quotes throughout my paper and
also plan to interview Brian Kilmeade in the near future.
Wheelan, Joseph. J efferson's War: America's First War on Terror, 1801-1805. Carroll & Graf
Publishers, 2004.
This book talks about the events taking place in the First Barbary War, and how
Jefferson, the president at the time, dealt with the pirates. There is a quote talking
about how Stephen Decatur and Edward Preble wanted to burn the U.S.S.
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Philadelphia without the bashaw knowing and I used this quote in my “Breaking the
Barrier to Free Trade” section.
Tucker, Spencer. The Encyclopedia of the Wars of the Early American Republic, 1783-1812: a
Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO, 2014.
This book is an encyclopedia of main characters, artifacts, and wars that took place
in the early republic. This helps in my paper by explaining more information about
other characters and the First Barbary including the bashaw of Tripoli. I utilized this
book in my appendices when showing a picture of the bashaw of Tripoli.
Interviews
Alllison, Robert. Skype Interview, February 28, 2020
Dr. Robert Allison is a professor at Suffolk University in Boston. He has written
many historical books, including a book about Stephen Decatur and the Barbary
Wars. I did a Skype interview with him talking about the First Barbary War, mainly
on the impact it had on America. This interview had multiple quotes that I used in
my impact and context section.
Armstrong, BJ. Email Interview November 18, 2019
Dr. Armstong is a professor at the United States Naval Academy, and teaches
American naval history. This interview was conducted through email and Dr.
Armstrong gave detailed responses about America's concern with these pirates,
including providing a paper he wrote about the First Barbary War. These quotes are
distributed throughout the paper, but mainly used in my context section. He was
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one of the earlier interviews and told me I should focus on one war out of the two
Babrary wars because doing both would be too much to fit into a 2500 word paper.
Sears, Christine. Phone Interview December 2, 2019
Dr. Sear is a professor at the University of Alabama and agreed to do this interview
with me. She has done many interviews with people before and created videos
talking about the Barbary Pirates. This interview over the phone was on what
happened during the First Barbary War. Not only did she provide great information
that I used in my context, but she shared her opinion in saying that they were
corsairs not pirates, who worked for the states. I used that as a perspective in my
paper.
Slootbeek, Harrie. Skype Interview January 27, 2020.
Mr. Slootbeek works at the U.S.S. Constitution Museum in Massachusetts, where
famous artifacts from historical ships can be found. Mr. Slootbeek ran an exhibit for
the museum a few years ago, on the First Barbary War, and so he was very educated
on the Barbary pirates. This interview was on Skype, and was very useful in talking
about the war and how it affects American today. I used quotes from this interview
throughout my paper and I also used a quote for my conclusion and analysis section,
when talking about people’s perspectives on if this war has religious aspects to it, in
which Mr. Slootbeek believed that the war did not have religious aspects to it.
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Scholarly Reports
Erasmus University Rotterdam. The Causes and Consequences of the First Barbary War
1801-1805. 2016,
file:///home/chronos/u-c04c0be20d2e9c05da9f6ec82b31cf1b70dcf967/MyFiles/Dow
nloads/Monsieurs.pdf.
This project was created by Erasmus University and is a paper of the causes and
consequences of the First Barbary War, but I used this project mainly to find
different perspectives for my paper. This is how I got the idea for the perspectives on
if this war had religious aspects to it.
Spellberg, Denise A. “‘Laws of the Profit’: Language, Religion, and Money in the Founding
Fathers’ Diplomacy with a Muslim Kingdom.” Brookings, 17 Aug. 2014,
www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Brookings-Analysis-Papers_Deni
se-Spellberg_Final_WEB-2.pdf
This project was created by Denise A. Spellberg and it talks about the Barbary States
and their economic motives to take and capture vessels on the Mediterranean, and
how America established peace with the “Musslim Kingdom”. I used a quote from
this project in my “Conclusion and Analysis” section when talking about the pirates
economic motives.
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Websites/Webpages
Carter, Elizabeth Ellen. “To The Shores Of Tripoli... The Birth Of The US Marines.”
Elizabeth Ellen Carter, 10 July 2017,
eecarter.com/to-the-shores-of-tripoli-birth-of-us-marines/.
This website by Elizabeth Cater holds a quote for a picture I used. This quote talks
about Stephen Decatur taking over a Tripolitan ship in the First Barbary War. I used
this webpage in my section called, “Breaking the Barrier to Free Trade” under a
picture of Stephen Decatur and his men boarding a ship and taking it over.
“Commander in Chief: Barbary Pirates.” Bill of Rights Institute,
billofrightsinstitute.org/elessons/commander-in-chief-barbary-pirates/.
This website told of how America spent 20% of the national budget just on paying
tribute to the Barbary States until 1800. This was used in my context section,
showing how this situation cost a great part of America’s economy.
Crews, Ed. “To the Shores of Tripoli.” T o the Shores of Tripoli : The Colonial Williamsburg
Official History & Citizenship Site, 2015,
www.history.org/Foundation/journal/Winter15/barbary.cfm.
This website talks about the First Barbary War briefly and shares how it affects
America today. This website also talks about piracy today and how America can
learn from the First Barbary War. I utilized this website for quotes in my impact
section talking about how America became a military power after the First Barbary
War.
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Fettig, Jason. “The Marine's Hymn.” The Marines' Hymn,
www.marineband.marines.mil/about/library-and-archives/the-marines-hymn/.
This website is the official U.S. Marines website where I found the lyrics to the
marines hymn. There is a line in this hymn that associates with the First Barbary
War talking about the march from Egypt to Tripoli led by Captain William Eaton.
These lyrics introduce my paper, and shows the reader a little bit of the impact this
war gave America, before even reading the whole paper.
Huff, Elizabeth. “Monticello.” First Barbary War, Aug. 2011,
www.monticello.org/site/research-and-collections/first-barbary-war.
This webpage revealed to me the major events leading to the First Barbary War. It
also explains how Jefferson overcame barriers leading up to this war, and the
obstacles in his plan. This website is one of the most important websites because of
all the primary and secondary sources it leads me to in my topic, and the great quotes
it gave for my paper.
Hunter, David L. “Frontpage Mag Archive.” Frontpagemag, 19 May 2015,
archives.frontpagemag.com/fpm/thomas-jefferson-radical-islams-war-west-david-l-
hunter/.
This website talks about Thomas Jefferson and his visit to Sidi Haji Abdraham, the
ambassador to Tripoli in 1785. I used this website for a quote that I placed in my
appendices talking about Thomas Jefferson and his knowledge of Tripoli and the
Barbary states before even becoming president.
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Miller, Hunter. “The Barbary Treaties 1786-1836.” Avalon Project - The Barbary Treaties
1786-1836, avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/barmenu.asp.
This webpage shows the Barbary treaties made with all countries from 1786-1836.
I used this in my paper when talking about the treaties made with the Barbary
States and what happened when the T reaty of Peace and Amity was signed ending
the First Barbary War.
Pipes, Daniel. “Back to the Shores of Tripoli?” Hoover Institution, 2011,
www.hoover.org/research/back-shores-tripoli.
This website talks about the painting of William Eatons army that marched to
Derna and captured the city. This march was over 1,000 miles long and lead them to
capturing Derna and ending the war. I used this quote for the caption to the last
appendix of my paper.
“Reports.” Government - Historical Debt Outstanding - Annual 1790 - 1849,
www.treasurydirect.gov/govt/reports/pd/histdebt/histdebt_histo1.htm.
This website shows the national debt each year from the year America became a
country. I used this website to show proof of how the national debt went down after
the first 10 years after the First Barbary War, in my impact section.
Trevor. “Stephen Decatur Burns the USS Philadelphia: February 16, 1804.” F old3 Blog, 22
Mar. 2019,
blog.fold3.com/stephen-decatur-burns-the-uss-philadelphia-february-16-1804/com
ment-page-1/.
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This webpage focused on the burning of the P hiladelphia and how Stephen Decatur
planned out the mission. This website contained a quote I felt needed to be the
caption for the picture of the U.S.S. Philadelphia is burning. I used this quote in my
appendix for my paper.
Wagner, I. “Nigeria - Number of Piracy Attacks 2019.” S tatista, 28 Jan. 2020,
www.statista.com/statistics/250868/number-of-actual-and-attempted-piracy-attacks
-in-nigeria/.
This website shows a graph of the number of piracy attacks in Nigeria and other
countries in Africa over the years. I used this website in my lasting impact section
talking about how piracy is still a big issue today and how we can learn from the First
Barbary War when dealing with this.
Wbergeron, /. T he Importance of the Barbary Wars. 17 Nov. 2014,
ticonderogasummer.wordpress.com/2014/11/17/the-importance-of-the-barbary-wars
/.
This webpage is a summary of the Barbary Wars, and it helped me understand more
about what the Barbary Wars were about when starting my research. It summarized
the war and gave primary sources as well. I used this website for a quote in my paper
in the war section.
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