What was the last region to be colonized by modern humans?

a) The high altitude Tibetan Plateau b) Sahul c) Polynesian islands such as Hawaii and Easter Island d) North America e) South America Migration onto the High Altitude Tibetan Plateau—Archaeology

• Step 3 (9.5-4kya)  Long-term, seasonal occupation of sites above 3000m. More pottery, burned bones, and microblades.

• Step 4 (4-2.5kya)  Permanent year-round occupation of high altitudes. Farming populations move into the plateau with millet, cold-tolerant barley, sheep, and goats.

Archaeology shows that occupation of the Tibetan Plateau was only possible after the LGM. Permanent occupation may have only been possible after agriculture. The Austronesian Expansion

BP=Before Present

Matisoo-Smith (2015). What is the approximate date for the earliest human migration into Sahul?

a) 500 years ago b) 4,000 years ago c) 10,000 years ago d) 14,000 years ago e) 30,000 years ago f) 50,000 years ago

Sahul Time! http://sahultime.monash.edu.au/explore.html Early Migration into Sahul by Boat

• Low sea levels during glacial periods two continents: – Sunda (Southeast Asia) – Sahul (Australia and New Guinea)

• “Wallace’s Line” biogeographic boundary indicates that Sunda and Sahul were permanently separated.

• Humans moving into Sahul must have used boats.

• Earliest sites in Sahul date to over 50kya (e.g., Lake Mungo in southern Australia).

• The first populations in Sahul contained

Denisovan ancestry. These populations Matisoo-Smith (2015). remained isolated from later population turnover events that diluted Denisovan DNA signatures on the mainland. What is the main reason that ancient DNA research on human migrations and population dynamics in North America and Oceania is not as well developed as it is in other regions such as Europe?

a) Laws prohibit scientists from conducting any ancient DNA studies without the approval of descendant communities. b) Indigenous peoples often object to genetic research on their DNA or on DNA extracted from the remains of their ancestors. c) There are no specialized ancient DNA laboratory facilities in these regions. d) Ancient DNA does not preserve at all in these regions. e) All of the above. Course Learning Goals: • Learn basic genetic principles, including the differences between mtDNA, Y- chromosome DNA, genome-wide studies, next generation techniques, and the special methods needed to extract, amplify, and analyze poorly preserved fragments of ancient DNA (aDNA). • Compare the genetic, fossil, and archaeological evidence for human origins. • Examine genetic evidence for admixture between humans and other hominin populations and its implications for interpreting the Paleolithic archaeological record. • Learn how aDNA provides clues about ancient human migrations across the globe. • Consider case studies of how aDNA is helping to address key archaeological and anthropological research questions in different parts of the world (e.g., the relationship between high-altitude adaptation and the peopling of the Tibetan Plateau, evidence for the spread of plague in Eurasia, etc.). • Discover the ways that genetics can help clarify aspects of ancient plant and animal exploitation, including domestication processes and the role of aDNA in conservation and de-extinction debates. • Discuss how aDNA contributes to our understanding of diasporas, especially those associated with the transatlantic slave trade, and the important role that genetics plays in modern discussions about race and ancestry. Environmental DNA and New Possibilities for Ancient DNA Research on Plants, Animals, and Soils Outline of Today’s Class: Environmental DNA and New Possibilities for Ancient DNA Research on Plants, Animals, and Soils

1) Environmental Archaeology

2) Environmental DNA

3) Museums as Repositories for Ancient DNA Environmental Archaeology

• Environmental archaeology is focused on the interactions between environmental systems and cultural systems.

• Natural materials and environments are passed through a “cultural filter” (Reed 1963:210).

• Environmental archaeologists: – Reconstruct past environments. – Study resource procurement methods. – Study how people use natural resources (e.g., subsistence activities, technology, etc.) – Study how environmental conditions influence landscape use (e.g., settlement patterns) and site formation processes. – Study the environmental impacts of human activities and environmental resilience. – Study human responses to changes in the environment.

Reed C. A. (1963). Osteo-archaeology. In Science in Archaeology, edited by E. S. Higgs and Don Brothwell, pp. 204–16. Thames and Hudson, New York. Environmental Archaeology

• Sources of Environmental Data: – Plant remains (paleoethnobotany or archaeobotany) – Animal remains (zooarchaeology or archaeozoology) – Geospatial data (landscape archaeology) – Rocks and soils (geology and geomorphology) – Environmental DNA

Carbonized Rice Grains Animal Bones Environmental DNA (eDNA)

“Genetic material obtained directly from environmental samples (soil, sediment, water, etc.) without any obvious signs of biological source material.” -- Thomsen and Willerslev (2015: 6)

Lake sediment core

DNA is left behind when a plant or animal dies and decomposes, sheds hair/dandruff/leaves, or defecates.

Thomsen and Willerslev (2015). Environmental DNA (eDNA)

Many Applications in Biology and Conservation: • Modern eDNA allows for large-scale biodiversity monitoring with limited fieldwork. • Ancient eDNA provides a way to study long-term changes in biodiversity and ancient environmental conditions. Lake cores Applications in Archaeology? • eDNA can be used to identify the presence of humans (or extinct hominins!), animals, or plants in the archaeological record even when bones, seeds, or other physical remains do not preserve.

Researchers plan the sampling of sediments in Siberia's Denisova cave. The Ancient DNA Revolution

• First successful extraction of ancient DNA from a 120 year old quagga skin (Higuchi et al. 1984).

• Ancient DNA showed that the extinct quagga is more closely related to zebras than horses.

Higuchi, R. G., Bowman, B., Freiberger, M., Ryder, 0. A., and Wilson, A. (1984) Nature 312,282-284 Museum Collections: Additional Sources for Ancient DNA?

• Natural history museums contain plant and animal specimens from around the globe. Many specimens are over 100 years old.

• Natural history collections often contain extinct or rare species that cannot be studied through field research.

• Museum repositories of plant and animal specimens are also repositories for ancient DNA!

Carex rostrata from Providence, collected in 1947 Museum Collections: Additional Sources for Ancient DNA?

National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution Museum Collections: Additional Sources for Ancient DNA?

Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology Museum Collections: Additional Sources for Ancient DNA?

Historic England Zooarchaeology Collections Museum Collections: Additional Sources for Ancient DNA?

Archaeological and ethnographic collections are another untapped source of ancient DNA.

We will visit the Haffenreffer Museum on Friday!

Harvard Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Collections Next time…plant and animal domestication!