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Chapter 1 China Exam Tests Nerves of Millions of Students 1 University of Alberta Library Release Form Name of Author: Shuying Li Title of Thesis: Pedagogy of Examinations: A Phenomenological Inquiry into the Pedagogical Significance of Chinese Students’ Lived Experiences of Examinations Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Year this Degree Granted: 2005 Permission is hereby granted to the University of Alberta Library to reproduce single copies of this thesis and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly, or scientific research purposes only. The author reserves all other publication and other rights in association with the copyright in the thesis, except as hereinbefore provided, neither the thesis nor any substantial portion thereof may be printed or otherwise reproduced in any material form whatever without the author’s written permission. ___________________________________ Shuying Li 10228-142 Street Edmonton, Alberta Canada T5N 2N2 Date: _____________________________ 2 University of Alberta Pedagogy of Examinations: A Phenomenological Inquiry into the Pedagogical Significance of Chinese Students’ Lived Experiences of Examinations by Shuying Li A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Edmonton, Alberta Fall, 2005 3 University of Alberta Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research The undersigned certify that they have read, and recommend to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research for acceptance, a thesis entitled Pedagogy of Examinations: A Phenomenological Inquiry into the Pedagogical Significance of Chinese Students’ Lived Experiences of Examinations submitted by Shuying Li in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. _________________________________ Max van Manen, PhD, Supervisor _________________________________ David G. Smith, PhD _________________________________ Ingrid Johnston, PhD _________________________________ George Buck, PhD _________________________________ George W. Richardson, PhD _________________________________ Jerry McClelland, PhD, External Examiner Date: _______________________________ 4 Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to my son, Shenhao Li, who constantly prompts me to wonder, “What is in the best interest of this child at this moment?” This dissertation is dedicated to my dear wife, Huixia Chen, who, as a teacher and mother, constantly produces challenging ideas for me to ponder upon, - we both share the pains and joys of the research journey together. This dissertation is also dedicated to my mother Zhenglan Wang and my father Wenda Li for their endless love and care. 5 Abstract The present research explores phenomenologically how tests and examinations are experienced by Chinese students and how these experiences and underlying school practices may be pedagogically interpreted and understood. The study starts from the observation that there already exists a large body of research literature regarding educational examinations and tests, assessment and measurement. Much of this literature focuses on the political, educational and economic aspects of exams, or discusses technical issues of test construction (e.g., factor analysis, item response theory), psychometrical analysis of exams (e.g., test validity and reliability studies, test effectiveness and outcomes, computer-based test research and design), and so on. However, little research has pursued the question how students actually experience the tests and exams to which they are subjected, and how they experience life in schools and school systems that are increasingly test and examination driven. The study first presents a cultural historical view of the tradition of examinations in China, dating back several thousand years. In recent decades, however, the cultural purpose of examinations seems to have shifted. 6 Next, the experiential reality of tests and exams in children’s lives is pursued through accounts written or told by young people and adults. Through such hermeneutic phenomenological methods of writing, interview, observation and the exploration of experiential sources, this study has gathered a wide variety of narrative data, in anecdote form, that describe in particular and concrete terms students’ experiences of examinations and tests. In the main chapters of this dissertation the experiential accounts are presented, thematized, and reflectively discussed. Subsequently, a pedagogical discussion aims to problematize how educators need to reflect on their examination and assessment practices--especially since these practices fundamentally seem to shape the everyday reality of teaching and learning. This research aims to contribute towards a thoughtful pedagogy of examination. As well, the study aims to create a space for intercultural dialogues about the pedagogy of tests and examinations between East and West. 7 Acknowledgements Special thanks are extended to Dr. Max van Manen, my supervisor and my teacher. He is, in my eyes, not only a true scholar, a great educator, but also a thoughtful pedagogue. I thank him for all he has done for me in the journey of “re-searching the lived experience” in the lifeworld that I and others have lived through. It has always been a great pleasure and honor to work so closely with the education master and get his hands-on guidance in the academic journey. Thank-you also goes to my other supervisory committee members Dr. Ingrid Johnston and Dr. David Geoffrey Smith, for their enlightening teaching of critical pedagogy and globalization issues in education and more. It was a great pleasure for me to sit in their classes and learn to be critically pedagogical and open to all educational possibilities. I also thank them for their insightful comments and advice for my research. I want to thank Dr. George Buck and Dr. George Richardson for sitting in my oral exam committee and spending much time reading and providing me with insightful questions on my study. They are both my teachers and my friends. A thank-you note also goes to Dr. McClelland, my external examiner, for spending much time in the summer holidays reading my dissertation and offering me insightful comments. 8 I want to thank Dr. Olenka Bilash and Dr. Terry Carson as well for their academic support and encouragement. I cherish them in my mind. Thanks are due to all the staff in the Department of Secondary Education for such an open, supportive and friendly academic atmosphere. Thanks are also extended to Dr. Munling Lo and the academic staff in the Center for Learning- study and School Partnership of Hong Kong Institute of Education for their encouragement and support. I want to thank all the participants in my research: the students, teachers, parents and scholars in China and Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Their open sharing of their stories makes this dissertation possible. I also own my deep gratitude to Mr. Malcolm W. Fast and Avau Fast, for their true friendship, love and encouragement. A big thank-you also goes to my dear wife, Huixia Chen, for her love and helping me through in my research journey. We share the pains and joys through the journey. Finally, I want to acknowledge the FSIDA funding that supported part of this research project. 9 Table of Contents CHAPTER 1 CHINA EXAM TESTS NERVES OF MILLIONS OF STUDENTS ..........................1 1.1 INTRODUCTION: THE ROLE OF EXAMINATIONS IN THE EDUCATION OF CHINESE STUDENTS .............1 1.2 FORMULATING THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH QUESTION .....................................................7 1.3 PERSONAL BACKGROUND ..............................................................................................................14 1.4 REFLECTION ..................................................................................................................................21 1.5 LITERATURE REVIEW .....................................................................................................................23 1.6 THE STRUCTURE OF THE DISSERTATION.........................................................................................27 CHAPTER 2 SKETCHING THE BACKGROUND..........................................................................28 2.1 HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF EXAMINATIONS IN CHINA......................................................................30 2.2 RECENT EDUCATIONAL REFORM IN CHINA.....................................................................................42 2.3 CONFUCIUS’ INFLUENCE AND SHAPING OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN CHINA..............................46 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY..................................................................................51 3.1 PHENOMENOLOGICAL INQUIRY: ORIENTING OURSELVES TO THE LIFE WORLD................................51 3.1.1 Phenomenology as human science........................................................................................52 3.1.2 Phenomenology as a research methodology.........................................................................53 3.1.3 Anecdotes and stories from the life-world.............................................................................54 3.2 COLLECTING DATA (LIVED EXPERIENCE DESCRIPTIONS - LEDS) ...................................................57 3.2.1 Selecting schools in China for the research..........................................................................58 3.2.2 Designing the interview questions and guidelines for writing anecdotes .............................60 3.2.3 Phenomenological
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