DOCSLIB.ORG

Chapter 1 Introduction

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Chapter 1 Introduction Djibouti avant tout: Sustainable peace development through a civic nationalist framework enforcing Afar-Issa rapprochement Deek Hussain Jama MSc Political Science: International Relations Student number: 12272337 Thesis supervisor: Dr. Michael Onyebuchi Eze Second reader: Dr. Vivienne Matthies-Boon Date: June 2020 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My deepest gratitude to my mother and sisters for being a huge emotional support during the difficult times throughout this course. Your encouragement is something that I treasure and I hope you know how much I would do the same for you all. I’d also like to thank my friends both in the UK and the Netherlands for being motivating throughout my studies. Finally, I want to express my gratitude to my study advisors, Michael and Vivienne, for guiding me to challenge myself throughout this thesis. I dedicate this to my grandmother, Mako Jama, who unfortunately passed away in the final weeks of my Master’s course. Her stories of Djibouti’s revolutionary moments have motivated me to research the cultural and political history of our people. i ABSTRACT The Afars and Issas; two ethnic groups indigenous to the Horn of Africa involved in an ongoing protraction of violence in Ethiopia. Although the population of Djibouti is majorly comprised of the two, the nation has not seen a similar level of contention since the Civil War. This thesis explores how Djiboutian civic nationalism works to reconcile the mental distances between the Afar and Issa identities caused by a historic and transnational conflict. An explanation will be presented through a case study of bureaucratic and guerrilla relations from the nation’s time as La Côte Français des Somalis to the present-day Republic. By establishing the successes and setbacks of peace development within the nation, this research will deploy a comprehensive understanding that advances knowledge of peace studies in the Djiboutian context. Keywords: Afar, Africa, Civic nationalism, Djibouti, Ethnic conflict, Ethnic politics, Horn of Africa, Issa, Peace studies, Peace development, Political justice, Social Justice, Somali ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................. I ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................................... II ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................................ IV 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 1 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................ 4 CASE INTRODUCTION: DJIBOUTI’S SOCIO-POLITICAL SPHERE .................................................................. 4 Two people, one nation ............................................................................................................ 4 Pre-independence conflict ........................................................................................................ 6 Post-independence conflict ...................................................................................................... 7 Present-day peace level ............................................................................................................ 9 LITERARY SYNOPSES: CRUX OF THE CONFLICT ...................................................................................... 10 3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................................................... 15 MULTIDIMENSIONAL CONFLICT ............................................................................................................. 15 Anatomy of violence .............................................................................................................. 15 Anatomy of peace .................................................................................................................. 16 COLLECTIVE IDENTITIES WITHIN AN ANTAGONISTIC AND HETEROGENEOUS SOCIETY ........................... 18 FROM ETHNIC TO CIVIC NATIONALISM: A PEACE-BUILDING FRAMEWORK ............................................. 19 PROPOSING A THEORETICAL MODEL ...................................................................................................... 21 4. METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................................... 21 METHODS .............................................................................................................................................. 23 ETHICS .................................................................................................................................................. 29 5. DEMONSTRATION OF AFAR-ISSA DIVERGENCE ............................................................. 31 AN INHERITED ANTAGONISM ................................................................................................................. 31 ETHNIC POLITICS THROUGH THE STATE ................................................................................................. 33 BEYOND THE BORDERS: A TRANSNATIONAL IDENTITY .......................................................................... 35 6. COMPOSING RECONCILIATION THROUGH DJIBOUTIAN CONVERGENCE ........... 37 WHAT IT MEANS TO BE DJIBOUTIAN ....................................................................................................... 37 RIGHTING THE WRONGS THROUGH POLITICAL JUSTICE .......................................................................... 40 7. THREATS TO PEACE DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................. 45 IS THERE TRUE JUSTICE? ........................................................................................................................ 45 A SPILLOVER OF REGIONAL RIVALRIES .................................................................................................. 47 8. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 49 BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................................. 54 APPENDICES .................................................................................................................................... 66 iii ABBREVIATIONS APP – Afar People’s Party AROD - Action pour la Révision de l'Ordre à Djibouti FDLD - Front Démocratique pour la Libération de Djibouti FLCS - Front de Libération de la Côte des Somalis FRUD - Front pour la Restauration de l'Unité et de la Démocratie IGAD - Intergovernmental Authority on Development MNDID – Mouvement National Djiboutien pour l'Instauration de la Démocratie MPL - Mouvement Populaire de Libération RADD - Rassemblement pour l'Action de Développement et la Démocratie RDA - Regroupement Démocratique Afar RPP - Rassemblement Populaire pour le Progrès RTD - Radiodiffusion Télévision de Djibouti SNPC - Somalia National Peace Conference UN – United Nations iv La défense de la Nation et de l'intégrité du territoire de la République est un devoir sacré pour tout citoyen Djiboutien. (The defence of the Nation and the integrity of the Republic’s territory is the sacred duty of every Djiboutian citizen) - La Constitution de la République de Djibouti, Titre II, Art. 6, 1992. v CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The Afar-Issa conflict has been protracted and heightened since the 16th Century (Prunier & Ficquet 2015: 34). A phenomenon so bloody and deep-rooted, it is has been baptised as the longest-running inter-ethnic dispute in the Horn of Africa (Kebbede 2016: 54). Its presence has been felt from the Awash River Valley in Ethiopia to the Obock coast in Djibouti but its magnitude is asymmetrical amongst the region. On one hand, violence remains potent in the Afar and Somali autonomous regional states of Ethiopia. As of 2019, around 124,000 Afars and Issas have been displaced, endured injuries, death, and have had scarce access to food or water (OCHCA 2020). On the other, Djibouti is currently the most peaceful in the Red Sea region (IEP 2019). Indeed, the last occurrence of profound bloodshed was the nation’s Civil War of 1991-1994. It is also one of the five fastest developing nations in the continent and this can be attributed to the relatively amicable socio-political relationship between the Afars and the Issas (IEP 2019). Through the 1994 Peace Accord between the Afar party, Front pour la Restauration de l'Unité et de la Démocratie, and the Issa party, Rassemblement Populaire pour le Progrès, the nation was declared as comprising of one people working for the stability of their sovereign lands, for the first time1 (Djibouti. Council of Ministers 1994). Having said that, the two ethnic groups have never seen such unity before 1991. Embroiled in conflicts during the Middle Ages, French Colonialism and Djibouti’s independence; researchers and reporters alike would take turns speculating the potential dissolution of Djibouti’s existence as a country established on ethnic divisions (Abdi 1977; Schraeder 1993; Shilling 1973). With no constitution before 1992 and a political system that was designed to be exploited, hatred undeniably blistered and festered. In this depiction of Djibouti, we see an unexpected
Load more

Recommended publications
  • An Analysis of the Afar-Somali Conflict in Ethiopia and Djibouti
    Regional Dynamics of Inter-ethnic Conflicts in the Horn of Africa: An Analysis of the Afar-Somali Conflict in Ethiopia and Djibouti DISSERTATION ZUR ERLANGUNG DER GRADES DES DOKTORS DER PHILOSOPHIE DER UNIVERSTÄT HAMBURG VORGELEGT VON YASIN MOHAMMED YASIN from Assab, Ethiopia HAMBURG 2010 ii Regional Dynamics of Inter-ethnic Conflicts in the Horn of Africa: An Analysis of the Afar-Somali Conflict in Ethiopia and Djibouti by Yasin Mohammed Yasin Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree PHILOSOPHIAE DOCTOR (POLITICAL SCIENCE) in the FACULITY OF BUSINESS, ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES at the UNIVERSITY OF HAMBURG Supervisors Prof. Dr. Cord Jakobeit Prof. Dr. Rainer Tetzlaff HAMBURG 15 December 2010 iii Acknowledgments First and foremost, I would like to thank my doctoral fathers Prof. Dr. Cord Jakobeit and Prof. Dr. Rainer Tetzlaff for their critical comments and kindly encouragement that made it possible for me to complete this PhD project. Particularly, Prof. Jakobeit’s invaluable assistance whenever I needed and his academic follow-up enabled me to carry out the work successfully. I therefore ask Prof. Dr. Cord Jakobeit to accept my sincere thanks. I am also grateful to Prof. Dr. Klaus Mummenhoff and the association, Verein zur Förderung äthiopischer Schüler und Studenten e. V., Osnabruck , for the enthusiastic morale and financial support offered to me in my stay in Hamburg as well as during routine travels between Addis and Hamburg. I also owe much to Dr. Wolbert Smidt for his friendly and academic guidance throughout the research and writing of this dissertation. Special thanks are reserved to the Department of Social Sciences at the University of Hamburg and the German Institute for Global and Area Studies (GIGA) that provided me comfortable environment during my research work in Hamburg.
    [Show full text]
  • Districts of Ethiopia
    Region District or Woredas Zone Remarks Afar Region Argobba Special Woreda -- Independent district/woredas Afar Region Afambo Zone 1 (Awsi Rasu) Afar Region Asayita Zone 1 (Awsi Rasu) Afar Region Chifra Zone 1 (Awsi Rasu) Afar Region Dubti Zone 1 (Awsi Rasu) Afar Region Elidar Zone 1 (Awsi Rasu) Afar Region Kori Zone 1 (Awsi Rasu) Afar Region Mille Zone 1 (Awsi Rasu) Afar Region Abala Zone 2 (Kilbet Rasu) Afar Region Afdera Zone 2 (Kilbet Rasu) Afar Region Berhale Zone 2 (Kilbet Rasu) Afar Region Dallol Zone 2 (Kilbet Rasu) Afar Region Erebti Zone 2 (Kilbet Rasu) Afar Region Koneba Zone 2 (Kilbet Rasu) Afar Region Megale Zone 2 (Kilbet Rasu) Afar Region Amibara Zone 3 (Gabi Rasu) Afar Region Awash Fentale Zone 3 (Gabi Rasu) Afar Region Bure Mudaytu Zone 3 (Gabi Rasu) Afar Region Dulecha Zone 3 (Gabi Rasu) Afar Region Gewane Zone 3 (Gabi Rasu) Afar Region Aura Zone 4 (Fantena Rasu) Afar Region Ewa Zone 4 (Fantena Rasu) Afar Region Gulina Zone 4 (Fantena Rasu) Afar Region Teru Zone 4 (Fantena Rasu) Afar Region Yalo Zone 4 (Fantena Rasu) Afar Region Dalifage (formerly known as Artuma) Zone 5 (Hari Rasu) Afar Region Dewe Zone 5 (Hari Rasu) Afar Region Hadele Ele (formerly known as Fursi) Zone 5 (Hari Rasu) Afar Region Simurobi Gele'alo Zone 5 (Hari Rasu) Afar Region Telalak Zone 5 (Hari Rasu) Amhara Region Achefer -- Defunct district/woredas Amhara Region Angolalla Terana Asagirt -- Defunct district/woredas Amhara Region Artuma Fursina Jile -- Defunct district/woredas Amhara Region Banja -- Defunct district/woredas Amhara Region Belessa --
    [Show full text]
  • Carte Géologique De La République De Djibouti À 1/100
    RÉPUBLIQUE DE DJIBOUTI MINISTÈRE FRANCAIS INSTITUT SUPÉRIEUR D'ÉTUDES DES RELATIONS EXTÉRIEURES ET DE RECHERCHES SCIENTIFIQUES ET nCHNIQUES CARTE GÉOLOGIQUE DE LA RÉPUBLIQUE DE DJIBOUTI à 1 :100000 TADJOURA , 42° 42"45' 43°20' 30 13 1 ~ I~ 'mJOME~A , ' " , x 0'< ~ \. , "- , x~ :'1 -<- ' , KHOR! x, DORRA, DADDAETO '" , ANGAR , 1 T / 12° , 0 IiAMARRI' EASAl ~. TADJO)/ffA DJIBOUTI " \,. C\ :' ~ .''';j/' . o ~, , <) , EALI ~ ABl;Itll~D DIKHll lOYADA \ : ( SABÎH , ~ x-J--1-f- \..-xj x 11 ° x 11° lx ., .. +- +-+- ~T ,C É TH' o PIE ' ~xrMAL lE 4.2' 43° Coordinateur: F. GASSE Formations sédimentaires: M. FOURNIER' et F. GASSE Formations éruptives: O. RICHARD Géophysique: J.C. RUEGG Éditions de l'ORSTOM INSTITUT FRANCAIS DE RECHERCHE SCIENTIFIQUE POUR LE DÉVÜOPPEMENT EN COOPÉRATION PARIS 1985 NOTICE EXPLICATIVE CARTE GÉOLOGIQUE DE LA RÉPUBLIQUE DE DJIBOUTI à 1 : 100000 TADJOURA Coordinateur: F. GASSE* * Formations sédimentaires: M. FOURNIER* et F. GASSE* * Formations éruptives: O. RICHARD* ** Géophysique: J.-C. RUEGG* *** Publié avec le concours du Ministère des Relations Extérieures (France) Services de la Coopération et du Développement Fonds d'Aide et de Coopération * ISERST,BP 486 Djibouti * *ENS, 92260 Fontenay-aux-Roses ** *Géologue, 22, place M. Faure, 26100 Romans **** IPG, Université Paris VI « La loi du Il Mars 1957 n'autorisant, aux termes des alinéas 2 et 3 de l'article 41, d'une part, que les « copies ou reproductions strictement réservées à l'usage privé du copiste et non destinées à une utilisation col­ lective » et, d'autre part, que les analyses et les courtes citations dans un but d'exemple et d'illustration,« toute représentation ou reproduction intégrale, ou partielle, fait sans le consentement de l'auteur ou de ses ayants droit ou ayants cause, est illicite » (alinéa 1" de l'article 40), « Cette représentation ou reproduction, par quelque procédé que ce soit, constituerait donc une contrefa­ çon sanctionnée par les articles 425 et suivants du Code Pénal ».
    [Show full text]
  • 8.. Colonialism in the Horn of Africa
    UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository) The state, the crisis of state institutions and refugee migration in the Horn of Africa : the cases of Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia Degu, W.A. Publication date 2002 Link to publication Citation for published version (APA): Degu, W. A. (2002). The state, the crisis of state institutions and refugee migration in the Horn of Africa : the cases of Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia. Thela Thesis. General rights It is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), other than for strictly personal, individual use, unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons). Disclaimer/Complaints regulations If you believe that digital publication of certain material infringes any of your rights or (privacy) interests, please let the Library know, stating your reasons. In case of a legitimate complaint, the Library will make the material inaccessible and/or remove it from the website. Please Ask the Library: https://uba.uva.nl/en/contact, or a letter to: Library of the University of Amsterdam, Secretariat, Singel 425, 1012 WP Amsterdam, The Netherlands. You will be contacted as soon as possible. UvA-DARE is a service provided by the library of the University of Amsterdam (https://dare.uva.nl) Download date:30 Sep 2021 8.. COLONIALISM IN THE HORN OF AFRICA 'Perhapss there is no other continent in the world where colonialism showed its face in suchh a cruel and brutal form as it did in Africa. Under colonialism the people of Africa sufferedd immensely.
    [Show full text]
  • Briefing Paper
    NEW ISSUES IN REFUGEE RESEARCH Working Paper No. 65 Pastoral society and transnational refugees: population movements in Somaliland and eastern Ethiopia 1988 - 2000 Guido Ambroso UNHCR Brussels E-mail : [email protected] August 2002 Evaluation and Policy Analysis Unit Evaluation and Policy Analysis Unit United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees CP 2500, 1211 Geneva 2 Switzerland E-mail: [email protected] Web Site: www.unhcr.org These working papers provide a means for UNHCR staff, consultants, interns and associates to publish the preliminary results of their research on refugee-related issues. The papers do not represent the official views of UNHCR. They are also available online under ‘publications’ at <www.unhcr.org>. ISSN 1020-7473 Introduction The classical definition of refugee contained in the 1951 Refugee Convention was ill- suited to the majority of African refugees, who started fleeing in large numbers in the 1960s and 1970s. These refugees were by and large not the victims of state persecution, but of civil wars and the collapse of law and order. Hence the 1969 OAU Refugee Convention expanded the definition of “refugee” to include these reasons for flight. Furthermore, the refugee-dissidents of the 1950s fled mainly as individuals or in small family groups and underwent individual refugee status determination: in-depth interviews to determine their eligibility to refugee status according to the criteria set out in the Convention. The mass refugee movements that took place in Africa made this approach impractical. As a result, refugee status was granted on a prima facie basis, that is with only a very summary interview or often simply with registration - in its most basic form just the name of the head of family and the family size.1 In the Somali context the implementation of this approach has proved problematic.
    [Show full text]
  • Hum Ethio Manitar Opia Rian Re Espons E Fund D
    Hum anitarian Response Fund Ethiopia OCHA, 2011 OCHA, 2011 Annual Report 2011 Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs Humanitarian Response Fund – Ethiopia Annual Report 2011 Table of Contents Note from the Humanitarian Coordinator ................................................................................................ 2 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................. 3 1. Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................ 4 1.1 2011 Humanitarian Context ........................................................................................................... 4 1.2 Map - 2011 HRF Supported Projects ............................................................................................. 6 2. Information on Contributors ................................................................................................................ 7 2.1 Donor Contributions to HRF .......................................................................................................... 7 3. Fund Overview .................................................................................................................................... 8 3.1 Summary of HRF Allocations in 2011 ............................................................................................ 8 3.1.1 HRF Allocation by Sector .......................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • History of Djibouti
    History of Djibouti Nomadic herds people have inhabited the territory now belonging to Djibouti for millennia. The Issas and the Afars, the nation’s two major ethnic groups today, lived there when Arab traders introduced Islam to the area in the ninth century AD. Arabs at the port of Adal at Zeila (in modern-day Somalia) controlled the region until Adal’s collapse in 1543.Small Afar sultanates at Obock, Tadjoura, and elsewhere then emerged as the dominant powers. Frenchman Rochet d’Hericourt’s 1839 to 1842 exploration into Shoa marked the beginning of French interest in the region. Hoping to counter British influence on the other side of the Gulf of Aden, the French signed a treaty with the Afar sultan of Obock to establish a port in 1862. This led to the formation of French Somaliland in 1888. The construction of the Franco-Ethiopian Railway from Djibouti City to Ethiopia began in 1897 and finally reached Addis Ababa in 1917. The railroad opened up the interior of French Somaliland, which in1946 was given the status of an overseas French territory. By the 1950s, the Issas (a Somali clan) began to support the movement for the independence and unification of the region’s three Somali-populated colonies: French, British, and Italian Somaliland. In 1960, British and Italian Somaliland were granted independence and united to form the nation of Somalia, but France retained its hold on French Somaliland. When French president Charles de Gaulle visited French Somaliland in August 1966, he was met with two days of protests. The French announced that a referendum on independence would be held but also arrested independence leaders and expelled their supporters.
    [Show full text]
  • Ethiopians and Somalis Interviewed in Yemen
    Greenland Iceland Finland Norway Sweden Estonia Latvia Denmark Lithuania Northern Ireland Canada Ireland United Belarus Kingdom Netherlands Poland Germany Belgium Czechia Ukraine Slovakia Russia Austria Switzerland Hungary Moldova France Slovenia Kazakhstan Croatia Romania Mongolia Bosnia and HerzegovinaSerbia Montenegro Bulgaria MMC East AfricaKosovo and Yemen 4Mi Snapshot - JuneGeorgia 2020 Macedonia Uzbekistan Kyrgyzstan Italy Albania Armenia Azerbaijan United States Ethiopians and Somalis Interviewed in Yemen North Portugal Greece Turkmenistan Tajikistan Korea Spain Turkey South The ‘Eastern Route’ is the mixed migration route from East Africa to the Gulf (through Overall, 60% of the respondents were from Ethiopia’s Oromia Region (n=76, 62 men and Korea Japan Yemen) and is the largest mixed migration route out of East Africa. An estimated 138,213 14Cyprus women). OromiaSyria Region is a highly populated region which hosts Ethiopia’s capital city refugees and migrants arrived in Yemen in 2019, and at least 29,643 reportedly arrived Addis Ababa.Lebanon Oromos face persecution in Ethiopia, and partner reports show that Oromos Iraq Afghanistan China Moroccobetween January and April 2020Tunisia. Ethiopians made up around 92% of the arrivals into typically make up the largest proportion of Ethiopians travelingIran through Yemen, where they Jordan Yemen in 2019 and Somalis around 8%. are particularly subject to abuse. The highest number of Somali respondents come from Israel Banadir Region (n=18), which some of the highest numbers of internally displaced people Every year, tensAlgeria of thousands of Ethiopians and Somalis travel through harsh terrain in in Africa. The capital city of Mogadishu isKuwait located in Banadir Region and areas around it Libya Egypt Nepal Djibouti and Puntland, Somalia to reach departure areas along the coastline where they host many displaced people seeking safety and jobs.
    [Show full text]
  • Bad Borders Make Bad Neighbours the Political Economy of Relief and Rehabilitation in the Somali Region 5, Eastern Ethiopia
    Relief and Rehabilitation Network Network Paper 4 Bad Borders Make Bad Neighbours The Political Economy of Relief and Rehabilitation in the Somali Region 5, Eastern Ethiopia Koenraad Van Brabant September 1994 Please send comments on this paper to: Relief and Rehabilitation Network Overseas Development Institute Regent's College Inner Circle Regent's Park London NW1 4NS United Kingdom A copy will be sent to the author. Comments received may be used in future Newsletters. ISSN: 1353-8691 © Overseas Development Institute, London, 1994. Photocopies of all or part of this publication may be made providing that the source is acknowledged. Requests for commercial reproduction of Network material should be directed to ODI as copyright holders. The Network Coordinator would appreciate receiving details of any use of this material in training, research or programme design, implementation or evaluation. Bad Borders Make Bad Neighbours The Political Economy of Relief and Rehabilitation in the Somali Region 5, Eastern Ethiopia Koenraad Van Brabant1 Contents Page Maps 1. Introduction 1 2. Pride and Prejudice in the Somali Region 5 : The Political History of a Conflict 3 * The Ethiopian empire-state and the colonial powers 4 * Greater Somalia, Britain and the growth of Somali nationalism 8 * Conflict and war between Ethiopia and Somalia 10 * Civil war in Somalia 11 * The Transitional Government in Ethiopia and Somali Region 5 13 3. Cycles of Relief and Rehabilitation in Eastern Ethiopia : 1973-93 20 * 1973-85 : `Relief shelters' or the politics of drought and repatriation 21 * 1985-93 : Repatriation as opportunity for rehabilitation and development 22 * The pastoral sector : Recovery or control? 24 * Irrigation schemes : Ownership, management and economic viability 30 * Food aid : Targeting, free food and economic uses of food aid 35 * Community participation and institutional strengthening 42 1 Koenraad Van Brabant has been project manager relief and rehabilitation for eastern Ethiopia with SCF(UK) and is currently Oxfam's country representative in Sri Lanka.
    [Show full text]
  • Republic of Nagorno Karabakh (Artsakh)
    Armenian National Committee of America 1711 N Street NW | Washington DC 20036 | Tel: (202) 775-1918 | Fax: (202) 775-1918 [email protected] | www.anca.org Republic of Nagorno Karabakh (Artsakh) 1) Republic of Nagorno Karabakh (Artsakh) The Republic of Nagorno Karabakh (Artsakh) is an integral part of historic Armenia that was arbitrarily carved out in 1921 by Joseph Stalin and placed under Soviet Azerbaijani administration, but with autonomous status, as part of the Soviet divide- and-conquer strategy in the Caucasus. Nagorno Karabakh has never been part of an independent Azerbaijani state. Declassified Central Intelligence Agency reports confirm that Nagorno Karabakh is historically Armenian and maintained even more autonomy than the rest of Armenia through the centuries.1 To force Christian Armenians to be ruled by Muslim Azerbaijan would be to sanction Joseph Stalin's policies and ensure continued instability in the region. During seven decades of Soviet Azerbaijani rule, the Armenian population of Nagorno Karabakh was subjected to discriminatory policies aimed at its removal. Even after these efforts to force Armenians from their land, Nagorno Karabakh's pre-war population in 1988 was over 80% Armenian. In the late 1980's, the United States welcomed Nagorno Karabakh's historic challenge to the Soviet system and its leadership in sparking democratic movements in the Baltics and throughout the Soviet empire. Following a peaceful demand by Karabakh's legislative body to reunite the region with Armenia in 1988, Azerbaijan launched an ethnic cleansing campaign against individuals of Armenian descent with pogroms against civilians in several towns, including Sumgait and Baku.
    [Show full text]
  • RECORDS CODIFICATION MANUAL Prepared by the Office Of
    RECORDS CODIFICATION MANUAL Prepared by The Office of Communications and Records Department of State (Adopted January 1, 1950—Revised January 1, 1955) I I CLASSES OF RECORDS Glass 0 Miscellaneous. I Class 1 Administration of the United States Government. Class 2 Protection of Interests (Persons and Property). I Class 3 International Conferences, Congresses, Meetings and Organizations. United Nations. Organization of American States. Multilateral Treaties. I Class 4 International Trade and Commerce. Trade Relations, Treaties, Agreements. Customs Administration. Class 5 International Informational and Educational Relations. Cultural I Affairs and Programs. Class 6 International Political Relations. Other International Relations. I Class 7 Internal Political and National Defense Affairs. Class 8 Internal Economic, Industrial and Social Affairs. 1 Class 9 Other Internal Affairs. Communications, Transportation, Science. - 0 - I Note: - Classes 0 thru 2 - Miscellaneous; Administrative. Classes 3 thru 6 - International relations; relations of one country with another, or of a group of countries with I other countries. Classes 7 thru 9 - Internal affairs; domestic problems, conditions, etc., and only rarely concerns more than one I country or area. ' \ \T^^E^ CLASS 0 MISCELLANEOUS 000 GENERAL. Unclassifiable correspondence. Crsnk letters. Begging letters. Popular comment. Public opinion polls. Matters not pertaining to business of the Department. Requests for interviews with officials of the Department. (Classify subjectively when possible). Requests for names and/or addresses of Foreign Service Officers and personnel. Requests for copies of treaties and other publications. (This number should never be used for communications from important persons, organizations, etc.). 006 Precedent Index. 010 Matters transmitted through facilities of the Department, .1 Telegrams, letters, documents.
    [Show full text]
  • THE ROAD to INDEPENDENCE 1 | P a G E Des Palm the Road to Independence - Capexit BACKGROUND to DOCUMENT
    THE ROAD TO INDEPENDENCE 1 | P a g e Des Palm The road to independence - CapeXit BACKGROUND TO DOCUMENT This document is written by ordinary people who share a common concern with the reader, unless the reader is very far removed from reality: the current situation in South Africa (RSA). We do not profess to be, neither are we, scholars of politics, politicians, advocates, barristers or professionals in economics, commerce and other institutions. The problem with most of the previously mentioned captains of industry and politics is a rather simple one - they forgot about the ordinary man in the street. Thus, it is time for the ordinary people of RSA, to stand up and say NO MORE. For long enough we had been spectators and had to watch how we, the minorities in RSA, became more irrelevant to decisions which directly impacts us, whilst our say in all matters of importance to our survival, culture, language, economic survival and human rights are being ignored. As taxpayers we are being milked to a slow death to keep on feeding the black hole of corruption, nepotism, greed and generally hopeless governance. The intention of this document is not to impress with fancy legal jargon or unpronounceable Latin phrases, but rather to emphasise that a claim to our independence is internationally recognized and it your human right !. Why Independence? Generally, a group of people would want to be independent and masters of their own fate when they see increasing threats to their well-being and existence as a group, both physical, emotional and psychological.
    [Show full text]