GeoJournal 54: 109–396, 2001. 109 © 2002 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum: an investigation of the heights of its glacier levels and ice thicknesses as well as lowest prehistoric ice margin positions in the Hindukush, Himalaya and in East-Tibet on the Minya Konka-massif

Matthias Kuhle University of Göttingen, Department of Geography and High Geomorphology, Goldschmidtstr.5, 37077 Göttingen, Germany (Fax: 0551/397614; E-mail: [email protected])

Received August 21, 2001; accepted February 24, 2002

Key words: Ice Age glaciation, Karakorum, paleoclimate, High Asia

Abstract A continuing prehistoric ice stream network between the Karakorum main crest and the Nanga Parbat massive has been evidenced, which, flowing down from the current Baltoro- and Chogolungma glaciers and filling the valley as well as the Basin, has flowed together with the valley glacier to a joint Indus parent glacier through the Indus gorge. The ice stream network received an influx by a plateau glacier covering the Deosai plateau, which was connected through outlet glaciers to the ice filling of the Skardu Basin and the Astor glacier at the Nanga Parbat, as well as to the lower Indus glacier. The field observations introduced here in part confirm the results as to the Ice Age glacier surface area of Lydekker, Oestreich and Dainelli, but go beyond it. In additon, a reconstruction of the surface level of this ice stream network and its glacier thicknesses up to the highest regions of the present-day Karakorum valley glaciers has been carried out for the first time. In the area under investigation the Karakorum ice stream network showed three ice cupolas, culminating at an altitude of 6200–6400 m. Between the mountain groups towering 1000–2000 m higher up, they communicated with each other over the transfluence passes in a continuous glacier surface without breaks in slope. In the Braldu- and Basna valley ice thicknesses of 2400–2900 m have been reached. In the Skardu Basin, where the glacier thickness had decreased to c. 1500– 1000 m, the ELA at an ice level of 3500-3200 m asl had fallen short to the extent that from here on down the Indus glacier a surface moraine cover has to be suggested. However, 80% of the surface of the ice stream network was devoid of debris and had an albedo of 75-90%. The lowest joint glacier terminus of the ice stream network was situated - as has already been published in 1988 – in the lower Indus valley at 850–800 m asl. The reconstructed maximum extension of the ice stream network has been classified as belonging to the LGM in the wider sense (60–18 Ka BP). Four Late Glacial glacier positions (I–IV), with a decreasing ice filling of the valleys, have been differentiated, which can be locally recognized through polish lines and lateral moraine ledges. The valley (trough-) flanks with their ground moraine covers, oversteepened by glacier abrasion, have been gravitation- ally destroyed by crumblings, slides and rock avalanches since the deglaciation, so that an interglacial fluvial-, i.e. V-shaped valley relief has been developed from the in part preserved glacial relief. The contrast of the current morphodynamics with regard to the preserved forms is seen as an indication of the prehistorically completely different - namely glacigenic – valley development and the obvious rapidity of this reshaping at still clearly preserved glacial forms provides evidence of their LGM-age. In an additional chapter the lowest ice margin positions, so far unpublished, are introduced, which have been reconstructed for the Hindukush, Central Himalaya and on the eastern margin of Tibet.

1. Introduction and method yet been visited (Figure 1, Nos. 2, 4, 7, 17, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28). This treatise is the regional continuation of a detailed and The geomorphological and Quaternary-geological meth- spatially extensive reconstruction of the Ice-Age glaciation ods applied in the field and laboratory are discussed in detail in High-Asia. It completes the author’s research on the pre- in the papers on empirical Ice Age research and the glacia- historic extent of ice and glacier thicknesses in High-Asia tion history of High-Asia (Kuhle & Wenjing 1988, Kuhle carried out since 1973 (cf. Figure 1) and published since & Daoming 1991, Kuhle 1994a, 1997a, 1999a) published 1974 (Kuhle 1974–2000) by further investigations in areas in the GeoJournal series ‘Tibet and High-Asia – Results of which have already been studied earlier or which have not Investigations into High Mountain Geomorphology, Paleo- 110 M. Kuhle

Figure 1. Research areas in Tibet and its surrounding visited by the author. The study presented here introduces new observations on the Ice Age glacier cover from area No. 2, 4, 7, 17, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28.

Glaciology and Climatology of the Pleistocene (Ice Age -superstructure are rather sparse. Only the S-spur, which Research)’ volumes I (1988), II (1991), III (1994), IV juts out of the S-wall far enough not to be showered by its (1997) and V (1999). In consequence it seems unnecessary avalanches, shows glacigenic roundings (Photo 2 centre). to re-introduce these scientifically common methods here. So, too, on the valley flanks, which in the vertical dimension are relatively little extended as e.g. the Nera Peak SE-face, 2. The highest prehistoric glacier levels in the Muztagh quite large-scale flank polishings are preserved near to the Karakorum: K2-S-slope, Broad Peak- and Gasherbrum snow-line (Photo 2 on the left). The enormous detritus I (Hidden Peak)-W-slope masses of the surface moraine in the present-day glacier area (Photos 1–16 ) give an impression of the important down- In the volume ‘Tibet and High-Asia III’ the glaciation of slope denudation and contemporaneous reshaping during the Muztagh-Karakorum N-slope from K2 as far as into the postglacial times. Additionally, the Ice-Age glacier polish- Tarim Basin constituted the subject of the analyses (Kuhle ing was combined with exarations and detersions, so that 1994b). Now, the immediate continuation to the S, i.e. the the flank surfaces left behind were rough anyway. From the area of the Blaldo valley and present-day , LGM well into the Late Glacial these valley slopes were has been treated (Figure 1, No.24). above the ELA (snow-line), which had been lowered by The orographic right-hand source branch of this glacier, 1300–700 m. Thus, the meltwater-film on the rock faces the Godwin Austen tributary stream, runs with its orographic needed for the fine-polishing was lacking. Important in this left bank along the flank of the Broad Peak (Photo 1 below connection is the fact that cold-arid glaciers were concerned, ◦ No.3). Above the present-day glacier level a glacigenic pol- the annual mean temperature of which was about −10 C ish band (Photo 1 on the left below No.3) extends up to a at the level of the snow-line. Probably it was even colder. polish line at 6200–6300 m asl (Photo 1 on both sides of The classic-glacigenic shape of the back-polished mountain No.3). The glacigenic rock smoothings in the region of the The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 111 112 M. Kuhle The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 113 Quaternary-geological and glacio-gemorphological map of the Central-Karakorum and Deosai plateau. Figure 2/1. 114 M. Kuhle

Figure 2. The ice stream network of the Karakorum, West-Himalaya and West-Tibet during the Last Ice Age (LGM) 60–18 Ka BP. Draft: M.Kuhle; Scan: J.Ehlers The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 115 pe between K2 and Nanga Parbat including the Deosai plateau; Localities of the glaciogeomorphological and -sedimentological valley cross-profiles during the maximum Ice Age glaciation in the Karakorum S-slo 2/2 see Fig. 3–5; 37–58. 116 M. Kuhle spurs is preserved in the black phyllites of the orographic and Figure 2/1, No. 8). Its sharpening might refer not only right valley flank between the inflows of the Savoia-Praqpa- to the LGM but also to earlier maximum glaciations in the and Khalkhal glaciers (Photo 1 centre between No. 9 and 1; Pleistocene. Perhaps the huge pyramid of the K2 has also Photo 11 white). Such glacially triangular-shaped slopes profited from these polyglacial flank polishings. They, too, and truncated spurs can be observed in the entire valley sys- could have been caused by the conspicuous slope-steepening tem of the Upper Baltoro glacier (Figure 2/1 Nos. 1–4, 9, in the area of the lower 1400–1500 m of this mountain 10, 12–14). Further classic examples of this form of flank (Photo 2 below ; Photo 3 and 8 below left of No. 1; polishing are shown in Photo 3 ( between No. 6 and 10), Photo 5 right of No. 1). In contrast, Gasherbrum IV Photo 5 ( between No. 3 and 4) and Photo 10 ( right, is a pure crest-summit, i.e. even in the prehistoric period it below of No. 2). was never entirely surrounded by ice (Photo 7 No. 4). Its A glacio-geomorphologically interesting question as to pyramid-shape, and especially the steep WSW-face, is due the determination of the prehistoric height of the glacier to pre-glacial, probably Tertiary, fluvial backward-erosion. level is the one about the subglacial development of sharp The very massive, completely non-sharpened shape of Broad rock crests. Two perspectives at right angles to each other Peak (Photo 6 and 8, No. 3) shows the characteristics of show the sharp dividing spur between the upper Baltoro- and backward-erosion only within the lower 1800 m of its struc- a) in top view (Photo 4 below ) and b) in ture. The three large valley source depressions are separated profile (Photo 10 right of No. 6; cf. Photo 9 between 7 and from each other by two glacigenically-rounded mountain 12). Its sharp-jagged profile is a function of the very small spurs (Photo 6 the two further up). Above, their steep confluence-angle of the two glaciers of only 45 ◦.Atthe back-walls are still presently separated from the ungainly same time it is a geomorphological indication of the gradual double-peak by abrupt slope-flattenings – and will certainly lowering of the prehistoric ice level. Overflowing ice makes be so even long into the future. These three valleys which the forms round, but on this very narrow crest this could have been developed fluvially in the Tertiary, have been not happen without any extractions. At a later stage the ice- modified glacigenically during the Pleistocene as far as into free crest was undercut and still more heavily resolved into their source depressions (Photo 6 , ). serrated pinnacles. The result of these considerations is that A classic mixed form is the Baltoro Kangri (Photo 10, sharp rock features can have been absolutely overflowed by No. 7). It has not experienced a sharpening like a nunatak ice during the LGM, i.e., that their sharpening falls into the or even a glacial horn or Norwegian tindan; it remained Late Glacial. massive and ungainly, though it has towered above the level of the ice-stream network ( ) by only just 1000 m, i.e. 2.1. On the question of glacigenic or pre-glacial mountain similar to the Muztagh Tower. However, the flank steepen- forms in the Baltoro area ings within the basal 1400 m of its structure (Photo 10 No. 7 Here too, the aforementioned indication points to the below ) up to the build-up of the wall, provide evidence nunatakker-problem. As for the K2-pyramid (Photo 2) the of the typical geomorphologic reaction to a strong glacigenic term is certainly appropriate because this is still at present lateral erosion. It even interrupts the Tertiary fluvial source fringed by glacier ice and must have been wrapped by ice to depression – modified to a cirque (hence the second name  a greater extent and higher up during the LGM when the ice ‘Golden Throne’; Photo 10 No. 7 ) – by a 600 m-high  level increased by at least 1000 m. However, as nunatakker escarpment (below ). The different views of the Mitre Peak in the sense of ice-shaped glacial horns only small mountains (Photo 5, 10 and 13, No. 10) prove this mountain to be the or summits can be taken in consideration, as, for example, purest form of a glacial horn in the sense of a tindan, be- the Marble Peak (Photo 3 No. 9), the satellites of Gasher- cause it was probably sunk into the glacier up to its summit brum V (Photo 9 and 10, No. 2; Photo 7 above )and during the LGM. This is also indicated by the highest prehis- probably the Mitre Peak (Photos 3, 5, 9, 10 No. 10). All toric glacier level running in the farther surroundings about these summits tower above the rock roundings and flank 6100 m. Nevertheless, the ice level is marked at c. 5950 m polishings created by the glacier – as e.g. triangular-shaped asl ( ) in the photos, for this altitude alone can be safely slopes and polish bands – by more than 100 metres. Their evidenced by the glacigenic polish forms along the south- basal faces are relatively small and their features are the re- ern continuation of the crest of the Mitre Peak (Photo 10, sult of basal flank polishing and glacial undercutting up to the two left of No. 10). However, smoothings up to the approximately the highest point (Figure 2/1, No. 9, 10, 13). highest point (Photo 5 No. 10) make this still higher glacier Compared with the K2 the Muztagh Tower takes up a mid- level probable. The angular wall-facette, which looks as if it position (Photo 9, 10 and 12, No. 8). It towers above the was broken away by undercutting (Photo 13 between No. 10 geomorphologically demonstrable maximum glacier level and ), could prove the probably already lowered, i.e. by c. 1200 m. However, because these 1200 m are exactly Late Glacial marked ( ) ice level. Something correspond- the height of the narrow summit-structure on a much broader ing applies to the adjacent granite towers situated somewhat and thick-set base, this can be regarded as an indicator for down the Baltoro glacier in the confluence area of Nuating- glacigenic sharpening. A further clue is the lance-shaped and Biarchedi glacier (Photo 13 on the left and right outline of the summit- structure typical of a flow-form, with below No.14). They also reach an altitude of 5800 to 6000 m. which the Muztagh Tower rose above the ice-stream network of the LGM like the conning-tower of a submarine (Photo 12 The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 117

2.2 Continuation of the reconstruction of the glacier level in at the glacier end, document the above-mentioned glacier the Baltoro glacier valley, upper Blaldo valley (Biaho thickness of over 1000 m at – and probably also Lungpa) and Muztagh Karakorum S- and W-slope during several kilometres further down (Photo 16). At Concordia, the LGM 28 km away from the glacier terminal, the ice level lies ◦  at c. 4550 m (Photo 5 foreground). The valley bottom In the extended glacier confluence of Concordia (35 42 N/ declines by 270 m over the same distance of 28 km down- ◦   76 31 30 E) remnants of classic-glacigenic rock round- valley of the Baltoro glacier end as far as the inflow of the ings are preserved – so for instance at the exit of the at c. 3080 m (locality Korophon). This means W-Gasherbrum glacier valley (Photo 7 ) and the Biarchedi a corresponding – now extrapolated up-valley as far as Con- glacier valley (Photo 15 and 13 below No. 14–11). Their cordia – height of the valley bottom at c. 3520 m. Then, the state of preservation depends on the petrography. In contrast valley bottom would lie a good 1000 m below the present- to the smooth granite flanks of the Biarchedi valley the lime day glacier surface. Though up-valley the regular increase and lime marl flanks on the right slopes of the upper Bal- of the gradient curve must be taken in account, this can be toro valley chamber are far more resolved and roughened considered subglacially as compensated by the increasing (Photo 11 black). The remaining comparably large, uni- thickness of ground moraine and detritus under the present- form rock surface ( black) due to flank polishings during day Baltoro glacier from Concordia down to its tongue end. the LGM and Late Glacial is remarkable. However, it is Thus, the glacier end at 3350 m asl comes to lie relatively already flanked by quite young to fresh grooves of falling highly against Concordia. rocks. On both flanks of the first orographic right-hand side Owing to this, in the area of Concordia the Ice Age valley of the Baltoro, downwards from Concordia, compara- glacier level ran at 6000-6250 m during the LGM (Photo 13 ble roughenings caused by the former glacier polishing are ), c. 2400–2600 m above the valley bottom. By analogy, evident (Photo 14 ). The uniformity of these flanks forms a mean ice thickness of 2500 m points to a prehistoric ice a classic trough profile as far as the level diagnosed as the stream network with the dimensions of the Alpine ice stream minimum height of the prehistoric glacier level ( ). network during the LGM (see below). Such a glacigenic uniformity of the valley flanks can al- most be observed in the entire Baltoro glacier valley. This 2.4. The present-day extension of the Baltoro glacier system applies especially to the shortened perspective of the view as a misleading indication of the Ice Age glaciation of this along and upwards the valley (Photo 16). Up-valley, because area then the valley flanks from both sides run together. Seen in this way, the Ice Age glacier level at 6000-6250 m asl In the area around Concordia and 12 km down, as far as the described above can be recognized very clearly (Photo 16 orographic right influx of the Biange ice stream (Photo 17 ). below No. 8) and still further down as far as the oro- graphic left influx of the Mandu glacier (Photo 22 and 25 2.3 Observations and reflections on the ice thickness in the below No. 5 and No. 27; locality: Figure 2/1 from the cross- Baltoro valley profile between No. 9 and No. 10 up to the cross-profile between No. 17 and No. 5) there exists a striking dispro- In this longitudinal perspective the upper half of the Baltoro portion between the vast kilometer-wide glacier area and the trough valley form (Figure 2/1 between No. 9, 10 and No. 8, connected small glacier feeding areas above the snow-line. 14) becomes perfectly obvious. The lower half is filled by Owing to this, the present-day ice thickness of c. 1000 m the present-day Baltoro glacier (Photo 16 ). The valley and the resulting extended glacier area are the inheritance of flanks, plunging steeply under the glacier surface, provide the Late Glacial. At any rate, the present-day feeding areas indirect evidence of an important ice thickness of the Bal- would be unable to build-up the Baltoro glacier system. They toro glacier. In an extrapolated downward continuation of are only large enough to maintain it, since the present-day the two lines of the flank profile (Photo 16 black and ice level guarantees sufficiently large areas above the ELA. white) under the Baltoro glacier ice, a glacier thickness of As far as this is concerned the present-day extension of the over 1000 m becomes probable. This applies in consider- Baltoro glacier fosters – due to its Late Glacial heritage – ation of the glacigenic trough- i.e. U-shaped valley form the interpretation of a 1500 m-thicker LGM-ice stream net- (Figure 2/1 between No. 9, 10 and No. 8, 14) which must work introduced here. Thus, the reason for the extension of necessarily be assumed. This impression of a substantial ice the Baltoro glacier system is the inherited ice thickness of thickness becomes especially clear in Concordia (Photo 5). a former climate but not the proximity to the present-day Here, the Baltoro glacier attains its most important exten- climate. sion of c. 4.8–5 km in the NE- to SW diagonal between Misleading in the same way, i.e. only seemingly more the basal slopes of Broad Peak and Mitre Peak (Photo 5 plausible, is the glacigenic shaping of the flanks above the and 13 between No. 3 and 10). Downward of this conflu- (lowered) present-day glacier level. The plausibility follows ence the Baltoro parent stream still remains c. 2.8 km wide the principle of actualism: where glacier ice is still today (Photo 13 below No. 11, middleground). This glacier width attached, it has also been attached higher up in prehistoric continues over a distance of c. 18 km (Photo 17). Its tongue times. So, it seems as if the ice were still attached. This end is still 1 km broad (Photo 48 and 50). An extension like applies even if and when important reshapings have taken this, as well as the valley bottom height about 3350 m asl place. 118 M. Kuhle

2.5 Continuation of the reconstruction of the LGM-glacier flanks has reached as far as over 6000 m ( ) and its out- level in the Baltoro area line, polished lance-like, proves an LGM ice-flow-direction which ought to have followed its longitudinal axis, namely Reshapings of this type can be observed between Concordia from SE to NW (Figure 2/1 No. 8). This documents that and the Biange glacier and also several kilometers further the more important Baltoro ice flowed over to the Sarpo down- valley on the orographic right side. Here, on the val- Laggo-Muztagh valley ice. There, it reached the extended ley flanks of metamorphic sedimentary rock, rills have been Shaksgam parent glacier N of the Karakorum main crest and developed crossing the horizontal glacigenic flank abrasion then flowed rather directly down to the Tarim Basin situ- (Photo 17 between No. 11 and 4) right-angled, i.e. down- ated only 140 km away. The Ice Age (LGM) Sarpo Laggo-, slopes, and reshaping it (Photo 17 ; locality: Fig. 2/1 Muztagh- and Shaksgam ice stream network has been re- No. 9). The reason for this is the temporary snow meltwater constructed by the author in detail elsewhere (Kuhle 1994b). flowing down the slopes. Photo 17 shows a corresponding There, too, are numerous indications of an LGM-ice level weather condition with a summery fresh-snow-cover () running large-scale about 6000 m asl. The ice spill-over which, by thawing down during a radiation weather con- took place between the Muztagh Tower and the 6930 m-Peak dition, causes rill rinsing on the slopes. In a downward (No.15, Skilbrum-W-satellite) across the 5500 m-high Moni direction the depth of the rills decreases, because the glacier La and the 5869 m-high Ste Ste Saddle, which made up two has still recently clung to the flanks. In the middle course transfluence passes (Figure 2/1 between No. 8 and 15) to it is the deepest. Here, the longer glacier-free time and thus the Sarpo Laggo tributary stream (Photo 18, LGM-ice level rill-development in combination with the most substantial between No. 8 and 15). This can be evidenced by the amount of merging water – increasing down-slopes – overlap flank abrasion reaching a height of 6200-6300 m on the W- each other to the summarizing effect of the deepest linear crest of the 6930 m-Peak in the region of the present-day erosion. Upwards, the rills break off in the direction of flat Younghusband glacier ( below No. 15). On the oro- cirque floors. During the LGM the glacier level lay above graphic left flank of the Baltoro glacier valley in the area of these cirques ( above ). Thus, their shaping took place the 6344 m-Peak (Biarchedi-N-satellite) (Photo 18 No. 16) at a time, when this area was released by the ice because of flank polishings are rather sparse (Photo 20 ). Firstly this the dropping of the glacier level, the ELA, however, still ran is caused by the coarse structure of the bedrock granite. At c. 600–700 m lower than at present. This applies to the late the places where it is freshly broken away by present-day Late Glacial, more exactly, to the Sirkung Stage IV (older glacier undercutting (Photo 18 ), remnants of polishing than 12,780 YBP after Kuhle 1994b Tab 3 p 260). are already completely lacking. Secondly, the N-exposed The corresponding High Glacial (LGM) ice level, i.e. flank is so heavily glaciated by itself (Photo 20 ) that the a corresponding surface level of the glacier between 6000- down-slope glacier denudation and -abrasion has removed 6200 m, is geomorphologically documented in the Biange the almost horizontal LGM-polishing. Besides the prehis- glacier valley (Photo 18 on the very left and in the toric polishings and glacigenic abrasions (Photo 17 on the right half of the panorama as well as in Photo 19 ). The very left and on the very right) preserved only on rock-ribs structure-dependent reshaping of the prehistoric flank abra- and -spurs between the present-day hanging glaciers, more sions ( ) which has set in after the Late Glacial (Stage I-IV), or less reshaped material of ground moraines occurs in these i.e. the beginning of which was c. 13,000 to 17,000 years positions which are protected against the present-day wall- ago, is at an especially advanced stage in the sedimentary and slope erosion (Photo 20 black, 22 white). However, rocks and phyllites layered diagonally or vertically in many in extreme shadow positions of the glacier flow, where a lot places. Accordingly, fresh debris cones of crumblings which of the prehistoric moraine material has been stripped off by bury older moraine cores (Photo 18 ) occur frequently. the glacier ground, i.e. ice margin, ground moraine has been They start at the exit of structure-dependent wall gorges. preserved, too (Photo 20 white). Surface-forming prehistoric moraine deposits are therefore On the flanks of the Masherbrum Group situated near rare. They can be recognized by their fresh cutting forms the Yermandu tributary glacier which flows into the Baltoro derived by the snow meltwater (Photo 18 black). Present- from the S, an extreme case of postglacial denudative and day end moraines are built up by a small hanging glacier glacigenic reworking of the flanks which partly rise twice ( white) which postglacially polished itself () into the as high (see above) above the present-day glacier surface orographic left glacigenically abraded flank of the Biange (Photo 20 and 22 No. 5) has been observed. This concerns valley(Photo18 on the very right). Because its cirque the E-, NE- and N-flank sections of the Masherbrum main- () is greater than its moraine volume ( white), a hang- (7821 m) and Masherbrum-E- (7163 m) summits (Photo 21 ing glacier erosion which has already taken place during the No. 5 and No. 33). On the wall spurs (sunny parts of the wall pre-LGM, i.e. in the last interglacial period, is probable. in Photo 21) the denudation by avalanches is extremely ef- At the same time all features of glacigenic flank abrasion fective; the same applies to the locally merging ice run-off in in the Biange valley (Photo 18 ) show the characteristics the biconcave wall cauldrons (Photo 21, shaded parts of the of remnants of mountain spurs polished back to glacigenic wall). Accordingly, on these slopes of the Yermandu glacier triangle-faces (Figure 2/1 No. 8, 9, 13). The Muztagh Tower valley no clear indicator of the glacier level is preserved as has been formed to a classic glacial horn by the prehis- to the prehistoric ice filling of the relief. toric ice stream network (Photo 19). The ice level on its The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 119

If one follows the orographic right glacigenic flank abra- 2.7 Continuation of the reconstruction of the LGM-glacier sion down the Baltoro valley, its dependence on the rock level in the middle to lower Baltoro glacier area becomes obvious. Whilst the appearance of the abraded val- ley slopes with their postglacial rill-features (Photo 17 On the right valley slopes discussed here, the flank polishing between No. 4 and 11) does not change in the course of of a higher as well as a lower prehistoric glacier level is the 11 km from Concordia to the Lhungka tributary valley, especially striking. It can clearly be recognized between the the flanks further down become steeper (Photo 23 ). This inflows of the Biange- and Lhungka glacier valley (Photo 22 geomorphological transition takes place along the 3.5 km- the three on the very right). Here, the younger glacier distance between the Lhungka valley and down the Muztagh abrasion is diagnosable by the lightly preserved granite as glacier valley (Photo 22 between black and white). far as 600 m above the present-day glacier surface ()(up Massive-crystalline bedrock – here granite – occurs already to at most the level of the second from the right). This in the area of the inflowing Lhungka valley. It preserves un- ice level has to be classified as belonging to the youngest dulating, compact, glacigenic abrasion features (Photo 24 Late Glacial, i.e. to the Sirkung Stage IV (older than 12,870 ). The rock slope, however, is still flat enough to allow the YBP). Together with the corresponding fresh flank abrasion preservation of prehistoric remnants of ground moraine even it is also preserved on the orographic left side at the exit in high positions (Figure 2 No. 31; Photo 24 ;22 black). of the Muztagh glacier valley (Photo 25 diagonally right This morphological transition region (Photo 25 on the right below No. 18). of No. 18; Photo 28 below No. 31) passes into the steep- The rule is: the higher the prehistoric ice level has run, flanked valley section (Photo 25 left of No. 18; Photo 28 left the older it is and the more heavily its geomorphological of on the very right) at the place where the Baltoro valley remains have been reworked and blurred. Accordingly, the suddenly becomes somewhat narrower and at the same time indications of the highest level are only preserved in a punc- branches off into an orographic left-bend, thus turning from tiform manner. They are the basis of an interpolation of that a W- to a SW-direction (Figure 2/1 between No. 17 and 28; prehistoric ice level between their localities. Such a local- Photo 22 on the right of the centre, background). Due to ity is found in the confluence area between Muztagh- and the LGM-ice (Photo 23 ) rising as far as c. 6000 m, Chagaran glacier valley on the S-spur of the 6224 m-summit a glacigenically undercut slope has been created here. Ac- (No. 18). There, the rocks have been abraded by the glacier cordingly, the c. 2500 m-thick component of the prehistoric ice as far as a height of at least 6050 m asl (Photo 27 ice stream-network, which followed the Baltoro valley up white). Indications of high levels exist also in the W-adjacent to here in a down-valley W-direction, has been diverted by parallel valleys as e.g. the Biale- and Dunge glacier valley the right valley flank to the SW. This increase in pressure (Photo 28 white and black right of No. 17; Photo 29 ). and thus flank abrasion, resulting from the change of the In the Dunge glacier valley the Ice Age-height of the glacier direction, has caused the steepening (Photo 26 left of level is documented by the breaks in slope from the flat rock No. 18) into a trough wall. The uniformity and characteris- ramps to the steep wall sections of the summit-crests of the tically large-scale rounding (Photo 23 )ofthisvalleyflank Kruksum and the 6544 m-Peak (No. 25 and 19) at the valley up to a good 1000 m above the present-day glacier surface exit (Photo 29 ). (Photo 23 ) reminds one of a Scandinavian fjord-flank. 2.8 The development of wall gorges and glacigenically 2.6 Insertion on the glacigenic shaping of granite shaped triangular faces in the Baltoro trough valley

Massive-crystalline rock outcrops here as well as in Scandi- The better preservation of the lower-lying polishing faces navia. Sickle-shaped break-offs (Photo 23 ) on smoothed corresponds with the decreasing size of the wall gorges in a rock faces are characteristic of this rock. Accordingly, this downward direction (Photo 26 on the left; 28 ). As far as type of desquamation takes place approx. concordantly the geomorphological principle is concerned, the extension to the surface (Photo 30). Owing to this, a rock-specific of the wall gorges increases – just as every other valley ex- structure is probable here, which can only be selectively tension – with the increase of the connected catchment area. glacigenically rounded, namely at all places where this gran- However, since it is the drop of the ice level which actually ite would also develop roundings by way of any other type renders the downward development of wall gorges possi- of erosion. This means at the same time, that where the ble here, this development is delayed and less advanced. granite forms endogenously flat-edged features, the glacier This is the cause of the development of glacigenic triangle- polishing which creates roundings on other rocks, here only slopes as they are typical of the steep flanks of trough valleys develops these flat-edged structures, reworking them in a (Photo 23 ;26 black; 28 black on the very right and way. Other variations of break-offs in the granite are deter- left; Figure 2/1 No. 31, 32, 17, 23, 16, 27). mined by the horizontal release joints of the stratification surfaces (Photo 26 ). 2.9 The reconstruction of the LGM-glacier level in the area of the lower Baltoro glacier

On the orographic left valley flank on both sides of the in- flux of the Mandu glacier, the destruction of the prehistoric flank abrasion and the resulting rounding through undercut- 120 M. Kuhle ting of the present-day Baltoro glacier is especially obvious of the Baltoro glacier are remarkable. Between Mt. Biale (Photo 25 ). The reason for this is a dependence on the (No. 17, 6729 or 6422 m) with its S-crest in the E and the bedding structure of the crystalline rock which on the Ur- Paiju Peak (No. 11, c. 6600 m) in the W, wall-inclines of ◦ dokas Peak (No. 27) declines coarsely-bedded at c. 40◦ 60-85 occur at only slightly-staggered vertical distances of (40/355) to the N (cf. Photo 32 for details). The lateral 2500 m (Photo 28 left half of the panorama; 45; 46). The erosion undercuts and thus reaches the ac- and bc-jointing relief is striking, though the valley bottom is filled-up by the which then develops the inevitably vertical to overhanging Baltoro glacier system several hundred meters high. During edges of the break-offs (Figure 2/1 between No. 14 and 27). the LGM, however, this extreme relief was filled with ice and Up to the end of the Baltoro glacier the ororographic left – with the exception of towers and crests – levelled as far as flank shows a wealth of indicators of the prehistoric height of c. 5800-6000 m asl ( ). Evidence of this prehistoric ice the ice level confirming those of the orographic right valley level ( ) is provided by glacigenic abrasion forms, as e.g. side. A reference to a further Late Glacial, i.e. an already convex-rounded rock slopes (Photo 28; 36; 39; 40; 42; 44; lowered ice level (perhaps during the early-Late Glacial 45; 46; 49 ) and partly well-rounded (Photo 33; 36 below Ghasa Stage I, after Kuhle 1982a and 1994b) provides the on the left; 45 below on the right of No. 26) or polish cavetto of an Urdokas Peak-N-satellite (Photo 32 ) at least truncated rock ridges and summits (Photo 28 below c. 1500 m above the present-day Baltoro glacier surface. on the right of No. 17; Photo 30 below ). Ad- Granite mountains, completely rounded by the ice, are also ditionally, ice-overflowed and structure-dependent ‘frayed’ preserved. They must be approached as glacially streamlined summit forms are indicators of the ice-level (Photo 46 below hills (Photo 33; Figure 2/1 No. 27). The form of this side ). of the Baltoro valley is marked by the glacial-interglacial With all necessary restrictions as to the indicator-value change between a dominant flank abrasion at an ice level of the glacier abrasion of smooth granite slopes – which ( ) lying at least 1800 m higher than that of today and the are rather structure-dependent and develop quite similarly cross-running glacial erosion of small tributary glaciers as it under different conditions of erosion (see above) – there takes place at present (Photo 34; 35; 36 on the left; 37; are numerous possibilities of a clear diagnosis on the oro- 38). graphic right flank under discussion (Photo 36 , right half The local influence of the rock structure on the inter- of the panorama; 39 ). Here, rock roundings are combined glacial reshaping is demonstrated by the orographic left with glacigenically triangular-shaped slopes and even cov- flank of the Liligo glacier valley (Photo 38 below No. 28). ered with ground moraine at many places (Figure 2/1 below The E-wall of the Liligo Peak consists of granitic edges of No. 17 and 23; Photo 39 ; 42 and 45 ). Further evidence the banking structure, breaking off and eroding back under for the reconstruction of the level of the ice stream network the control of bc-clefts (Figure 2/1 No. 28). The volumi- can be provided by the flanks of the side valleys, as e.g. nous debris cones (), which are deposited at the wall foot the Trango valley (Photo 39 on the right of No. 26). Here, but not tranported down by a hanging ice body, point to glacigenic abrasions and flank polishings are obvious over a backward erosion after the Late Glacial deglaciation. Ice large parts up to over 1000 m above the present-day Trango Age glacigenic flank abrasions and -roundings have been glacier surface (Figure 2/1 below No. 24 and 26; Photo 40 preserved nowhere – not even first signs of them. ). Even a small-scale ice transfluence – still during the Late In comparison, the flank smoothing of the Baltoro val- Glacial – to the NE-parallel Dunge glacier between Trango I ley further up (Photo 37 on the left, Figure 2/1 close (No. 23) and the 5753 m-Peak is evident due to unambiguous to No. 27) and down – between the Liligo glacier and the forms of roches moutonnées (Photo 46 black). A further Baltoro glacier end, especially in the area of the locality transfluence existed between Trango I (No. 23) and Trango Liligo – is perfectly preserved (Photo 50 ). The prehis- Tower (No. 24) (Photo 31 ; 45 between No. 24 and 23; toric glacier abrasion has worked nearly concordantly to the 46 left of No. 24; 47 on the right of No. 23) during the High surface of the rock banking, which since the deglaciation Glacial. Thus it is proved, that the Trango Tower was fully has at most splintered-off and truncated but has not broken enclosed by the ice. The altitude of the glacier level is doc- away or deformed (Photo 48 right). At the base of these umented by a lateral erosion undercutting the flanks of the rock slopes (Photo 41 white on the right) even ground Trango Tower (Photo 31 and 47), so that this summit form moraine, deposited in layers (coarsely-stratified), has been can be referred to as being a typical glacial horn (Figure 2/1 preserved in a thickness of up to 30 m (Photo 41 black; No. 24). Especially the lower parts of the shaft of this tower- Photo 48 small). Its overlay has kept the rock smooth over like horn show roundings still today (Photo 45 No. 24). They millennia (Photo 41 to the right of black; Figure 2/1 next go back to the work of the younger but less thick Late Glacial to No. 28). Corresponding conditions can be evidenced on glaciers of the Stages I and II (i.e., Ghasa- and Taglung the orographic right side down-valley of the Baltoro glacier Stages after Kuhle 1982a) which did not reach so far up. A tongue at places, where recently fresh-preserved glacigenic scarcely less slender but even 278 m-higher glacial horn is rock polishings emerge from its ground moraine cover (Fig- the Uli Biaho reaching 6417 m (Figure 2/1 No. 26; Photo 28; ure 2/1 between No. 11 and 30; Photo 49 black below 36; 39). Also the Trango Cathedral (No. 23) and the compa- white; 50 below ). rably more flattened, but still bold mountain-feature of the The steepness and relief energy of the glacigenically- Paiju (No. 11) – the highest of all – can be classified as key shaped orographic right valley flank along the lower 12 km forms of glacial horns (Figure 2/1; Photo 28, 30, 31, 39, The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 121

44, 45, 46). Glacigenic tower-forms of this type can also flank shows rock polishings reaching up c. 1000 m from the be observed in the Patagonian Andes, which are still today valley bottom (polished rock-faces glittering in the sun next glaciated and accordingly have been glaciated much more to the second from the left; Figure 2/1 between No. 11 and strongly in prehistoric times. Remarkable examples in the 30). The orographic left flank abrasion on the outcropping area of the Hielo Continental are the granite superstructures edges of the stratum ( on the very left) has splintered-off of the Fiz Roy and Aiguille Pointcenot. However, they attain over large parts (Photo 51 ). It reaches up to 5400 m asl only half of the absolute height of these Karakorum Towers. ( ), i.e. 2000 m above the gravel floor (). Large-scale On the orographic right side of the Baltoro glacier the observations of the arrangements of the positions testified basal underpolishings are preserved in an exceptional clear- to an LGM-glacier level that lay even 200-300 m higher - ness. They have been caused by younger glacier ice the level perhaps 400 m (Photo 48 ). This indicates an LGM ice- of which was lowered during the Late- to Neoglacial. On thickness of 2200-2400 m, not including the thickness of the S-ridge of the 5340 m- spur of the Uli Biaho Group, the gravel under the river bed (Photo 51, 52, 53 ). How- for instance, four stages of polishing, i.e. abrasion, can be ever, it cannot be ruled out that the Ice Age Biaho Lungpa differentiated. 1.) the abrasion as far as beyond the rounded (also Blaldu- or Braldu-) glacier flowed on a ground moraine rock summit (Photo 45 on the right of No. 26); 2.) the pedestal which was decametres- to several hundred metres- obviously smoother flank polishing below ( below ; thick. To this points the enormous ground moraine ledge on Photo 44 white); 3.) the steeper and lighter polish-facet the orographic left valley slope up-valley of the locality of with first breakages, set off against the smooth rock ridge in Bardumal (Photo 51 white; Figure 2/1 above No. 30). But a downward direction (Photo 44 on the right; 45 (short) also on the opposite valley slope 60-110 m-thick deposits below on the right of No. 26 and (long); below Fig- of ground moraine are preserved at a height of 300-400 m ure 2/1 No. 26); and 4.) the also facet-like underpolishing above the valley bottom (Photo 52 on the left; Figure 2/1 of 3.) owing to the inflowing Uli Biaho tributary glacier ( on the left below No. 11). On this northern valley side a (long) left of (short)) (cf. under different light-conditions: very important part of the moraines has been redeposited as Photo 42). huge mudflow fans since the deglaciation (Photo 48  white; 51 and 52  black on the left; Figure 2/1 on the left below 2.10 Glaciogeomorphology and reconstruction of the LGM No. 11). At many places a sub-deposit of the present-day glacier- level in the Biaho Lungpa (Blaldo valley) from the river-gravel cover (glacier mouth gravel floor) (Photo 53 ) terminus of the Baltoro glacier up to the Dumordo (also by ground moraine is suggested by the plunge of the ground Panmah-) valley moraines () beneath the gravel floor at the foot of the slopes (between on the left and ). The inflow of the Chingkang A 13 km-long valley chamber (Figure 2/1 between No. 11 valley shows the characteristic glacial-interglacial sequence and 30) follows the Baltoro glacier as far as the orographic of forms with glacigenic flank polishing on the upper slope left inflow of the Chingkang valley. Its left flank is adjacent (Photo 53 black and white; Figure 2/1 No. 30 to the right to the 5800 m-Peak (No. 30). The orographic right side is of No. 35) and interglacial fluvial erosion, undercutting and made up by the Paiju Peak-S-flank with a maximum height reshaping the lower slope (below white ). This linear cut of a good 3000 m (No. 11). The valley bottom, up-valley is so narrow, that it can be considered as being a ravine formed by the glacier (Photo 50 ), here shifts into a glacier (Photo 54 ). Probably this ravine has already come into be- mouth gravel floor up to c. 1 km in width, consisting of out- ing subglacially during the Late Glacial. At that time a quite washed and removed moraine material (Photo 50 and 42 ). important subglacial, i.e. hydrostatically confined, meltwa- The prehistoric ground moraine cover on the glacier- ter discharge must have taken place. Owing to its caviation polished rock of the orographic right flank in the more corrasion ability it was especially capable of deep erosion, distant environs of the Paiju locality (Photo 49 and 50 i.e. the development of ravines. However, the upper edge of white) has already been introduced (Chapter 2.9). These ob- the ravine has undoubtedly broken away since the deglacia- servations are to be completed by a ground moraine cover tion, i.e. it has not been polished syngenetically (Photo 53 a with a light matrix on dark bedrock phyllite, containing little above white). 500 m up the ravine, ground moraine coarse erratic granite boulders (Photo 48 black; Figure 2/1 from the Late Glacial valley bottom has been pressed into it between No. 11 and 30). Remnants of ground moraine can (Photo 54 on the right; Figure 2/1 on the right of No. 35). be found up to at least 900 m above the valley bottom ()( The steep walls of the ravine in the rock above the ground white below No. 11). The dark colour of the ground moraine moraine filling (above on the right) provide evidence of surface is the result of a ferromanganese incrustation deriv- its earlier existence and thus subglacial development (Fig- ing from the crystallizing-out of ascendent solutions owing ure 2/1 left of No. 30). In consequence, its further subglacial to a high potential evaporation. On the basis of an already forming is very probable (see above). several millimetres-thick crust-development, a capillary as- The LGM-ice levels of the main valley (Biaho Lungpa, cent - which was persistent at least during the historical also Blaldo or Braldu valley) in the confluence area of the time – becomes the indicator of a longer-term semi-arid cli- Chingkang valley (Photo 53 and 55 ), which have been mate. Whether this climate already existed in the Holocene reconstructed about 5400-5800 m asl, confirm the complete is unkown. ice-filling of the Chingkang valley as far as the Double-Peak- Down-valley the two flanks have been glacigenically massif (No. 34). Though, owing to this, the rock slopes abraded (the two first from the left). The orographic right 122 M. Kuhle have been glacigenically polished and abraded as far as of the Bakhor Das Lungma has been polished in a classic their culminations, it is almost a V-shaped valley, i.e. a V- manner in a concavely-steepened bow up to its culmination shaped gorge. Because the flank abrasion was only capable (Photo 57 on the right below on the left). Fine polish- of polishing a slightly concave bow into the slope profiles, ings with glacial striae, however, have splintered out and the glacigenic valley type of a ‘trough-shaped gorge’ or a might only be met at places where they are still protected ‘gorge-like trough’ has been realized here (Photo 55 the val- by a ground moraine cover (Photo 57 on the right). A just ley cross-profile below No. 34; Figure 2/1 on the left below as classic example is the upper limit of the glacial erosion No. 30) (Kuhle 1982a, 1983a). Quite similar, but formed like which has been in this valley chamber, attaining c. 5650 m a hanging valley, appears the Hurlang Lungma side valley (Photo 57 ). Its convexly abraded rock bulge is set off (Photo 55 ). It is also a glacigenically V-shaped valley in a sharp concave bend from the 5810 m-high summit of with a ravine in the area of the talweg (Figure 2/1 on the the Bakhor Das (No. 35), which has the form of a glacial right of No. 35), which has dissected the c. 180–200 m-high horn (Figure 2/1 No. 35). This polish cavetto (below No. 35) confluence step of the side valley ( ). The erosion of the proves a valley glacier body rising 2500 m above the gravel ravine profited – and still profits – from the Ice Age moraine floor (). An LGM glacier level extending as far as over material which is transported through. This is the material the summit-level of the Bakhor Das can neither be excluded from which the large mudflow fan has been made up at the nor proved. Owing to this, the provable ice thickness at- valley exit (; Figure 2/1 on the left above No. 35). tained 2500 m plus the thickness of the gravel floor. At a c. 1.5 km-wide gravel floor – measured in the diagonal of Down-valley of the Hurlang Lungma influx, glacigenic ◦ flank abrasions are obvious on the orographic left-hand side. the valley confluence (Photo 57) – and a 35 to 45 -steepness Only in the upper parts of the slope (Photo 55 on the right of the valley flanks which plunge under the valley floor, the and left of ) they are dissected by fluvial slope gullies. The rock ground might lie 500–700 m lower. An elevation of reason for this is a prehistorically earlier upper slope, which the subglacial valley ground by ground moraine is probable, was already free of ice during the late Late Glacial (Sirkung but its thickness is unkown. Under consideration of these Stage IV). In contrast to the gullies shown here, those, which factors, which can only be very vaguely estimated, an Ice in a purely fluvial environment normally develop by back- Age glacier thickness of 2600–2900 must be assumed. ward erosion, are always deeper down-slope than up-slope. Regarding the change of a trough- to a box-shaped trough The glacigenic tendency towards flank smoothing and the valley (glacial trough with gravel bottom) the Dumordo val- leveling of all unevennesses on the valley flank we are talk- ley presents a different picture, because even 10 km down- ing about, not only becomes obvious because of the abrasion wards of the tongue end it is still a trough of protruding rocks ( ), but also through flank niches filled valley (Figure 2/1 on the right above No. 36; Photo 63). with thick groundmoraine material, which has been pressed Only after these 10 km has the gravel floor, dammed back into them () (Figure 2/1 No. 35). from the Biaho Lungpa, been established in the Dumordo In the course of the Biaho Lungpa, between the influx valley (Photo 60 and 61 ; Figure 2/1 on the right below of the Hurlang Lungma- and Dumordo valleys, on the oro- No. 36). The reason for this is that the Dumordo valley, graphic right side an at least 20 m-thick ground moraine being a real side valley, hangs above the Biaho main val- cover (Photo 56 , foreground) is undercut by the gravel ley – perhaps even several hundred metres (see above). The floor (), i.e. the high-water-bed. Near the surface, this has bottom of the Choricho W-valley (Photo 62; Photo 61 on the naturally been modified by flushing processes and mudflow right above white) hangs c. 1000 m above the gravel floor activities since the deglaciation. Here, as in many other of the Dumordo valley (Photo 61 ) on the orographic left places, too, the most important ground moraine deposits side. It is a short trough (Figure 2/1 on the left of No. 11). can be observed in the transition of the trough flanks to the Though this side valley has such a high-hanging bottom and trough ground (Photo 56 below in the background) over a length, which at 10 km is rather short, its flanks have been a rather large valley section in a longitudinal direction. A glacigenically abraded up to at least 5500 m asl (Photo 62 representative ground moraine deposit of this type stretches ). The backflow of the ice from the main valley, necessary along the foot of the slope around the corner from the Biaho for this, provides evidence of a complete and at the same Lungpa into the Dumordo valley (Photo 57 on the left). time large-scale ice filling of the valley system up to at least During the 27 km-long course of the Biaho Lungpa 5500 m asl ( ). This ice level is only 150 m lower than (valley), from the tongue of the Baltoro glacier up to the that proved on the Bakhor Das, which is situated 15 km confluence with the Dumordo valley and still further down as away (see above). In this a reciprocal confirmation is to be far as the tongue of the Biafo glacier (locality of Korophon), seen. The development of that confluence-step, covering c. this main valley is formed like a box-shaped trough valley 1000 m (Photo 61 between white and ), can at least (Figure 2/1 between No. 11 and 28 up to between No. 36 and partly be traced back to the more heavily glacigenic abrasion 35). Its box-form results from the gravel floor, which for the of the ground in a valley of a higher order. Here, the ice was most part is several hundred metres wide (Photo 56 and 57 not only 1000 m thicker, but, owing to the diversely ramified ). The especially significant characteristics of a glacially and over 100 km-extended catchment area of the Panmah eroded landscape, as for instance the concave profile lines glacier, has moreover flowed much faster. The steep conflu- in the bedrock, can be observed in the phyllites in the Du- ence step down to the Dumordo valley has been dissected mordo (Panmah) valley confluence. So, the spur at the exit by two ravines, i.e. gorge-like cuts of a torrent (Photo 60 ; The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 123

Figure 2/1 left of No. 11). This – currently backward – linear evident, that at a lowering of the ice level by 550 m at ap- erosion has been developed during the Late Glacial, when proximately the same glacier thickness, i.e. an only slight the orographic ELA (snow line) ran about 4200–4400 m increase (even 300 m are not much in the face of 2500 m asl. At that time it took place subglacially and, accordingly, ice thicknesses at horizontal distances of 60 km), the ice not yet backwards. Linear meltwater erosion has also oc- discharge was equivalent to the incline of the valleys. To put curred in the Dumordo valley. Evidence of this is provided it another way: the valley incline corresponded quite well by the narrow cut in the trough ground (Photo 63 below ). with the incline of the ice surface in these areas with glacier Here, too, the convexly abraded upper edge of this small surfaces lying 1.5 to 2 km above the snow line (ELA). cut-profile () proves the simultaneous existence of the prehistoric glacier in the overlying bed (Figure 2/1 on the right above No. 36). A further strong indicator of a maxi- 3. The highest prehistoric glacier level, i.e. the maximum mum prehistoric ice level at at least 5600–5800 m asl can Ice Age (LGM) ice cover in the Biafo- and Chogolungma be observed on the SE-spur of the Bullah (No. 36, 6294 m), area with the Braldo- (or Baldo-) and Basna valley as where the prehistoric polishing of the outcropping edges of well as in the and the Skardu Basin in the the strata has formed a glacigenically rounded triangular- Indus valley shaped slope (Photo 56 below No. 36; Figure 2/1 No. 36). The ground moraine covers reaching up at least 550 m on 3.1 Former ice levels above the present-day Biafao glacier this abrasion area (Photo 56 black in the background; Fig- ure 2/1 No. 36) have already been referred to. The polishing The highest summits of the Biafo valley are provided by the of the outcropping edges of the strata has been developed Baintha- (or Ogre-) massif with the 7285 m-high Baintha on metamorphic sedimentary rocks as e.g. quartzites and Brakk (Photo 65, No. 38), the 7108 m-high Latok II (No. 39) hornfels (Photo 58 in the foreground; Photo 59 ;61 and the 6422 m-high Uzun Brakk (No. 40). These three foreground). Whilst on this orographic right side of the mountains show the characteristics of glacigenically sharp- Dumordo- and Biaho valley the postglacial breakages, i.e. ened summits, i.e. glacial horns (Figure 2/1 No. 38-40). The those which took place since the deglaciation, occurred rel- most perfect feature is the Latok II (No. 39). Still further atively sporadically (e.g. Photo 61 below white on the up-valley, i.e. upwards of the Biafo glacier, two further left; Figure 2/1 on the right above No. 36), on the opposite glacial horns stand in the confluence area to the Sim Gang side of the Dumordo valley they have filled-up postglacial glacier (No. 43). The higher one attains an altitude of 5989 rock gullies with debris (Photo 58 above ; Figure 2/1 be- m. In contrast to the summits of the Baintha-massif, it was tween No. 11 and 35). A very fresh boulder, for example, completely covered by the LGM-glacier surface (Photo 69 which came down the track of this gully and sprang onto and Figure 2/1 No. 43). The sharpening lateral abrasion of the recent gravel floor (Photo 59 ), weighs 20 tons. At the ice on these mountains as well as the sporadically pre- the place, where the present-day outer bank of the Dumordo served glacigenic abrasion on the orographic left rock slopes river undercuts the abraded rock slopes excavating a cavetto (Photo 65 and 66 ; Figure 2/1 between No. 43 and 36) (Photo64leftof ; Figure 2/1 to the right of No. 36), post- provides evidence of an LGM-ice level ( ) between 6300 Late-Glacial to recent breakages do also occur. In contrast, and 6100 m asl. This prehistoric abrasion has created five huge loose rock, as e.g. decametres-thick ground moraine, classic triangular-shaped slopes between the inflows of the reacts to a fluvial undercutting like this through much more side valleys (Figure 2/1 No. 39, 41, 36). As a rule, the rock large-scale mass movements, as e.g. slides. So, for instance, abrasions are best preserved halfway up the slopes. On top the reason for the downthrow (Photo 61 ) of the mudflow occurs a more persistent absence of ice and subaerial weath- fans, consisting of moraine material () at the orographic ering, whilst right down the development of the wall gorges left slope foot of the Dumordo valley, is the undercutting by – corresponding with the most-extended catchment areas the high water bed (). connected here – is at the most advanced stage since the deglaciation. In many places, however, their development 2.11 The Ice Age (LGM) altitude of the glacier level and the brought about by backward erosion, has not even reached glacier thickness in the upper Baltoro-Biaho Lungpa half the height of the slopes. So, for instance, the flank (Blaldo- or Braldo-) valley system (Muztagh abrasion on the triangular-shaped slope at the locality of Karakorum-SW-slope) – a summary of Chapter 2. to 2.10 Chaunpisha (Photo 66 on the left; Figure 2/1 on the left below No. 39) has been preserved very well at its base and As an essence of the detailed glacier reconstruction, a pre- - with an increasing height – becomes rougher (Photo 65 historic (LGM) ice thickness of 2600–2900 m can be estab- below and above ). The glacigenic triangle-slope NW of lished in the confluence area of the Biaho Lungpa (Blaldo- the Dongbar locality has been cut by a wall gorge from top or Braldo-) and the Dumordo (Panmah-) valley, which is to bottom (Photo 66 on the left side below No. 41). It is the lowest valley area of the area investigated so far. This the deepest on top and at the bottom (above in the middle): means, that an ice thickness of 2400-2600 m (2700–2900 m on top because of its longer lasting developmental period at maximum; see Photo 5) at Concordia (Chapter 2.3) and and below because of an increasing intensity of the process. a verifiable minimum LGM-ice-level about at least 6200 m, Apart from the abrasions the ground moraine remnants are points to an at most 300 m greater ice thickness and a de- the strongest indicators of the glacier level (Photo 65–69 ). crease of the ice level as far as at least 5650 m asl. It is 124 M. Kuhle

However, they reach at most as far as 650 m over the present- hardly any roundings are preserved at the end of an inter- day Biafo glacier level (Photo 65 on the very left; Photo 66 glacial period. Owing to this, the fourth dimension – the white on the right side; Figure 2/1 below No. 38 and 41). time – is in the same way decisive for the geomorphological If at many places even the bedrock breaks down (Photo 66 evidence of a prehistoric ice level as the intensity of the pre- ; Figure 2/1 No. 38, 39) – how much shorter must then historic forming-process itself. For this reason the absence be the preservation of the loose rock of a moraine on the of an indicator can be no counter- evidence but its existence slopes! This means at the same time that the 650 m-moraine alone can provide evidence. Therefore a chronological dif- level (see above) belongs to the Late Glacial. There remains ferentiation between the LGM- (Stage 0) and Late Glacial- nothing but the rounded abrasion forms on the rocks for the (Stage I, II, III, IV) ice level is possible in some places. determination of the LGM-glacier level. The metamorphic sedimentary rocks of the glacial horn – Especially in the area of the locality Mango does the it is a NE-satellite of the Shinlep Brakk (Figure 2/1 No. 37) orographic right side of the Biafo glacier valley provide an – on the orographic right side of the Biafo valley near the example of the redeposition of moraine and the reshaping Brangsa locality, for instance, have been polished as far as a by glacigenic and fluvial dynamics after the deglaciation: polish cavetto at c. 650–700 m above the present-day glacier the ground moraines on the slopes (Photo 67 the two first level during the late Late Glacial (Stage IV) (Photo 69 on from the right) have been damaged and worn down into mud- the very right). At the same time the summit pyramid above flow fans by rill rinsing and redeposition (). The ground has been underpolished. In consequence, the higher abrasion moraines have been formed to ‘transitional glacial debris forms are broken away (above on the very right), because accumulations’ in the sense of Iturrizaga (1998; 1999). Lat- the merely c. 4800 m-high horn was completely covered by eral abrasion by present-day hanging glaciers, as e.g. the the ice surface during the LGM ( on the right). Mango glacier (Photo 67 ♦), also causes a reshaping and redeposition of prehistoric moraines (Photo 68 ). The low- 3.3 The LGM-ice thickness in the Biafo glacier valley est accumulations resulting from these reshapings are the The profile lines of the trough slopes in the Biafo valley with mudflow- and alluvial fan complexes consisting of several ◦ ◦ individual forms which extend over kilometres (Photo 67 ; inclines between 32 and 41 dip beneath the present-day Figure 2/1 above No. 37), which have been kame-like ac- glacier surface (Photo 65 black and the shadow-line on cumulated against the present-day Biafo glacier (), i.e. its the left below No. 40; Photo 69 on the right below No. 36; sub-recent lateral moraines ( on the left, to the right of ). Photo 70 on both sides of No. 43). In the cross-profile The substrate-specific characteristics of moraine material, between Mango and Dongbar the Biafo glacier is 1.8 km- as e.g. coarse-edged, round-edged, facetted and also well- wide with a surface about 3750 m asl (Photo 69; Figure 2/1 rounded () boulders ‘swimming’ isolated from each other between No. 37 and 41). Under consideration of a trough- in a fine, clayey groundmass (Figure 7–36) has been pre- shaped profile line, which becomes flatter towards the trough served over large parts. This is all the more understandable, ground, a trough geometry can be constructed with a rock because a historic front moraine is also part of the build- bottom lying 500 m below the present-day ice level, i.e. at up of the kame of Mango (Photo 67 large, diagonally 3250 m asl. 25 km up the Biafo glacier valley, the current right below No. 37; Figure 2/1 No. 37). A further glacial ice stream, i.e. Biafo trough, is 3 km-wide at a glacier level horn, which has pierced the High Glacial (LGM) glacier at 4450 m asl (Photo 69 cross-profile below No. 43; Fig- ure 2/1 in the area between No. 43 and 42). At the same level, is the 6282 m-high Gama Sokha Lumbu (Photo 69 and ◦ ◦ Figure 2/1 No. 42). average inclines of the trough flanks (32 –41 ), the trough geometry confirms a height of the trough bottom at 3750 m 3.2 Insertion concerning the problem of rounding and asl and thus a present-day ice thickness of approximately sharpening by glacigenic abrasion 700 m. Glacier levels between 6100 and 6300 m asl during the LGM (Photo 65 ,66 on the left and on the Glaciogemorphologically interesting is the sharpened, c. very right) yield High Glacial ice thicknesses about 2450– 5500–5700 m-high crest between Shinlep Brakk (No. 37) 2950 m. Downwards of the Biafo valley the LGM-glacier and Gama Sokha Lumbu (No. 42). It has been overflowed thickness has increased by at least 200–300 m. by a c. 500 m-thick ice stream network (cf. Photo 67 to the left and right of No. 37). Today, however, glacigenic 3.4 The prehistoric indicators of the glaciation and ice roundings no longer occur in some sections (Photo 68, rock levels in the confluence area of the Biafo valley into the crest in the background). Obviously the interglacial hanging Braldu (Biahu Lungpa, Blaldu-) main valley glaciers setting in on both sides below the crest (in Photo 67 ♦ and 68 the Mango glacier is visible) have brought about Part of the substantial surface moraine mass of the present- this sharpening by their ground polishing. In the same way, day ice streams, as e.g. the Biafo glacier (Photo 70 ), con- as the abrasive roundings provide evidence of an Ice Age sists of dislocated prehistoric ground moraine (). Owing glacier level above the intermediate valley ridges, here, the to undercutting of the present-day glacier margin or kame- abrasive sharpening proves the interglacial hanging glacia- like mudflow-fans and -cones () – always combined with tion subordinated to the relief. In dependence on the progress ice ablation – it has been incorporated into the present-day of the one or the other of the processes, the rounding or the glacier surface. For this reason the modern interglacial ice sharpening is more extended. Thus it might be possible that streams are much more interspersed with debris than the The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 125

Table 1 Glacier stages of the mountains in High Asia, i.e. in and surrounding Tibet (Himalaya, Karakorum, E-Zagros and Hindukush, E-Pamir, Tien Shan with Kirgisen Shan and Bogdo Uul, Quilian Shan, Kuenlun with Animachin, Nganclong Kangri, Tanggula Shan, Bayan Har, Gangdise Shan, Nyainquentanglha, Namche Bawar, Minya Konka), from the pre-Last High Glacial (pre-LGM) to the present-day glacier margins and the pertinent sanders (glaciofluvial gravel fields and gravel field terraces) with their approximate age (after Kuhle 1974-2000).

High Glacial ones. Naturally, this comparison applies only LGM). An example is provided by the Shinlep Brakk ESE- to Ice Age ablation areas, i.e to the areas below the ELA spur (Photo 74 below No. 37; Figure 2/1 on the right at the margin of the Karakorum ice stream network (Fig- of No. 37). Here, as they have been preserved rounded ure 2). Here, in its centre, the ice surfaces lay 2 km above and smoothed on the lower slopes of the trough flanks the snowline, so that no surface moraine could occur any- (Photo 73 on the left), similarly easy-weathering meta- way. The rounding and facetting of separate boulders ( on morphic sedimentary rocks have been significantly more the left) documents the redeposition of prehistoric moraines. strongly roughened at a c. 1000 m-higher level of the valley The development and preservation of the glacigenic flank flanks. A mantling by ground moraine occurs on the lower abrasion is to a great extent structurally-dependent in its het- slope of this roughened abrasion faces (Photo 74 white erogeneity. This becomes obvious on the Bullah-SW-wall below No. 37; Figure 2/1 on the right of No. 37). It also cov- (Photo 74 No. 36). Orientated by the edges of the strata ers the rounded mountain ridge further below (Photo 74 and bedding joints, subglacial, large polish faces already black on the right below No. 37). Large erratic granite boul- break away (Photo 70 left of No. 35; 74 left of white ders are embedded into this ground moraine cover; several below No. 36). Ground moraine fillings in the out-broken of them (♦) also overlie glacigenically abraded rock heads wall scores (Photo 70 on the left) are evidence of the ( white and black on the right in the fore- and middle- subglacial process. There are also only a few undamaged ground). The ground moraine on the lower slope is covered glacigenic abrasion forms on the orographic right side ( by a younger, i.e. Late Glacial (Stage I-III) lateral moraine white and black between No. 44 and 43). In other places, rampart ( ; Figure 2/1 below No. 37). In comparison to as for instance opposite the Biafo glacier tongue, even eas- the LGM-ice level ( ) (Stage 0 after Kuhle 1980, 1982a, ily splintering phyllites still show well-preserved abrasion 1998a Tab. 1 p. 82), the Late Glacial glacier margin, which roundings (Photo 73 ; Figure 2/1 above No. 35). This is a is thus evidenced, has already been lowered by c. 1200-1400 clear indication of their minor, i.e. Last Glacial or late Late m. Some of the glacigenically abraded rock knolls (Photo 74 Glacial age (Sirkung Stage IV). ( foreground), separated from each other by polish depres- Correspondingly, the heavier roughenings on the valley sions, show classic roches moutonnée-forms ( black below flanks at higher altitudes go back to the earlier Late Glacial No. 41 in the foreground; Photo 76 ; Figure 2/1 on the and LGM (Taglung Stage II, Ghasa Stage I or Stage 0 = right below No. 37). In the places where a moraine overlay is 126 M. Kuhle lacking, they are deeply weathered ( ). The ground moraine hind. For comparison see the detailed investigations on the cover further down the mountain ridge (; Figure 2/1 on the neoglacial and historic glacier history of the NW-Karakorum right below No. 37) contains large erratics, too (). It shows 100 km further NW by Meiners 1996: pp 95–183 and 1997: periglacial pattern grounds (Photo 76 and ). pp 270–301. A further orographic left lateral moraine rampart To sum up one may say that in the area of the confluence (Photo 77 black; Figure 2/1 below No. 37) in the Braldu of the Biafo glacier valley into the Braldu valley (Figure 2/1 valley flank runs at 4000 m, i.e. 1000 m above the valley between No. 37, 36 and 35) the ice level has run between bottom (). Between the lateral moraine’s outer slope and c. 5600 and 6000 m asl at an ice thickness of c. 2600– the valley slope, a classic lateral valley with an alluvial 2900 m during the LGM. The remaining uncertainties of soil () has been developed. Upwards of the influx of the several hundred metres as for the reconstruction of the ice Biafo valley, at the same altitude, there are solely ground level, partly go back to the inexact summit heights on the moraine covers ( white; Photo 75 white). Correspond- ‘Karakorum Mountaineering Map 1 : 200,000’. ing orographic right lateral moraine remnants with lateral moraine depressions, i.e. small lateral moraine valleys, be- 3.5 The Ice Age glacier filling of the Teste valley in the longing to the Late Glacial Glacier Stages III and IV, occur Mango Range-N-slope (with the Skoro La Gans = glacier) c. 3 km down-valley (to the W) in the area of the Alpine as an example of an orographic left hanging valley above pasture above the Askoli settlement (Photo 78 between the Braldu valley near and the left margin). The stone houses of this pasture are Directly SSE of the Shinlep Brakk (Figure 2/1 No. 37) the situated at 4200 m asl between a large roche moutonnée Teste trough valley is situated (Photo 84 white; Figure 2/1 (Photo 84 on the left in the middleground; Figure 2/1 on on the right of No. 45) into which one can look from the the left below No. 37) and the actual orographic right Braldu Shinlep Brakk-S-flank (locality: Photo 79 on the left). At valley slope. This glacigenically polished U-shaped saddle its valley head the Skora La Gans (glacier) extends below ( on the left) lies 1300–1400 m above the main valley unnamed summits of the Skora massif towering as far as floor. Down-valley, on the orographic right side, further Late 6000 m asl at maximum (Photo 80 and Figure 2/1 No. 46). Glacial lateral moraine ledges ( black on the right) with This valley head, prehistorically completely filled with the lateral moraine depressions () and erratic boulders ( )are ice of an ice stream network, now undergoes the reshaping preserved (Figure 2/1 on the left of No. 37). On the ESE-spur into separate Alpine-type glaciers. Owing to this, a process of the Shinlep Brakk (Figure 2/1 on the right below No. 37) is concerned as it is known of the Alpine High- and in- stepped moraine accumulations with erratic granite boulders terglacial history. Whilst the historic moraine complexes can be observed down-slope as far as c. 3600 m asl, i.e. up of Stages VIII to XII (Photo 80 ) – which with ELA- to 500 m above the Biafo glacier tongue (Photo 74 on depressions of merely 50 or less metres belong together and the right). 2.2 km down the Braldu valley, part of this High are partly still attached to the current glacier margins ()– Glacial (Stage 0 = LGM) ground- and Late Glacial lateral show only a small geomorphological distance to the present- moraine material (Photo 78 ) has been transported down- day glaciation, the glaciogeomorphological distance to the slope and redeposited into a mudflow fan or -cone ( white) glaciation during the LGM is far greater (Photo 80 ; since the deglaciation (Figure 2/1 No. 37). 84 ; Figure 2/1 below No. 46). The geomorphodynamic During Stage XI (about 1950) the Biafo glacier tongue mediation is established by the fact, that the oversteepened has reached the orographic left valley side and basal rock rock flanks of the Teste trough have broken away since wall of the Bakhor Das (No. 35) over a width of 2.7 km (Photo 74 on the very left and right) and thus has crossed the melting of the ice (Photo 80 and 81 , Figure 2/1 the Braldu valley (Photo 73). The flowed down above No. 46) and thus have overwhelmed the High- to Late beneath the glacier ice. At this time the ice lay at the level Glacial ground moraines on the slope with debris from the of the striking 30 to 50 m-high lateral moraines (Photo 70 rock fall (Photo 80, 81 and 84 black, Figure 2/1 mud- black). Also the ‘spillway’ on the orographic right margin flow cone right of No. 45). Whilst here, at the head of the of the glacier tongue () between the roche moutonnée and Teste trough, the late Late Glacial, neoglacial and historical the trough flank has then still been overflowed by the melt- glaciers (Stage IV to c. IX; Tab 1) have strongly undercut and modified the trough flanks, flank polishings are better water (Photo 71 ). About 1950 the old expedition route preserved at the exit of the valley (Photo 81 below , to the Biafo- and Baltoro glaciers already led through the Figure 2/1 above No. 46). The reason for this is that the ravine (Photo 72 ) behind this roche moutonnée (Photo 70 valley bottom was more rapidly cleared of ice since the late on the left of ). During Stage X, i.e. between 1800 and Late Glacial, so that then a glacigenic undercutting has no 1920 (Tab 1), at least part of the Biafo meltwater flowed longer taken place. In a corresponding way, the rock shoul- down through this ravine. However, this took place sub- der, rounded by glacier abrasion in the area of the glacigenic aerially. The ‘Younger Dhaulagiri Stage VII’ was the last confluence step into the Braldu valley, is preserved the best period during which the discharge through this ravine was (Photo 79 white; 82). Even Late Glacial ground moraine also still subglacial. One may safely assume that at a snow- can be recognized here (Photo 81 white on the left; Fig- line depression of c. 60–80 m, as it is characteristic of this ure 2/1 on the right above No. 45). At the valley head of the stage (Kuhle 1980; 1998a), the ice has overflowed this roche Teste trough an ice transfluence over the Skoro La has taken moutonnée (Photo 70 on the left of ) and the ravine be- place during the LGM (Figure 2/1 between No. 45 and 46, The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 127

Photo 84 ) so that a glacier-connection existed between depression during the Late Glacial Stage IV, see Tab 1) and the Skoro Lungma tributary stream, the Shigar parent glacier attaining a level-height about 4000 m (cf. Photo 77), was and the important ice filling of the Skardu basin. bound to have already taken place and the cirque glacier, which needs an ELA-depression of over 1000 m for its development, could not have been created. 3.6. The LGM-glacier-filling of the Braldu valley chamber of Askole between the settlements of Ste Ste, Sino and Tonga 3.8 Continuation of the comments on the LGM-glacier filling of the Braldu valley chamber of Askole between the The enormous, approximately 3000 m-thick ice filling in the settlements of Ste Ste, Sino and Tonga, with Braldu trough down from the Biafo glacier has been docu- geomorphological references to their age mented in detail (see Chapter 3.4) and depicted by a cross- profile (Figure 3). The glacier filling continuing downwards In the valley chamber we are talking about, the numerous near the settlement of Ste Ste (Photo 79 and 81 ) becomes deposits of ground moraines, which in many places are pre- obvious by the photo-perspective from the Teste valley exit served very high up the Braldu valley flanks (Photo 83–86 (viewpoint in Photo 84) on to the Shinlep Brakk (Photo ; Figure 2/1 on the right above No. 47), are surprising 79 No. 37), which shows the ground moraines and Late in view of the steep relief and the related erosional speed Glacial lateral moraines () as well as the flank polishings of loose rock like this. To put it another way: only if these ( ) described in detail (Chapter 3.4). Again down-valley, in ground moraines are of a very young, i.e. Late Glacial age the trough cross-profile of Askole on the orographic right (17,000 to 13,000 or 10,000 YBP; see Tab 1) they are not side, ground moraines, Late Glacial lateral moraine ledges surprising. Thus, the evidence has to be called to mind once (Stage II, Tab 1) and roche moutonnée- (Figure 2/1 on the more that the entire glacier filling reconstructed here has to left below No. 37) as well as hanging trough valley forms be classified as belonging to the last Quaternary Ice Age, can be observed about 4100-4200 m asl (Photo 84 white i.e. to the LGM and the subsequent Late Glacial. The di- below, II, , ). These indicators lie 1300–1400 m above mensions of the seasonal re-deposition of important masses the Braldu talweg. of ground moraine material by mudflows are made clear by the huge, up to over 100 m-thick, mudflow fans and -cones 3.7 Additional comment on the indicator value of cirques as (Photo 83 ). The mudflow fan in the orographic right flank to the speed with which the Early Glacial ELA must have NW of the fields of Askole (Askoli) (Figure 2/1 on the left dropped below No. 37; Photo 83: the two white in the middle) is especially striking. It still contains decametre-thick ground On the orographic left valley side below the High Glacial ice moraine in situ (second black from the right) at its root. surface ( ) are Late Glacial cirques () which do not cor- In some places the ground moraine is better preserved respond to the height of the snow line, but are oriented by the than the actually more solid bedrock. This applies to the ar- height of the lowered level of the ice stream network (Fig- eas where the foliation- and bedding planes of the phyllites ure 2/1 above No. 45). Their development by an individual favour the structural-concordant crumblings (Photo 83 , glacier filling of the cirques had only then become possible, 86 ). when the appropriate upper valley slopes had been released Beside the Teste trough already described, the Sino val- from the valley glacier. These cirques are no single-phase ley is a further orographic left trough-shaped side valley features of the last Late Glacial, but have been formed during (Photo 83 ; Figure 2/1 on the left above No. 45). Through the Early- and Late Glacials of the pre-LGM-glacial peri- these side valleys and also through the valley from the oro- ods as well. During the respective Early Glacials they were graphic right side above the settlement of Tonga (Photo 86 immediately dependent on the depression of the ELA, but ) considerable quantities of gravel are transported by the during the Late Glacials they were dependent on the down- steeply down-flowing glacier creeks as far downward as the thawing of the High Glacial valley glaciers. Comparatively Braldu valley bottom. The alluvial debris- and mudflow fans low-lying cirques and nivation niches, as e.g. the hollow of these side valley junctions at the settlements of Sino and  mould above the fields of Manjong (Photo 83 ) at merely Tonga (Figure 2/1 between No. 42 and 47) are adjusted to 3600–3800 m asl in a N-exposition, have been created in the level of the gravel bottom of the Braldu river (Photo 85 the respective Early Glacials. This happened at a time when centre). Its continuous and phased intensified cutting has the orographic snow-line had already been lowered by over developed terrace flights in both side valley fans which cor- 1000 m, the ice stream network, however, was only built up respond at comparable levels and steps (Photo 85 and 86 to a thickness of 1000 m. During the LGM the hollow mould ). The present-day farmland is situated on these terraces. of the cirque above Manjong (see above) has been polished The fan material consists of displaced moraine, which mud- transversely by the Braldu valley glacier, as shown by the flows have initially transported down into the main valley preserved roundings of flank abrasion ( on the right below (Photo 85 ). There it has been more or less washed by the No. 45 and 47; Figure 2/1 above No. 45). This genetic se- tributary creek (Photo 85  centre and 86 ) and then by the quence is an indication of a very fast drop of the ELA during Braldu river as well (Photo 85 ). the Early Glacial. Otherwise the filling of the valley with The highest preserved roundings and rock smoothings, glacier ice, already exceeding a level of 3600–3800 m at an which must be explained by glacigenic abrasion (Photo 83– ELA-depression of merely 700 m (appropriate to the ELA- 128 M. Kuhle

86 ; Figure 2/1 between No. 42 and 47) and which tower the Braldu river, here flowing down steeply and torrentially above the deposits of ground moraine by approximately (Photo 87 ). A reason for the quantity of loose rocks is 1000 m, attain levels between 5300 and 5600 m ( ). the great height of the local catchment area of these moun- This is proof of an LGM-ice thickness of c. 2600 m be- tains, the hanging glaciers of which still into the Holocene tween Cherichor (No. 45), Shinlep Brakk (No. 37) and Koser were flowing down as far as close to the Braldu talweg. The Gunge (No. 47). main reason, however, is to be seen in the gorge-like nar- rowness of this section of the Braldu valley. As a result, 3.9 The traces of the LGM-glaciation in the Braldu valley the Ice Age Braldu glacier has developed a huge ground chamber from the settlement of Tonga as far as the inflow of moraine pedestal between the settlements of Hoto and Tosha the Hoh Lungma, and the classic development of a ground (Photo 90 and 91 black below; Figure 2/1 between No. 42 moraine pedestal (with a preliminary methodological and 47). The build-up of a ground moraine pedestal like remark as to the data-density) this is the function of very great ground friction. In order to guarantee the necessary velocity of discharge of the ice Naturally it is not possible that below Tonga the glacier ice supply from up-valley also in a narrow gorge-profile, the filling of the Braldu valley suddenly breaks vertically away glacier has made-up a broad, trough-shaped bed of plastic by 2600 m and is completely lacking. According to this ground moraine, poor in friction. Obviously the glacial ero- empirical basis, a greater gap as to the description of the sion scouring the rock was too slow here, so that the glacier, findings might be allowed, without considering the down- stripping off its ground moraine, has been pressed up as far ward continuation of the very thick Braldu glacier as a as a higher level (cf. Kuhle 1982a: p 49, 50 and 1983a: tributary of a huge ice stream network as being purely hy- pp 123–125). pothetical. On the other side, the methodological strength of Of an unsurpassed unambigousness are the glacier stri- a glacial-historic reconstruction is based on as complete as ations, preserved and visible on the orographic left flank possible a spatial provision of unambiguous field-indicators (Figure 2/1 above No. 47; Photos 88 and 89 ). The visi- of a prehistoric ice cover. Because the postglacial reshaping bility persists no longer than at most a few decades after the of the glacigenic features with increasing intervals enhances exhumation; then the striations have been wasted away by the indicator gaps, the arrangement of the position between frost weathering and the glacigenic rock polishings go dull the data-localities becomes more and more significant in de- through splintering. Here, the metres-thick ground moraine ciding between the observation ‘here was a glacier cover’ or overlay, isolating from weathering, has only recently slid ‘here was no glacier cover’. However, since the reference to down and been washed away from the polished rock as a re- the arrangement of the position of the corresponding field sult of heavy rainfalls, which on the water-retaining rock led data requires the reader’s spatial imagination, but given that to soaking. The ground moraine cover still exists in remnants only a willing reader is prepared to spare no efforts on that () so that these observations were possible. The glacier score, the scientific procuring of facts is expected to keep the striations of the granite areas glacigenically treated for the spatial distance of the field observations as small as possible. last time during Stage IV (Sirkung Stage, c. 13,000 YBP Therefore the data are to be continued down-valley in the Tab 1) are almost horizontal ( ). They thus indicate a glacier close-meshed way which has been applied so far. The greater mouth terminal at a distance of at least several kilometres. the data-density, the more convincing is the result extracted. In many places glacigenic rock polishings and abrasion In the area of the settlement of Hoto the orographic left roundings alternate with ground moraine covers, which in flank of the Braldu trough, covered high up (see above) with slope depressions are almost 100 m-thick (Photos 90, 91 ground moraine (Photo 83 in the background, right of the and ). This thickness can be estimated from earth pyra- centre), is interrupted by two side valleys which are today mids of remarkable dimensions which consist of this ground still glaciated as far down as c. 3920 m. The steep hang- moraine and have been developed on the orographic right ing glaciers flow down from the 6251 (or c. 6400) m-high side c. 4300 m above the settlement of Gombro (Photo 90 Koser Gunge (Photo 83 and 84 No. 47) N-slope. Both the white on the right; Figure 2/1 on the left below No. 48). side valleys, the northern Pakore valley and the unnamed In the junction area of the Hoh Lungma connected from southern one, show U-shaped forms all over the valleys (i.e., the N (right), an extended classic glacigenically triangular- up to the upper margins of the valley flanks) polished out shaped slope is preserved (Figure 2/1 on the right of No. 50) only in the late Late Glacial (Stage IV, Tab 1) (Figure 2/1 overlain by a ground moraine packed up to a thickness of above No. 47). Before, the Braldu parent glacier was still decametres (Photo 90 below the left ). The valley bot- so thick, that the tributary glaciers dammed-up by it had no tom, which consists of washed ground moraine, shows a possibility of ground scouring. During the Neoglacial (Stage height about 2545 m asl in the confluence area. C. 4 km V-’VII) the steep tributary glaciers were but a few hundred up the Braldu valley, the V-shaped gorge-profile (Figure 2/1 metres-thick and thus not thick enough to develop U-shaped below No. 42; right third of Photo 91) widens to a con- valleys. cavely polished, i.e. trough-shaped profile line (Photo 90 A characteristic of the cross-profile of the Braldu val- in the fore- and background; Figure 2/1 on the left below ley between the Koser Gunge (No. 47)and the Gama Sokha No. 48). The connected Hoh Lungma shows a similarly Lumbu (Photo 91 No. 42) being also over 6200 m-high, is glacigenically-widened V-shaped valley profile with an al- an important moraine filling (Photo 87 ). This is so sub- ready trough-like form (Figure 4; Figure 2/1 between No. 50 stantial that since deglaciation it has not been removed by The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 129 and 48; Photo 92 below No. 49). Despite the great steepness 2500–2600 m asl, the meltwater features lie 700–900 m be- of 33–40◦, important ground moraine deposits are preserved low the lowest prehistoric ELA (that one of the LGM = in the depressions and large bowl-shaped concaves of both High Glacial = Stage 0; Tab 1). Accordingly, at that time flanks of the Hoh Lungma (Photo 92 and 93 black above; subglacial meltwater has already flowed down and may have Figure 4; Figure 2/1 on the right of No. 50 and below 49). developed the pothole sections. The highest prehistoric glacier traces are presented by The spatial but not chronological succession of ground abrasion areas still reaching 700 m above the preserved scouring and ground moraine sedimentation becomes obvi- ground moraines. This concerns the classic glacigenic ous in the valley chamber of the wasteland of Gohe which roundings of rock ridges and -heads (Photos 90, 92, 93 ). follows lower down. Here, the rock spurs, rounded and The small cirque forms (Photo 90 ; Figure 2/1 on the smoothed by abrasion, protrude from the valley flanks to- right of No. 50) have been shaped by individual glaciers wards the talweg (Photo 96 large), so that the ice discharge only since the Late Glacial. By means of these indicators was impeded down-valley. Even a roche moutonnée-like fea- the LGM-glacier surface of this confluence area has been ture has been developed here ( white large; Figure 2/1 reconstructed at an altitude of at least 4900 m asl ( ; on the left above No. 47). Further down-valley a protrud- Figure 4). ing glacigenic triangle-shaped face near the settlement of Niyel ( below ; Figure 2/1 on the left above No. 47) 3.10. The LGM-glaciation of the lower Braldu valley from documents the increasing abrasion on protrusions. From the the inflow of the Hoh Lungma as far as the Shigar valley valley bottom up to the medial slope heights (slope catena) near the settlement of Mungo decametres-thick ground moraines have been deposited ( black) between these rock protrusions, which means, that In the further course of the Braldu trough, 6 to 7 km down- they have been stripped off by the glacier ice in front of these valley from the inflow of the Hoh Lungma, the thick ground projecting rocks and, accordingly, were laid down between moraine pedestal, already described further up-valley (Chap- them. The increasing moraine thickness toward the lower ter 3.9), is preserved in remnants (Figure 2/1 on the right slope, combined with the development of a ground moraine below No. 50; Photo 92 below). Its surface, which has not pedestal, can be observed on the outer banks of the Braldu yet been reworked, passes with a perfect, concave trough river ( black on the right below; Photo 97 black and profile bend (above below) into the orographic right rock white below; Figure 2/1 on the left above No. 47). flank polishings ( on the very left). Immediately up- and Down from the valley chamber of the settlements of down-valley, the moraine pedestal has already been removed Niyel and Dasso, the widening box-like valley form of the by the Braldu river. Correspondingly, the remaining rem- type ‘trough valley’ with gravel floor (Photo 97 and 98 nants, too, are undercut by lateral erosion of the Braldu river ; Figure 2/1 below No. 50) is obvious. Up to here this 3 – which, with a run-off of several 100 m /sec, is extremely glaciofluvial gravel floor was dammed back from the Shi- energetic – and have been shifted backward in the form gar valley (Photo 99 ), i.e. the large main valley, 8 km up of steep crumblings (Photo 93 below) and wasted away. the Braldu valley. The orographic right flank of the Braldu The great density of this ground moraine compacted by the valley is made up here by the 5778 m-high southern pre- high overburden pressure of an over 2000 m-thick (Figure 3) summits (No. 50) of the Ganchen massif (6462 m). Towards hanging Braldu parent glacier, is the reason for the devel- the SW, i.e. towards the Shigar valley, being the next-larger opment of finely-chiselled earth pyramids on the remnants main valley, it peters out into a round-polished mountain of this ground moraine pedestal (Photo 92 ; Figure 2/1 spur (Photo 98 ). This spur (Photo 99 on the left of No. 50) on the right below No. 50). Trough-profile-like, concave separates the Braldu valley from the W-adjacent Basna val- glacier ground scouring is also preserved in the bedrock ley (in the middle). Its flatly sloping mountain ridge consists granite on the valley bottom (Photo 95 quite below and of granite and is composed of numerous roches moutonnées on the very right). Here, remnants of the ground moraine (Figure 2/1 below No. 50). Its flanks still show glacier pol- pedestal ( ) and ground scouring on the rock occur imme- ishings in the form of band polishings of outcropping edges diately adjacent. This may be a reference to the succession of the stratum (below No. 50; Photo 98 ). A persevering, of High Glacial ground scouring and the development of i.e. partly still covering ground moraine overlay (), has a Late Glacial pedestal or it could be an indicator of the preserved the polishings. On the orographic left valley flank, – locally separated – simultaneousness of ground scouring too, an unambiguous abrasion form occurs in the shape of a here and accumulation of ground moraines on the opposite glacigenic triangle-slope (Figure 2/1 half-left above No. 47) valley side, as it applies to the outer and inner bank in the reaching up to the culmination of the mountain ridge, named fluvial environment. Here, a problem is concerned, which, Busper, at an altitude of 4564 m. Correspondingly, this according to the present-day state of knowledge, must be mountain ridge was completely overflowed by ice during left open. On the orographic right flank of this valley section the Ice Age and the LGM-ice level communicated over the  flush-bowls and parts of potholes (Photo 94 ; Figure 2/1 ridge at a continuous level with that one of the Shigar par- between No. 50 and 47) do occur, created by water flow- ent glacier. The cross-profile of the Shigar valley (Figure 5) ing under pressure, i.e. subglacial water. They are evidence shows the reconstructed Shigar parent glacier flowing with from a prehistoric glacier, but do not allow a chronological its LGM-level about 4700 m asl (which somewhat further classification – just like the moraine pedestal and the ground NW has dropped to 4380 m) over this Busper NW-ridge scouring. The reason for this is that at this altitude about 130 M. Kuhle

Figure 3. Cross-profile (not exaggerated) across the upper Braldu valley (Biaho Lungpa) from the Shinlep Brakk in the NNW up to the Bakhor Das in the SSE with its minimum glacier ice filling, reconstructed for the LGM. Locality: Fig. 2/2; Fig. 2/1 approximately between No. 37 and 35.

(Figure 5 on the right margin) and forming a continuous ure 38; Photo 104, 105; Figure 2/1 between No. 71 and surface with the tributary stream of the Braldu glacier. The 56). Here, the parent glacier is c. 600 m-thick, as can be ground moraine overlay preserved on the WSW-side of the estimated according to the inter- and extrapolation of the 4380 m-ridge on the orographic left flank of the Shigar val- steepness of the valley flanks (Figure 38). By means of ley, is metres- to decametres-thick (Figure 5 below the 4380 the richer grass vegetation on steep scree slopes (Photo 102 m-ridge; Photo 99 on the right). ; 114, 115), which below 4000 m even passes into lush In the section of the Braldu valley we are talking about, high mountain pastures (Photo 117, foreground), today’s the LGM-ice level has been evidenced by a great number of greater humidity of the Chogolungma glacier area, com- upper limits of polishing and abrasion (Photo 92–97 ). pared with that one of the Baltoro, becomes obvious. As It lay between c. 4900 m asl in the area of the Hoh Lungma to the preservation of the glacigenic flank smoothings, how- inflow and 4700 m asl (Figure 4) in the area of the Braldu ever, no difference can be evidenced due to this differing inflow into the Shigar valley (Figure 5). Owing to this, the precipitation in comparison with the Baltoro glacier valley. surface incline of the ice stream ran parallel to the present- Here, too, the glacigenic flank abrasion above c. 5000 m day talweg incline down-valley. The maximum ice thickness asl can only partly be observed in the form of roundings might have even increased by 100 m from c. 2400–2500 m (Photo 101–104 ), though the Ice Age trough develop- in the upper cross-profile to 2500–2600 m in the lower one. ment is verifiable as far as a polish line at 5900 m ( ; Figure 2/1 No. 55, 56). Between c. 5000 and over 6000 m 3.11. The LGM-glaciation in the upper Chogolungma the abrasions and especially the flank polishings have been (Basna) valley from the ESE-slope of the Malubiting- roughened by residual snow and frost weathering – which at (7458 m) and massif (7027 m) as far as into the the black/white lines is in particular active - and destroyed valley chamber of the settlement of Arandu by crumblings (Photo 102 ; Figure 2/1 No. 53, 57); above and at the height of the ELA also by lateral erosion of the Kick (1956, 1964 and 1991) has carried out glaciological current glacier edges (below ). Below the ELA the ice investigations of the recent Chogolungma glacier and took margin is no longer attached to the rock, but it is isolated this opportunity to describe the first observations from the from it by lateral moraine and -small valleys (Photo 113 slopes above the present-day ice stream as to the prehistoric below ). The undercuttings, which nevertheless do occur, glacier. However, his research was not concerned with the have taken place during the neoglacial (Holocene) glacier reconstruction of prehistoric glacier positions and ice levels. levels (Stage V-’VII) at a snow-line that had dropped about It is a dendritic tributary glacier system which joins the 80–300 m against the present-day one (Tab 1) (Photo 113 Chogolungma main glacier from the N with the Moraine ). Exemplary crumblings (Photo 101 ), solely deriving glacier (Photo 104 below No. 54; 103 below white) and from the lateral erosion of a 250–300 m higher glacier level, from the S with the Crevasse glacier (Photo 100 between are to be observed on the north-easternmost rock satellite the two ) and the Haramosh glacier (Photo 101 ; 102 of the Laila Peak (No. 55). At that time the glacier has above ) (cf. Figure 2/1 No. 52–58, 70–71). At the height still overflowed the rock rounding ( on the right). Above of the present-day level of the Chogolungma glacier, the 5000 m, current avalanches rework the prehistoric abrasion main valley reaches a maximum width of over 2.5 km (Fig- The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 131

Figure 4. Cross-profile (not exaggerated) across the lower Hoh Lungma near its inflow into the middle Braldu valley (Biaho Lungpa) from the 4577 m-peak in the WSW as far as the Tongo in the ENE with its minimum glacier ice filling reconstructed for the LGM. Locality: Fig. 2/2; Fig. 2/1 approximately between No. 50 and 48. forms downslope (Photo 102 ); naturally, the avalanches below No. 52). At this transfluence pass the thickness of the profit from the humidity. overflowing ice (Figure 2/1 No. 52) amounted to c. 350– The highest prehistoric glacier level can be recognized 500 m (Photo 123 on the right of No. 52). Because the by the flattened summits of rock towers (Photo 100 ice flow down the is steeper, i.e. has reached below No. 52; 102 centre and on the right; 103 ), the 2100 m-level over a distance of only 40 km, whilst the by large, still iced-over flat forms (Photo 113 and 123 distance to this level towards the SE, to the basin of Skardu, below No. 54) as well as by flatter ledges, protruding from is at least 110 km, the LGM-ice-transfluence from SE to NW steep wall faces (Photo 100 ). The latter ones document is probable. A further transfluence pass is the c. 4800 m-high the fact, that they were protected against the downslope Haramosh La (Figure 2/1 No. 55), leading from the root of avalanche erosion and -denudation by the level of the ice the Haramosh valley toward the WSW through the Mani- stream network as the relative erosion base. Naturally, sharp- and Phuparash Gah (valley) to the Indus main glacier. At enings of rock spurs and -crests also took place subglacially. a distance of only 24 km from this transfluence pass, the This happened at all places, where the crest-parallel scouring Indus gorge runs at a mere 1500 m asl, so that here, too, was stronger than that which ran transversely to the crest the ice discharge has taken place from the Chogolungma (Photo 101 on the right; 113 next to No. 56). Transi- valley down into the Indus valley. This spillway and ice run- tion features also occur: so, the rock crest E of the 6970 off has brought about the drop of the LGM-ice level from m-high Malubiting E-summit has been somewhat rounded the centre of the upper Chogolungma valley – contrary to (Photo 100 below No. 52; Photo 102 on the right). the actual conditions of the incline – the Haramosh valley Perfect indicators of prehistoric glacigenic flank abrasions upwards from c. 5900 m down to c. 5400 m asl in the area are the triangle-shaped faces, which have been developed of the transfluence at the Haramosh La (Photo 101 ). The from truncated spurs and polished back and abraded fur- level of the Chogolungma parent glacier continued at 5900 m ther in a facette-like-stretched fashion (Photo 113 at from the inflow of the Haramosh valley, following the main on the right below 52; Photo 123 on the right of valley down to the SW (Photo 113 and 123 ). No. 52; Figure 2/1 No. 52). A triangle-shaped face with a In the uppermost chamber of the Chogolungma valley we classic rounding has been preserved at the exit of the First are talking about, high-lying ground moraine deposits are East-Haramosh glacier valley (Photo 102 and 104 black; only preserved in some places: on the orographic left trough Figure 2/1 No. 56). There are also three glacigenically back- flank in the area of the junction of the Moraine glacier, High- polished triangle faces on the orographic left valley flank to Late Glacial (Stage 0 to IV) remnants of ground moraines (Figure 2/1 below No. 70 and 71; Photo 105 second and third (Photo 103 ) occur, the highest one of which is situated at from the left and on the right below No. 71; see in detail 4390 m, 420 m above the current glacier level (Photo 103 in Photo 110 and 111 ). The highest of these indicators white on the right; Figure 2/1 between No. 55 and 70). at the valley head of the Chogolungma valley attain 6200– At the exit of the Sgari Byen Gang Gah further deposits 6400 m. They prove a connection of the ice stream network of ground moraine can be noticed on the large glacigenic with the NW-adjacent Hunza valley glacier over the 5840 m- triangle-shaped face (Photo 107, 109, 111 ; Figure 2/1 high Polan La (Photo 113 with a bent course on the right No. 71). The highest ones attain 4600-4700 m (Photo 107 132 M. Kuhle

Figure 5. Cross-profile (not exaggerated) across the upper Shigar valley from the 5321 m-peak (NNW of the Munbluk) in the WSW as far as the 4380 m-ridge (NNW of the Busper) in the ENE with its minimum glacier ice filling reconstructed for the LGM. Locality: Fig. 2/2; Fig. 2/1 approximately between No. 51 and 47. white), i.e. slope positions which are situated 800 m above (Tab 1), i.e. it was 1 km wider here than at present and the actual Chogolungma glacier level (3840 m asl). In a sim- flowed into the Sgari Byen Gang valley as far as c. 4050 m ilar position the remains of ground moraine covers can be asl (Photo 107 VII–IX). There, the side glacier of this observed at at least 4450 m asl, another c. 2 km down-valley valley flowed towards it (Photo 107 and 106 black) and (Photo 105 white on the left; 111 above; Figure 2/1 has reached its margin for the last time during Stage IX. No. 71). On the next triangle-shaped face down-valley (see Accordingly, the Sgari Byen Gang Gans was a left tributary above), at the exit of the Bolocho Gah, a ground moraine stream of the main glacier until Stage IX. The matrix of cover with erratic granite boulders (Photo 105 and 110 on the orographic left historical lateral moraine (VII–IX; Fig- the right; Figure 2/1 on the right below No. 71), transported ure 2/1 below No. 70 at the bottom) of the Chogolungma here from the Malubiting-Spantik massif, reaches up the glacier concerned, shows a flat, but broad secondary max- Aren Cho SW-flank as far as a height of 4380 m (Figure 38). imum in the clay up to fine silt of c. 10% (Figure 12) and It is diamictic (Figure 9). However, according to Engelhardt the characteristic bimodal course with a main peak (primary (1973: 133; cf. Tucker 1996: 70) the sorting coefficient (So) maximum) in the coarse silt (40%). The overall portion of is 1, which is to be reduced to a good 40% portion of fine c. 50% of clay and silt, for instance, corresponds to that sand. There is a second maximum of 5% in the clay, typical of the Norwegian lateral- and end moraines (cf. Haldorsen of moraines. Thus, the cumulative curve shows the char- 1983: 14). The small quartz-portion of the sample is re- acteristic bimodal course of the cumulative frequency grain markable (Figure 6 No. 6). The minor portion of rounded size curve (Figure 9) (Dreimanis 1939,1979,1982; Dreima- grains among 99% glacially crushed grains (Figure 6 No. 6) nis & Vagners 1971). In addition to the preforming by the diagnosed in the laboratory, proves the glaciofluvial for- coarse matrix of the bedrock, the sand portions reaching over mative influence of the meltwater and the deposition of 80% provide evidence of the short glacigenic distances of moraines far below the snow-line, which has taken place transport as they are usual for mountain ice stream networks here during the earliest historical Stage VII. At that time in the vicinity of ice divides. All SiO2 grains contained are the ELA-depression was only c. 80 m compared with to- glacially crushed, other grains are partly rounded (Figure 6 day (Tab 1). How small-scale the historic lateral moraine sample No. 3). material varies, can be recognized by comparison with the matrix of the orographic left lateral moraine (Photo 106 3.11.1. The orographic left side valleys of the Chogolungma X on the left; Figure 2/1 below No. 70 above), taken 2.8 km valley: the Sgari Byen Gang- and Bolocho valley and their up the Sgari Byen Gang valley. From the previous location maximum prehistoric glaciations with remarks on the to this one, the lime content has decreased by 4%, the hu- reworking of glacigenically triangle-shaped slopes and on mus content by approximately 50% and the granulometric the development of lateral valleys (Figure 37; Figure 2/1 composition with its two peaks has shifted from the clay to No. 70/71; Photo 107) the fine silt, i.e. from the coarse silt to the medium sand (Figure 13). Glaciofluvially rounded grains are completely Owing to its then c. 200–300 greater thickness, the Chogol- lacking (Figure 6 No. 7). On the floor of the Sgari Byen ungma main glacier extended by one km with its oro- Gang valley the older ground moraine is overlain by mate- graphic left marginal area during the historical Stages VII-IX The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 133

Figure 6. Morphometric quartz grain analysis of 30 representative samples from Haramosh Muztagh (Chogolungma-Basna valley), Shigar valley, Skardu basin, Deosai plateau, Malubiting-Spantik group (Barpu glacier, Rash lake), Batura-Campire Dior group (Bar valley) (cf. Figures 7–36). 134 M. Kuhle

Figure 6. Continued. rial, which has been redeposited and mixed up many times. the post-Late Glacial glaciers (Photo 106 and 107 black) This is evidenced by the rounded quartzite boulders, show- and their meltwaters (Photo 106 ) has to be established. ing perfectly preserved striations, and the edged detritus In the Sgari Byen Gang valley these ground moraines (Photo 108). Thus, with regard to the reconstruction of the stretch as far as a slope height of at least 4800 m asl maximum LGM ice infilling of this valley relief, it is futile to (Photo 106 black on the right and white; Figure 2/1 record and discuss the sedimentological details which have No. 71; Figure 37), whilst the glacigenic flank abrasions taken place in the meantime. reach the slope culminations, i.e. the intermediate valley The continuous redeposition of high-lying, i.e. High- to ridges on both valley sides (Photo 106 on the very left and Late Glacial ground moraines on the valley slopes as a result right; 107 on the left and right below No. 70; Figure 2/1 of the Holocene to historic and present-day undercutting of No. 70). This local observation proves an LGM ice level reaching beyond the two intermediate valley ridges, and at The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 135

Figure 7. At 3550 m asl on the orographic left flank of the Chogol- Figure 9. At 3800 m asl (aneroid measurement) ground moraine matrix ungma valley, ground moraine matrix (Photo 119 black on the right) from the orographic left valley flank above the Chogolungma glacier in taken 250 m above the current glacier from a depth of 0.3 m. The su- the junction area with the Bolocho Gah, taken from 0.3 m below surface. perficial moraine layer has been sedimented during Stage IV (Tab. 1). The moraine contains erratic granite boulders and overlies metamorphic The primary maximum is relatively coarse-grained, i.e. it lies with 40% sedimentary bedrock (phyllites). The clay portion, which despite the super- in the fine sand; the secondary maximum with 8% clay determines the ficial sampling was c. 5%, as well as the bimodal course of the cumulative bimodal course of the cumulative curve; sorting coefficient calculated ac- curve confirm the morainic character; sorting coefficient calculated ac- cording to Engelhardt (1973: 133) So = 3.89. Locality: Fig. 2/1 No. 59 cording to Engelhardt 1973: 133 So = 1. Locality: Fig. 2/1 No. 71, ◦   ◦   ◦   ◦   (35 53 10 N/75 13 17 E); see also Fig. 6 No. 1. Sampling: M.Kuhle. 35 57 55 N/75 07 35 E; see also Fig. 6 No. 3. Sampling: M.Kuhle.

Figure 8. From the orographic right flank of the Kilwari Nala (left side val- Figure 10. At 3850 m asl, ground moraine matrix from the orographic ley of the Chogolungma valley) in the area of its inflow into the main valley, left flank of the Chogolungma valley, c. 200 m above the current glacier ground moraine matrix taken from 12 m below surface from the exposure surface up-valley of the locality (yak pasture) Aren Cho (Arinchu) taken wall situated 175 m above the current Chogolungma glacier (Photo 117 from 0.3 m below surface. The moraine matrix contains erratic, facetted black on the right). The moraine is diamictic but slightly stratified; it and rounded quartzite boulders and overlies thinly stratified bedrock schists contains polymict, edged and facetted boulders of partly erratic materi- (Photo 114 in the foreground). The relatively large clay portion of c. 6% – als and overlies the granite bedrock. The primary maximum is relatively though the sample was taken close to the surface –, as well as the bimodal coarse-grained, i.e. it lies in the fine sand (45%); the secondary one is course of the curve with a second peak in the coarse silt are evidence of in the clay (8%). Thus, the bimodal course of the cumulative curve con- the morainic character. Sorting coefficient So = 3.16. Locality: Fig. 2/1 ◦   ◦   firms the morainic character. Sorting coefficient calculated according to between No. 71 and 59, 35 57 10 N/75 08 25 E; see also Fig. 6 No. 4. Engelhardt 1973: 133 So = 3.89. Locality: Fig. 2/1 on the left of No. 59 Sampling: M.Kuhle. ◦   ◦   (35 56 03 N/75 10 50 E, 3650 m asl); see also Fig. 6 No. 2. Sampling: M.Kuhle. content (35.84%) against the Sgari Byen Gang valley indi- cates a local moraine character dependent on the increasing the same time partly confirms the altitude of the ice level occurrence of limestone bedrock. Towards the valley exit, about 6000 m asl (Figure 37) reconstructed here, which has i.e. in the direction of the Chogolungma glacier, the lime been established by the data of adjacent, over 6000 m-high content already decreases significantly (c. 60%) (cf. Fig- field positions (see above). ure 9). As far as 4700 m ground moraine has been preserved In the parallel, orographic left side valley of the Chogol- on the orographic right valley flank ( below centre); ungma glacier, the Bolocho valley, the glaciogemorpho- above, up- and down-valley, as well as on the orographic left logical situation is similar (Figure 37). The current glacier flank, High- to Late Glacial band polishings and -abrasions tongue is heavily buried by scree, i.e. covered with surface of outcropping edges of the strata have been observed ( ; moraine (Photo 112 ), a large portion of which consists Photo 110 , Figure 2/1 on the right below No. 70). In the of redeposited Ice Age ground moraine ( on the left; Fig- upper catchment area and valley head the ‘Bolocho Pinna- ure 2/1 No. 71). The material has been interlaid in neoglacial cles’ (No. 70), undercut and sharpened by the Late Glacial to to historical moraines ( Xand on the right). The ma- postglacial glacier ice, have been totally covered and over- trix of the lateral moraine X of the stage of redeposition flowed by the High Glacial (LGM = Stage 0, Tab 1) ice show Figures 11 and 6 (No. 5): the twice as high lime stream network (Photo 112 0). The same applies to the 136 M. Kuhle

Figure 11. At 4150 m asl (aneroid-measurement) ground- i.e. lateral Figure 13. At 4260 m asl (aneroid-measurement), side valley of the moraine matrix from the historic, orographic left lateral moraine inner slope Chogolungma. Moraine matrix taken from a depth of 0.3 m from the oro- (Stage VII–IX) of the Bolocho glacier, taken from 0.4 m below surface. graphic left, historic lateral moraine of the Sgari Byen Gang Gans (glacier), The moraine contains polymict boulders (Photo 112  white) of sedimen- which has been deposited during the Younger Dhaulagiri Stage (Stage X, tary rock and granite mixed with shard-like debris. Locality: Photo 112 Tab. 1) (Photo 106 X on the left). The lateral moraine is composed of black on the right; sorting coefficient So = 3.16. Fig. 2/1 next to No. 71, autochthonous metamorphic sedimentary rock debris (crystalline schists, ◦   ◦   35 59 10 N/75 09 20 E; see Fig. 6 No. 5. Sampling: M.Kuhle. phyllites) with portions of quartzite and contains quartzite boulders. The relatively hard, coarse grains of this parent rock determine the very coarse matrix with c. 80% sand and a fine grain peak in the silt. Sorting coefficient ◦   ◦   So = 3.16. Locality: Fig. 21 below No. 70 top; 35 59 55 N/75 06 20 E; see Fig. 6 No. 7. Sampling: M.Kuhle.

Figure 12. At 3920 m asl (aneroid-measurement), lateral moraine matrix from the historic orographic left lateral moraine (Stage VII–IX) of the Chogolungma glacier, taken from 0.3 m below surface. The moraine contains erratic granite boulders from the Malubiting- and Spantik massif; it overlies thinly stratified sedimentary bedrocks as e.g. schists. Sorting Figure 14. Moraine matrix taken from 0.3 m below surface from the oro- coefficient So = 2.56. Locality: Photo 107 black on the right; Fig. 2/1 graphic left historic lateral moraine crest of the Chogolungma glacier, ◦   ◦   below No. 70 bottom, 35 59 03 N/75 05 35 E; see Fig. 6 No. 6. which has been deposited during the Younger Dhaulagiri Stage (Stage X, Sampling: M.Kuhle. Tab 1) and still clings to the present-day glacier (Photo 111 X). The skele- ton portion of the lateral moraine is made up from polymict metamorphic debris of sedimentary rock (crystalline schists, phyllites) with metres-sized boulders of granite and quartzite (Photo 109 on the very right). The two valley flank culminations of the Bolocho valley ( relatively hard, large grains of the matrix of this parent rock are the reason centre; Photo 110 ; Photo 107 on the right), so for this coarse matrix with c. 75% sand, the fine portion of which makes up the primary maximum. Sorting coefficient So = 2.21. Locality: 3840 m asl; that here a continuous ice level can be evidenced as far as Photo 105 on the lateral moraine ramp X; Fig. 2/1 between No. 71 and ◦   ◦   somewhat above the Aren Cho (No. 71) (Figure 37). 57; 35 58 48 N/75 05 10 E; see Fig. 6 No. 8. Sampling: M.Kuhle. In a similar way as the flanks of the two side valleys un- der discussion have been reworked and roughened by crum- blings with rill-development (Photo 106 and 112 above ), triangle-shaped face (Photo 109). The chronological- ge- the large, glacigenically triangle-shaped face (Photo 105, omorphological sequence was as follows: 1. upthrust and 3 ), situated in the Chogolungma main valley between deposition of the orographic left lateral moraine of the the two side valley inflows, has also undergone a roughen- Chogolungma glacier at an ELA-depression of 30–40 m ing (Photo 111 , ). Because the observations described compared with today during the younger Dhaulagiri Stage immediately make clear, that the LGM-ice-level has con- X( on the very right; Photo 105 and 111 X); 2. siderably towered above the 5310 m-high ridge (Photo 111 glaciolimnical accumulation of the sediments in a lateral ; Figure 37), the development of the wall gorges and the lake (Photo 109 ); 3. discharge of the lake and dissection furrowing during the last 20 Ka must have taken place syn- of the lake sediments; 4. build-up of a lateral sander (out- genetically with the thawing-out of the ice stream network. wash), i.e. a gravel floor as a lateral valley gravel bottom   ♦ The youngest denudation processes of this sort occurred ( ); 5. mudflow- ( ) and avalanche cones ( ), adjusted to by means of rock-falls and the discharge of mudflows and them, are coming down from the wall gorges ( ) every year. avalanches into the historic lateral valley at the foot of the Accordingly, this 5-phase development has taken place in The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 137

Figure 15. Moraine matrix taken from a depth of 0.3 m from the orographic Figure 17. Ground moraine matrix taken from a depth of 2.1 m from the left historical lateral moraine crest of the Chogolungma glacier, which was orographic right flank of the Chogolungma glacier valley, i.e. Basna valley, deposited during the Younger Dhaulagiri Stage (Stage X, Tab 1) and still 900 m above the current surface of the Chogolungma glacier (Photo 126 clings to the present-day glacier (Photo 114 X). The skeleton portion of below from the right; Photo 124 on the right below); the skeleton portion the lateral moraine is composed of polymict metamorphic debris of sedi- of the moraine is built-up from polymict rock debris (crystalline schist, mentary rock (crystalline schists, phyllites) with metres-sized boulders of phyllite) with metres-sized local boulders of quartzite and erratic sedimen- quartzite and granite. The relatively hard, large matrix grains of this parent tary rock. The matrix grains consist of a 75% sand portion; the portion of rock are cause of this coarse matrix with c. 80% sand, the medium sand medium sand shows a clear primary maximum. It is coarse-grained (lean) portion of which forms an only little prominent primary maximum. The moraine, transported over a relatively short distance, i.e. local moraine. Ev- sorting coefficient So = 3.16 points to a relatively diamictic matrix. Lo- idence of this is also provided by the comparatively low lime content. The cality: Photo 114 on the lateral moraine ramp next to X; Fig. 2/1 between sorting coefficient So = 2.21 stands for a relatively homogeneous matrix. ◦   ◦   No. 59 and 56 (35 56 50 N/75 08 45 E; 3690 m asl); see Fig. 6 No. 9. A secondary maximum of 10% in the clay causes the typical distribution of Sampling: M.Kuhle. the grain sizes with two peaks. Altogether the admixture of residual detritus becomes recognizable. Locality: Fig. 40, Fig. 2/1 above No. 60; above the ◦   ◦   Guma pasture at 35 51 01 N/75 18 20 E; 3800 m asl; see Fig. 6 No. 11. Sampling: M.Kuhle.

Figure 16. Ground moraine matrix taken from 1.2 m below surface from the orographic right flank of the Chogolungma glacier valley, i.e. Basna valley, 730 m above the present-day surface of the Chogolungma glacier (Photo 126 first white from the right). The skeleton portion of the moraine Figure 18. Late Glacial ground moraine matrix of the Sirkung Stage (IV) is composed of polymict rock debris (crystalline schists, phyllites) with taken from a depth of 0.2 m from the orographic right flank of the Basna metres-sized boulders of quartzite, erratic granite and sedimentary rock. valley, c. 600 m above the talweg of this main valley (sampling at the 60% of the matrix grains consist of sand; the fine sand portion makes location depicted in Photo 136). The skeleton portion of the moraine con- up a primary maximum which is only little prominent. The sorting co- tains metres-sized erratic granite boulders, superimposed upon sedimentary efficient So = 3.89 indicates a relatively diamictic matrix. A secondary bedrock. The bimodal cumulative curve runs very flat, i.e. a compact pri- maximum lies in the clay (14%) and determines the bimodal grain size mary maximum reaches from the medium sand (22%) via the fine sand distribution. Locality: Fig. 2/1 above No. 60, near the pasture of Guma (21%) as far as the coarse silt (20%); the clay peak reaches 13%. Corre- ◦   ◦   at 35 51 05 N/75 18 30 E, 3630 m asl; see Fig. 6 No. 10. Sampling spondingly, the sorting coefficient So = 5.63 indicates a dispersed matrix. M.Kuhle. Locality: Fig. 42, Fig. 2/1 on the right of No. 60, above the settlement of ◦   ◦   Tisa Birri at 35 47 20 N/ 75 22 55 E, 3230 m asl; see Fig. 6 No. 12. Sampling: M.Kuhle. the course of c. 230 years (Tab. 1). There might have been earlier reshapings of this lateral valley – at present no longer verifiable –, but its very first build-up cannot be older than especially√ interesting (Figure 14). The sorting coefficient = neoglacial, probably Stage ’VII (middle Dhaulagiri Stage c. (So= Q3/Q1: Q1 grain sizes at the quartile of the grain = 2000 YBP). Before, the ELA-depression was over 150 m size cumulative curve at 25%; Q3 grain sizes of the quar- and the Chogolungma glacier was unable to develop a lateral tile at 75%) is namely only 2.21 and – without considering moraine here. the bimodal course of the cumulative curve at a secondary The lateral moraine of Stage X (Photo 109 on the maximum with 5% clay – does not apply to the diamictic right; Photo 111 X) clings to the current Chogolungma character of a matrix typical of moraines. This is an example glacier and, correspondingly, is doubtless of glacigenic ori- for the fact that there must be quoted always more than only gin. In this connection the characteristics of its matrix are one criterion. Thus, the morphometric analysis (Figure 6 No. 8) with 100% very sharply-edged crushed SiO2-grains, 138 M. Kuhle

Figure 19. Matrix of Late Glacial ground moraine of the Sirkung Stage Figure 21. Late Glacial (Stage IV) ground moraine matrix the surface of (IV) which has been redeposited downslopes several times, taken from an which has been slightly glaciofluvially washed, taken from a depth of 0.5 m. exposure 3.0 m below the slope surface from the orographic right flank It is situated at the lower end of the Shigar valley in the region of the of the Basna valley, c. 30 m above the current gravel floor of this main Strongdokmo La, a confluence saddle lying 110 m above the valley (Photo 138 ); the skeleton portion of the moraine contains polymict between the left Shigar valley flank and the Indus valley (Skardu Basin) boulders, among them metres-sized erratic granite boulders, so that the (Photo 144 ). The skeleton portion of the moraine contains polymict long-distance transport of the matrix down-valley is also documented. The boulders, among them erratic granite boulders up to metres in size. This arrangement of the columnar diagram is bimodal and the cumulative curve provides evidence of the down-valley long-distance transport of the matrix. relatively steep; this is caused by a prominent primary maximum in the The arrangement of the columnar diagram is bimodal, the cumulative curve coarse silt (38%). In the comparatively minor secondary clay maximum is relatively steep, caused by a very prominent primary maximum in the (8–9%) the secondary denudative redeposition down-slope is objectivized; coarse silt (38%) to fine sand (44%). In the comparatively minor secondary this is also indicated by the low sorting coefficient So = 1.78. Local- clay maximum (8%) the slight secondary redeposition is objectivized. Sort- ity: Fig. 43; Fig. 2/1 above No. 51; E of the settlement of Chutran at ing coefficient So = 2.19. Locality: Fig. 2/1 on the left of No. 73 (2310 m ◦   ◦   ◦   ◦  35 41 30 N/75 25 40 E, 2410 m asl; see Fig. 6 No. 13. Sampling: asl; 35 21 20 N/75 45 E), see Fig. 6 No. 15. Sampling: M.Kuhle. M.Kuhle.

Figure 22. Late Glacial (Stage IV) end moraine matrix in the middle Sat- Figure 20. Matrix from rock avalanche material 65 m above the Shigar river pare Lungma (Photo 159 IV) taken from 0.5 m below the surface. on the orographic left valley side, taken from an exposure wall 2.3 m below The skeleton portion of the decametres-thick accumulation contains granite the slope surface (Photo 141 on the left below No. 50). The skeleton portion boulders some metres in size. Due to the thickness of the sediment the of the rock avalanche contains metres-sized, edged boulders, which Hewitt genesis of the matrix as a result of in situ weathering of the bedrock can be (1999, after Zanettin 1964) describes as tonalites (metamorphic clay rocks). ruled out, i.e. horizontal transport has taken place. The arrangement of the This provides evidence of a cross-valley transport from the orographic right columnar diagram is even trimodal. This depends on a prominent secondary valley flank. The arrangement of the columnar diagram is bimodal because maximum in the coarse silt (c. 20%) between a primary maximum in the of the substantial clay portion of that source rock. The primary maximum coarse sand (c. 30%, deriving from the granite grit) and a tertiary in the lies in the medium sand (a good 27%), which could also apply to lateral clay (just 10%); correspondingly important is the sorting coefficient So = = ◦   ◦   moraines; the sorting coefficient So 3.16 is also reminiscent of moraine. 5.62. Locality: Fig. 2/1 half-left below No. 77 (35 08 45 N/75 37 01 E; Locality: Fig. 2/1 between No. 51 and 147; WSW of the Mungo settlement ◦   ◦   3210 m asl), see Fig. 6 No. 16. Sampling: M.Kuhle. at 35 38 30 N/75 32 40 E; 2400 m asl; see Fig. 6 No. 14. Sampling: M.Kuhle. ice stream network (Figure 2/1 No. 52-55) has had a max- undoubtedly proves the glacigenic origin, too. The clear sim- imum ice level at 6400–6200 m asl (Photo 113 and 123 ilarity of all sedimentological characteristics of this moraine right quarter). This ice level has communicated over still clinging to the ice, with the ground masses taken in northern, western and southern transfluence passes with the the Bolocho valley (Figure 11 and 6 No. 5; Figure 9 and 6 ice stream networks of the adjacent main valleys: the No. 3) and Sgari Byen Gang valley (Figure 12 and 6 No. 6; valley, the Hunza valley and the Indus valley. As far as the Figure 13 and 6 Nr.7) give further proof of its morainic Bolocho side valley and the Second East Haramosh glacier character. valley (Figure 2/1 No. 56, 57, 70, 71), the verifiable level The observations from the uppermost Basna- i.e. Chogol- of the LGM- glacier height decreased to c. 5900–5700 m ungma valley are to be summarized as follows: In the area asl (Figure 37,38; Photo 123 centre). Here, maximum of the valley head the LGM-glaciation (Stage 0) of the type The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 139

Figure 23. Ground moraine matrix on the central Deosai plateau (on the Figure 25. Moraine matrix from the neoglacial to historical (c. Stage V to slope foot in the area depicted in Photo 162, left margin in the background) IX, Tab. 1) orographic right lateral moraine of the present-day Chukutan- or taken from 0.4 m below surface. The skeleton portion of the decame- Munrabu hanging glacier on the orographic right above the Barpu glacier, tres-thick accumulation contains polymict boulders up to 0.6 m in length, on the N-side of the Malubiting-massif above the Chukutan pasture, taken so that a genesis of the matrix resulting from weathering of the bedrock in from 0.5 m below the surface. The skeleton portion of this decametres- situ can be ruled out, i.e. horizontal transport has taken place. The clay- to more than 100 m-thick moraine body contains large, to very large, i.e. and silt-portions (c. 40%) exclude fluvial transport. The arrangement of the several metres-long, edged to round-edged boulders. The portions of clay columnar diagram is bimodal, indicated by a primary maximum in the fine and silt amount to c. 45% and exclude a fluvial transport. The arrangement sand (c. 33%) and a prominent secondary one in the clay (c. 16%). Consid- of the columnar diagram is bimodal, indicated by a primary maximum in ering a moraine, the sorting coefficient So = 4.15 lies in a middle position. the fine sand (c. 39%) and a secondary in the clay (13%). The sorting coef- ◦  ◦  Locality: Fig. 2/1 between No. 83 and 84 (35 04’20 N/75 29’30 E; ficient, calculated after Engelhardt 1973: 133, is low (So = 2.19) according 4000 m asl), see Fig. 6 No. 17. Sampling: M.Kuhle. to a certain sorting by meltwater. The quartz-grain forms, however, reflect only the purely glacial genesis (cf. Fig. 6 No. 19). Locality: Fig. 2/1 below ◦  ◦  No. 93 on the right (36 09’30 N/74 54’20 E, 4050 m asl). Sampling: M.Kuhle.

Figure 24. Ground moraine matrix on the western margin of the Deosai plateau c. 10 m above the Scheosar Tso (lake) taken from the slope at the back of the viewpoint of Photo 167 from 0.5 m below surface. The skeleton portion of the c. 2 m-thick accumulation contains polymict boulders up Figure 26. Fine material matrix from a neoglacial to historical (c. Stage to 0.4 m in length. Among them are gneiss- and granite boulders which, V to IX, Tab. 1) orographic right sediment mixture of ground- and lateral also with regard to their round-edged to rounded forms, cannot be confused moraine up to kame-like bank form of the current middle Barpu glacier, with slope debris weathered in situ; secondary solifluidal debris-shifting immediately WNW of the Spantik near the pasture-locality of Malenschi, down-slope seems probable. The clay- and silt portions amount to c. 95% taken from a depth of 0.7 m. The portions of silt and clay amount to c. so that fluvial transport has to be ruled out. The arrangement of the colum- 40% and exclude fluvial transport; solifluidal transport is possible. The nar diagram is bimodal; this is shown by the primary maximum in the arrangement of the columnar diagram is trimodal. This is due to a primary medium silt (c. 35%) and a very marked secondary maximum in the clay maximum in the fine sand (c. 24%), a secondary in the coarse sand (c. (29%). The sorting coefficient So = 2.33 is low, even for a heavily triturated 20%) and a tertiary in the clay (c. 6.5%). The sorting coefficient So = ground moraine; the rest of the parameters argues for a glacial genesis (cf. 3.6, calculated after Engelhardt 1973: 133, is in the middle position; the ◦  ◦  quartz-grain forms indicate a purely glacial genesis (cf. Figure 6 No. 20). Fig. 6 No. 18). Locality: Fig. 2/1 above No. 82 (34 59’58 N/75 14’22 E; ◦  ◦   4180 m asl). Sampling: M.Kuhle. Locality: Fig. 2/1 on the left of No. 54 (36 06 N/74 54 35 E; 4200 m asl). Sampling: M.Kuhle. local ice thicknesses about 2600 m have been attained in the middle of the main valley (Figure 38). 4000 m (Photo 105 below No. 59 on the right of ). Kick (1956, 1964) has already described these layered depositions 3.11.2. Continuation of the reconstruction of the maximum as young, fluvial sediments. However, he has not considered Ice Age valley filling with glacier ice in the area of the them to be glaciofluvial, i.e. glacigenic embankments, ad- present-day Chogolungma glacier justed to a prehistoric glacier margin. They are relatively young and belong at most to the late Late Glacial (Stage In the valley chamber connected down the main valley, the IV), probably to the Holocene Neoglacial (Nauri Stage V, cross- profile of which is depicted in Figure 39, kame ac- Tab 1). Nevertheless, High- to Late Glacial (Stage 0-III) cumulations of dislocated LGM-ground moraine have been ground moraine, parts of which have been displaced down- preserved on the orographic left side between c. 3750 and 140 M. Kuhle

Figure 27. Matrix of earth pyramids from a metres- to decametres- thick Figure 29. Matrix from an LGM- to Late Glacial (c. Stage 0 to III, cf. Late Glacial to neoglacial (c. Stage IV to V, cf. Tab 1) ground moraine cover Tab. 1) ground moraine which is only metres-thick, c. 1500 m above the on the orographic right of the current lower Barpu glacier beyond the lateral current Barpu glacier surface on the orographic right flank of the Barpu valley SW of the Gutena pasture and the mountain ridge, which separates valley WNW of the Rash Phari (5058 m), taken from 20 cm below the the Hispar- and the Barpu valley, taken from an exposure wall on the base of surface. The clay- and silt portions amount to only c. 33%, the sand portion the ground moraine, 3 m above the bedrock in the underlying stratum. The reaches c. 67%. This is due to the substantial portions of local moraine portions of clay and silt amount to c. 34%; they exclude fluvial transport. from the granite bedrock in the underlying stratum. Solifluidal dislocation Solifluidal transport is also impossible. Due to a primary maximum in the is probable. The arrangement of the columnar diagram is bimodal, deriving fine sand (c. 25%) and a secondary in the clay (c.12.5%), the arrangement from a primary maximum in the medium sand (c. 31%) and a secondary in of the columnar diagram is bimodal. The sorting coefficient (So = 8.78), the clay (c. 8%). The sorting coefficient So = 3.16, calculated according calculated after Engelhardt 1973: 133, is very large; the quartz-grain forms, to Engelhardt 1973: 133, is usual as to a local moraine in homogeneous too, provide evidence of a purely glacial genesis, though 3.26% of the granite. The forms of the crushed quartz-grains provide evidence of a frost quartz-grains are fluvially reshaped (cf. Fig. 6 No. 21). Locality: Fig. 2/1 weathering- or glacial-, i.e. mixed genesis (cf. Fig. 6 No. 23). Locality: ◦   ◦  ◦   ◦  below No. 93 on the left (36 11 10 N/74 52 E; 3200 m asl). Sampling Fig. 2/1 on the left above No. 54 (36 00 50 N/74 53 E; 4775 m asl). M. Kuhle. Sampling: M.Kuhle.

Figure 28. Matrix from an LGM- to Late Glacial (c. Stage 0 to II, cf. Tab 1) Figure 30. Matrix from a Late Glacial (c. III or IV, cf. Tab. 1) decame- ground moraine which is only metres-thick, c. 1900 m above the valley tres-thick lateral moraine ledge on the orographic left, in which the Gutena ground on the orographic left flank of the Hispar valley, SE of the Gutena or Gutens pasture is situated, c. 1400 m above the talweg of the Hispar pasture, taken from 15 cm below the surface. The clay- and silt portions valley; taken from an exposure, 5 m below the surface. The clay- and amount to c. 70% and exclude fluvial transport; solifluidal dislocation, silt portions amount to c. 54%, so that fluvial transport can be ruled out. however, is possible. The arrangement of the columnar diagram is bimodal, The sand portion reaches c. 46%. This is due to the portions of local caused by a primary maximum in the coarse silt (c. 36%) and a secondary in moraine from the granite bedrock; solifluidal dislocation is improbable. The the clay (c. 10%). The sorting coefficient So = 2.78, calculated after Engel- arrangement of the columnar diagram is bimodal, deriving from a primary hardt 1973: 133, is rather low. This is due to the homogeneous parent rock. maximum in the coarse silt (c.27%) and a secondary in the clay (c.8%). The The quartz-grain forms prove a purely glacigenic genesis (cf. Fig. 6 No. 22). = ◦   ◦   sorting coefficient So 3.16 has been calculated after Engelhardt 1973: Locality: Fig. 2/1 half-right below No. 93 (36 11 35 N/74 52 40 E, 133. It can be explained by the trituration which a far-travelled moraine 4500 m asl). Sampling: M.Kuhle. undergoes during a decakilometres-long transport. The quartz- grain forms testify to a glacial genesis; however, 3.45% are fluvially rounded, pro- viding evidence of the work of meltwater and a position below the level of the ELA (cf. Fig. 6 No. 24). Locality: Fig. 2/1 half-left below No. 93 slope, has been preserved in the form of extended remnants ◦  ◦   above and at the margins (Photo 114 ). They reach up to (36 12 N/74 52 10 E; 3900 m asl). Sampling: M.Kuhle. an altitude of 4300 m (Figure 2/1 between No. 71 and 59). The matrix (Figure 10) shows a high portion of sand of c. laboratory analyses are also representative of the orographic 45%, a primary maximum (30%) in the coarse silt and a left ground moraine covers on the valley slopes in the area weak secondary maximum in the clay. All this is typical of a and down-valley of the pasture of Arencho (Photo 114, the not far-travelled, and thus little triturated ground moraine as three below No. 59; 116 on the left and in the middle; it can solely be taken in consideration for an ice stream net- 118 on the very left; Figure 39). They attain c. 4400 m asl work close to a valley head. The quartz grains are completely and are underlain by granite bedrock which shows glacigenic glacially crushed (Figure 6 No. 4, diagram 18.7.2000/2). The flank abrasion with glacier striae and -polishings (Photo 116 The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 141

Figure 31. Matrix of a debris flow fan, which has been accumulated up to Figure 33. Debris matrix from a slope-furrow with a 50 m-wide floor con- a thickness of over 100 m from a Late Glacial (c. IV, cf. Tab. 1), orographic taining Late Glacial portions of ground moraine (Stage III–IV, cf. Tab. 1) ◦ right, c. 500 m-high mantling of ground moraine (reaching up to 2700 m from the orographic right, 35 -steep valley flank slope of the upper Bar asl) in the Bar Nala, in the confluence area of the Daintar Nala, after the Nala, 600 m above the current surface of the Kukuar glacier (Kampire Dior deglaciation; the sampling has been taken from a depth of 20 cm. The group, S-side), c. 1 km S of the inflow of the Sat Maro glacier; taken from portions of clay and silt amount to c. 55%, so that fluvial transport can 40 cm below the surface. The portions of clay and silt amount to only c. be ruled out. The sand portion reaches c. 45%. This is due to the replace- 27%; solifluidal dislocation of the material is probable. The arrangement of ment of local moraine portions from the outcropping phyllites and gneisses. the columnar diagram is monomodal, which is atypical of moraine: there Solifluidal dislocation has to be ruled out at this insignificant sea-level. The is only one maximum (in the medium sand with c. 30%). The sorting co- arrangement of the columnar diagram is trimodal, deriving from a primary efficient So = 3.16, calculated after Engelhardt 1973: 133, is typical of maximum in the medium silt (c. 19%), a very weak secondary in the coarse moraine, as is also the large portion of sharply-edged crushed quartz-grains sand (16%) and a tertiary in the clay (c.10%). The sorting coefficient So = (98.6%). However, frost weathering on the bedrock may have played a part. 5.66 has been calculated after Engelhardt 1973: 133. As for a debris flow Typical of the participation of fluvial transport on the slope is the 1.4% por- fan, it is as normal as for a moraine. Due to the debris flow transport, 100% tion of rounded quartz-grains (5 out of 355 analysed examples) (cf. Fig. 6 ◦   ◦   of the sharply-crushed, glacigenic quartz-grain forms have been preserved No. 27). Cf. Fig. 32. Locality: Fig. 2 No. 95 (36 28 20 N/74 13 50 E, ◦   ◦   (cf. Fig. 6 No. 25). Locality: Fig. 2 No. 94 (36 20 50 N/74 16 30 E; 3600 m asl). Sampling: M.Kuhle. 2190 m asl). Sampling: M.Kuhle.

Figure 34. Ground- and lateral moraine matrix of the Late Glacial glacier Figure 32. Matrix of the youngest Late Glacial (Stage IV, cf. Tab. 1) oro- filling of the Bar Nala (Stage I-III, cf. Tab. 1) in the area of the decametres-, graphic right lateral moraine of the Kukuar glacier (Kampire Dior group, probably over 100 m-thick, inset of the medial moraine of Toltar, at the S-side), c. 280 m above the current glacier surface, taken from the inner confluence of the then Baltar- and Kukuar glacier components, 1200 m slope from a depth of 30 cm, decametres away from the bedrock. The above the valley bottom of the Nar Nala (Kampire Dior group, S-side). portions of clay and silt amount to c. 51%; fluvial transport has to be ruled Taken from an earth-pyramid wall, decametres away from the bedrock. The out; an insignificant solifluidal dislocation of the material is possible. Typ- portions of clay and silt amount to only c. 10%; a 90% portion is sandy. As ical of moraines, the arrangement of the columnar diagram is bimodal: an it occurs in the lateral valleys of the glaciers, fluvial transport is probable. extended primary maximum in the coarse silt to fine sand (together 53%), The arrangement of the columnar diagram is bimodal and thus typical of a secondary in the clay (c. 11%). The sorting coefficient So = 3.16, calcu- moraines: a primary maximum in the coarse sand (c.54%) and a secondary lated after Engelhardt 1973: 133, is inconspicuous; typical of moraine are in the clay (c.5%). The sorting coefficient So = 2.02, calculated after Engel- the 100% sharply-crushed quartz-grain forms (cf. Fig. 6 No. 26). Locality: hardt 1973: 133, evidences a glaciofluvial washing. There are also fluvially ◦   ◦  Fig. 2 No. 95 (36 28 50 N/74 14 E, 3250 m asl). Cf. Fig. 33. Sampling: rounded SiO2-grains (2%); typical of moraine are the 98% sharply-edged crushed quartz-grains (cf.Fig. 6 No. 28). Cf.Fig. 35. Locality: Fig. 2 No. 95 M.Kuhle. ◦  ◦   (36 29 N/74 18 20 E, 3940 m asl). Sampling: M.Kuhle.

). These polishings and glacigenic abrasions reach as far as beyond the 5178 m-Peak (Photo 114, 116 on the left; limit is at an altitude of 5600 m and marks the prehistoric Figure 2/1 left of No. 59). On the orographic right valley glacier level (Photo 113 below No. 58; Photo 114, 118 flank of this cross-profile flat, small-scale ground moraine below No. 58 and 61 and on the very left). Including remnants are preserved on schist bedrock up to c. 4350 m the interpolated ice thickness of c. 500 m of the here 2.3 km asl (Figure 39; Figure 2/1 on the right above No. 58). The wide, present-day Chogolungma glacier, the LGM-parent flank abrasions reach as far as beyond the current glaciation glacier had a thickness of 2600 m (Figure 39) on this cross- margins (Photo 114 below No. 58 and 61). Their upper profile. With regard to a glacigenic undercutting of the flanks 142 M. Kuhle

Figure 35. Ground- and lateral moraine matrix at the same locality as in Figure 36. Matrix of the recent orographic right lateral moraine (historical Fig. 34, but 40 m lower, on the moraine slope of the Late Glacial glacier Stage XI–XII, cf. Tab. 1) of the Aldar Kush glacier in the orographic right filling of the Bar Nala (Stage I–III, cf. Tab. 1), dispersed by rills into earth side-valley of the Bar Nala, SW of the Kutu pasture, 10 m above the glacier pyramids. Here, the portions of clay and silt are much more important; they surface (Kampire Dior group, S-side). Taken from the lateral moraine ridge, amount to 52%. 48% of the portions are sandy; coarse- and medium sand from decametres to over 100 m above the bedrock. Despite a transport together come to only 10%. Fluvial transport, as it occurs in lateral valleys distance of a few km at maximum, the portions of clay and silt amount of the glacier, is verifiable. Obviously the sample originates from the core of to c. 48%. This is due to the silt-portion of the bedrock in the catchment the lateral moraine. The arrangement of the columnar diagram is bimodal, area. 52% of the portions are mixed-sandy; fluvial transport can be ruled as is typical of moraines: primary maximum in the fine sand (c.38%), a out. The arrangement of the columnar diagram is bimodal, as is typical of secondary in the clay (c. 7%). The sorting coefficient So = 2.42 evidences moraines: an extended primary maximum in the coarse silt to coarse sand a removal of the pelites by the drainage-water of the melting ice, typical of (together c. 50%), a secondary in the clay (c. 5%). The sorting coefficient ablation moraines. Rounded quartz-grains are lacking. Typical of moraine So = 2.92 evidences a removal of the pelites by the drainage-water of the are the 100% quartz-grains, which are crushed sharply-edged (cf. Fig. 6 melting ice, which is typical of ablation moraines. There are 4 (out of ◦  ◦   No. 29). Locality: Fig. 2 No. 95 (36 29 N/74 18 20 E, 3900 m asl). Cf. 609 analysed) fluvial rounded quartz-grains (0.66%), out of which 99.34% Fig. 34. Sampling M.Kuhle. are crushed sharply-edged. (Cf. Fig. 6 No. 30). Locality: Fig. 2 No. 95 ◦   ◦  (36 25 30 N/74 18 E, 3650 m asl). Sampling: M.Kuhle. due to this ice level and a resulting sharpening of the sum- mits, the Laila Peak, the Haramosh and the 6005 m-Peak are termediate valley ridge, polished down by the prehistoric to be considered as glacial horns (Figure 2/1 No. 53, 55, 59; ice stream network in a glaciogeomorphologically classic Photos 101, 102, 114, 115, 123). With its altitude of 5571 m, way ( black, large); it shows a ground moraine overlay the Aren Cho has pierced the ice level only during the Late ( white; Photo 118 second from the left). Thus, the Glacial (from Stages I or II on; Tab 1) and towered above mountain spur has been glacigenically abraded and polished the ice stream network. Owing to this, only since that time into a triangle-shaped face, which has in part already been has it been sharpened by glacigenic side abrasion (Figure 2/1 worn down again postglacially by the neoglacial to his- No. 71, Photo 110, Figure 37, 38). toric glacigenic underpolishing (Photo 116 on both sides Near the pasture of Arencho the sub-recent lateral of black). In this respect the comparison of this older moraine ramp (Stage X), in connection with a small break- triangle-shaped face with a younger one in the Kilwari Nala, through of a tributary glacier tongue (Photo 114 ), has currently undercut by the confluence of the two glacier been newly buried and straightened by the younger, equally branches of the Kilwari Nala, is interesting (Photo 117 on high ice margin, i.e. the left lateral moraine has been freshly the very left; Figure 2/1 on the left above and below No. 59). remoulded during the short advance in the 20th century The latter one is younger, but has been roughened and re- (Photo 114 X). worked much more heavily by undercutting and obsequent The sample of the matrix of its outer slope is relatively rill rinsing as well as frost weathering in the outcropping poor in clay (>5%) but rich in sand (approximately 80%). edges of the strata of the sedimentary bedrock series. This confirms the minor glacigenic trituration of the matrix At the exit of the Kilwara Nala, i.e. the orographic left during the prehistorically much thicker glaciation of this val- flank of the Chogolungma valley, samples have been taken ley cross- profile (Figure 15). Correspondingly important is from a c. 40 m-thick ground moraine complex (Photo 117 the sorting coefficient (So) (Figure 15), i.e. the diamictic black; Figure 8). The sorting coefficient (So) 3.89 shows character of the matrix. 100% of the quartz grains, how- the diamictic character as far as into the ground mass. Not ever, are glacially crushed (Figure 6 No. 9). The grains only the morphoscopic analysis (Figure 6 No. 2), but also of other materials are partly rounded, which reflects the the transport over an average distance of 30–40 km at a very glaciofluvial influence 1100 m below the recent ELA. In important thickness of the valley glacier, already causes a addition to the numerous deposits of ground moraine on trituration which is so strong that the growth in matrix has the orographic left, mapped and marked in detail between clearly increased compared with the moraines investigated the pasture of Arencho and the 6005 m-Peak (Photo 114 near the valley head, so that its total portion predominates below No. 59; Photo 116, 118 on the very left), partic- (cf. Ehlers 1994: 43). As to mountain glaciers, naturally the ular attention ought to be focused on the polished W-spur continuous intake of new material is so important that the of the 6005 m-Peak (Photo 116 black). Here, the Kilwari minor portions of pebbles of only 10% (cf. Nielsen, 1983: Nala joins (Photo 117 black), so that there exists an in- 194), as they are typical of far-travelled moraines of inland The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 143

Figure 37. Cross-profile (not exaggerated) across the middle Sgari Byen Gang valley from the 5365 m-mountain ridge in the WNW via the 5310 m-mountain ridge and across the middle Bolocho valley as far as the Aren Cho summit in the ESE with the mini- mum glacier ice filling of this relief reconstructed for the LGM. Locality: Fig. 2/2; Fig. 2/1 approximately between No. 70 and 71.

Figure 38. Cross-profile (not exaggerated) across the upper Basna valley with the middle Chogolungma glacier from the 6253 m-peak in the WSW on the N-ridge of the Haramosh II towards ENE as far as the Aren Cho on the orographic left valley side with the minimum glacier ice filling of this main valley reconstructed for the LGM. Locality: Fig. 2/2; Fig. 2/1 between No. 71 and 56. ices, could not have been realised in the LGM-Karakorum remain in a better shape than that of the lower slopes (be- ice stream network. low the two black on the left), which are already heavily The shape of the Ice Age slopes becomes not only decomposed. The base under these ground moraine covers blurred by the undercutting of glacigenic flank forms on the slopes are the glacigenically triangle-shaped faces of through current glacier margins, but also by a wealth of backward-abraded rock ribs (Figure 2/1 No. 59). In places, annual morphodynamics in the lateral valleys. The oro- the abraded rock has already been denuded from its moraine graphic left lateral valley near the locality of Khurumal overlay, but is still unweathered and rounded (next to be- (Photo 118), where mudflow cones from ground moraine, low No. 59 and on the left of No. 60). The occurrence of dislocated down-slopes ( on the left of No. 60), have ground moraines and well-preserved flank abrasions indicate dammed up lateral moraine lakes ( ) and gravel floors a Late Glacial ice level (Stages I to III, cf. Tab 1) about from lateral creeks (lateral sanders) () etc. is exemplary. 5000 m asl ( white), whilst clearly roughened older Due to the fact that the backward erosion has not yet reached abrasions testify an LGM ice level (Stage 0) between 5500 them, the older ground moraine covers of the upper slopes and 5700 m ( black; Photo 116 between No. 59 144 M. Kuhle

Figure 39. Cross-profile (not exaggerated) across the upper Basna valley with the middle Chogolungma glacier from the Karaltang Kun in the SSW on the Haramosh II N-ridge towards the NNE as far as the 5178 m-peak on the orographic left valley side with the minimum glacier ice filling of this main valley reconstructed for the LGM. Locality: Fig. 2/2; Fig. 2/1 approximately between No. 58 and 59. and 60). Modified by the metamorphic sedimentary bedrock led to large-scale, slow moraine slides. The down-thrown there, the orographic right flank shows the same indicators fault is so fresh, that a still active slide has to be suggested of ice levels, i.e. remnants of ground moraines and abrasion (Photo 120 ). Apart from a great number of further moraine forms. They provide evidence of a maximum level at the indicators, the portions of quartz grains, out of which 100% same altitude as on the left valley side (Photo 118 below are glacially crushed (Figure 6 No. 1) without indications of No. 60–58; Photo 121 ). Old lateral moraine ledges, be- frost weathering in situ, undoubtedly preclude a glaciofluvial longing to the four Late Glacial glacier positions and levels, terrace-genesis. The convex course of the frequency grain are lacking, because these levels ran above the correspond- size curve in the sand above and towards the right (Figure 7), ing ELA so that no lateral moraine ledges could develop. which might be glaciofluvial, can be observed, too, in con- However, 5 km down-valley of the locality of Khurumal, nection with coarse primary moraine maxima. In this special ground moraine accumulations have been preserved, which, case it has been explained by Schreiner (1992: 144) as due due to their decametres-thickness, show first characteristics to the substantial portions of sand in the source rock. of lateral moraine remnants of the youngest Late Glacial A large orographic right, i.e. southern, side valley is Stage, the Sirkung Stage (IV) (Photo 119). Obviously the the Niamur Nala with the Niamur Gans, a dendritic valley glacier surface on the glacier cross-profile concerned was glacier, which no longer reaches the Chogolungma parent already near the ELA, which had a depression of c. 700 m glacier. This valley is a classic glacigenic trough (Photo 121 as against today (cf. Tab 1). For this reason, the re-feeding ; Figure 2/1 left of No. 60), the basal 600 m of which and filling-up of ground moraine mass from the glacier mar- are mantled by thick ground moraine ( on the very left). gins is already more important than is the case far above the Its glacigenic flank abrasions ( on the very left) have at- ELA. The cupola-shaped accumulations are situated c. 200– tained a good 5000 m asl. Upwards, they are more and 300 m above the current glacier and contain large, rounded, more covered by the present-day glaciation. Further down erratic boulders (; Figure 2/1 No. 59). The increase of the Chogolungma valley, the Sencho Nala joins from the sand portions (>60%, Figure 7) compared with the ground right (S) (Photo 122). This is a steep hanging valley lead- moraine 6 km up the main valley (<60%, Figure 8) proves ing down to the NNW from the Berginsho Church (No. 60), the progressive intake of fresh debris by the glacier. Owing which in its upper half is still glaciated ( top). It under- to this, the trituration, which down-valley increases with the cuts the High- to Late Glacial glacigenic polish bands of the distance of transport, has been over-compensated by fresh main valley with their metres- to decametres-thick ground debris falling into the marginal cleft, and it opens only in moraine overlays (). The LGM-glacier level ran about the proximity of the snow-line. Correspondingly important 5500 m asl and thus at such an important height that the right moraine remnants on the orographic left, formed like ground margin of the Chogolungma glacier has reached the summit moraine with the first indications of lateral moraines, can superstructure of the Berginsho Church ( ), occupying this be found within 3–4 km further down-valley (Photo 120 side valley and crossing it. For this reason, the side valley , 121 second and third black from the right). After has been filled with ground moraine to a depth of at least the thawing-down of the abutment built-up by the glacier, decametres, stripped from the ground of the parent glacier. the important thickness of these moraine complexes has In some places, the Sencho Gans tributary glacier has still The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 145

Figure 40. Cross-profile (not exaggerated) across the middle Basna valley down-valley of the current Chogolungma glacier end from the Berginsho Church N-ridge in the SSW towards the NNE as far as the 5487 m-peak S-ridge on the orographic left valley side with the minimum glacier ice filling of this main valley reconstructed for the LGM. Locality: Fig. 2/2; Fig. 2/1 approximately between No. 60 and 1 cm to the right of No. 59. not been able to remove their remnants since deglaciation Fig. 2/1 to the right of No. 59) has existed into which the ( top; Figure 2/1 on the left above No. 60). talweg has been incised subaerially only after deglaciation. Altogether the orographic right flank of the Chogol- From the material removed during this process, the fan at ungma glacier valley discussed here, shows on the one the valley exit has been built-up. Prior to this and up to hand a strong division caused by the inflowing side valleys the historical Stage X, this material had been continuously (Photo 123), and on the other glacigenically triangular- eroded by the Chogolungma glacier in the main valley. The shaped slopes ( ; Fig. 2/1 between No. 55 and 60) with lateral moraine of Stage X shows the 100–150 m higher ground moraine remnants (; Fig. 39: km 4–5) which can be level of the then Chogolungma glacier (Photo 124 and 126 observed on the intermediate back-polished mountain spurs. X). Only after the deglaciation following Stage X (Tab 1), In the erosion shadow of side valleys which provide niches, i.e. during the last 200 years (Tab. 1), was there enough glacial ground moraine deposits have occasionally also been space for the development of a fan. Only during this time seen (Photo 122 between and top). The orographic could the Kero Lungma talweg be deeply inset in the way left flank of the valley below the Bukpun-W-(5441 m) and as today, because its level was previously adjusted to the E-(4551 m) summit (Fig. 2/1 half-right below No. 59) has Chogolungma glacier surface. Despite the fact that the Kero been preserved as a 1.5 to 2 km-high continuous glacigenic Lungma was filled with ice up to beyond its upper edge polish flank, divided by comparatively small wall gorges (Photo 128 ), a classically wide U-shaped valley has not (Photo 125, 126 ). These reach as far as the region of been created in the bedrock (Fig. 41). Only the filling-up by perennial snow fields and, accordingly, are active. They the ground moraine pedestal has significantly strengthened carry meltwater and especially in summer they cause big the glacigenic trough profile (Fig. 2/1 to the right of No. 59). mudflows which undercut the bedrock, but the basal ground As evidenced by flank abrasions, the LGM-ice thickness at- moraine covers as well (), and lay down the dislocated tained at least a good 2400 m in this valley (Fig. 41). To loose material in the form of mudflow fans (Photo 125 ; the orographic right of the Chogolungma glacier end, his- Fig. 2/1 below No. 59 to the right). In July 2000 quite large torical and neoglacial lateral moraines and at least one Late mudflows have been observed almost daily. The abrupt in- Glacial lateral moraine, that of Stage IV, are verifiable up crease of the extension of the main gorge above half of the the valley flank (Photo 124 below; Photo 125–127 IV; flank height ( ) derives from deglaciation of the highest Fig. 2/1 above No. 60). This lateral moraine of the Sirkung flank areas which took place several millennia earlier (see Stage (IV), on which the pasture of Guma is situated, con- above). In the down-valley continuation of this orographic tains polymictic erratic boulders of crystalline schists and left flank section of the still glaciated Chogolungma valley, far-travelled granite () and is located here 730 m above the Kero Lungma joins from the N (Fig. 2/1 from No. 62 in the valley floor. Above this lateral moraine, older ground the direction of No. 60; Photo 124 ; 129 left half). The moraine deposits have been preserved (Photo 124 to the alluvial- and mudflow fan ( white, Fig. 2/1 below No. 59 right of below, large; Photo 126 white above IV). to the right) at its valley exit has been piled up against the Among others, the morainic character of this polymictic ma- tongue end of the Chogolungma glacier (). In the Kero terial, rich in matrix, is documented by the bimodal course Lungma a ground moraine pedestal (Photo 28 below of the grain size cumulative curve (Fig. 16; Fig. 2/1 above 146 M. Kuhle

related to roches moutonnées have been created up there. Currently the tongue of the Tippur glacier advances ()and thereby overthrusts the field terraces of Arandu (). Further down the main valley, the fresh fan of the glacier mouth gravel floor (Photo 131 ) of the Tippur glacier ()has undercut neoglacial ground moraine remnants ( and V black). On both the main valley flanks Late- to High Glacial ground moraine covers are preserved ( white; Photo 129 black). Situated on a valley shoulder on the orographic right (Photo 130 white on the left; 131 white, centre), they have been erosively removed in the area of tributary talwegs undercutting this valley flank and resedimentated as alluvial- i.e. mudflow-fans () at the slope foot. On the orographic left side ground moraine remnants of the Stages III to 0 (=LGM) are preserved up to a height of 4000 m (Photo 133 large), locally they even attain 4500 m (Photo 124 on the very right), that is over 1600 m above the valley bottom (Fig. 2/1 between No. 60 and 65). The moraine rem- nant mentioned last shows several flat rills of rain- or snow Figure 41. Cross-profile (not exaggerated) across the lower Kero Lungma from the 5041 m-peak in the WSW, towards the ENE as far as the 5487 meltwater created since the deglaciation. m-peak on the orographic left valley side with the minimum glacier ice In the junction area of the Kushusum Lungpa (Berelter filling of this left side valley of the Basna valley reconstructed for the LGM. Nala) and the Basna valley the merging ground moraine Locality: Fig. 2/2; Fig. 2/1 approximately between No. 59 and 1 cm to the covers on the slopes of the side valley and the main valley right of No. 59. testify to synchronism by their geomorphological interlock- ing (Photo 134). They suggest that during their last, i.e. late No. 60) and the 100% crushed quartz grain portions (Fig. 6 Late Glacial (Stage IV) deposition and reshaping respec- No. 10). These ground moraine remnants continue from up- tively, the bottoms of the main- as well as the side valley valley towards down-valley along the right valley flank and were covered by a dendritic valley glacier system and the reach up to an altitude of c. 4000 m asl (Photo 126 the four Kushusum glacier tributary stream flowed into the Chogol- to the right of No. 63). Additionally, a further sediment ungma parent glacier. This left side valley ends slightly sample taken there (second from the left; Fig. 2/1 above V-shaped and further above, as well as its side valleys, shows No. 60) confirms the ground moraine character of the matrix trough forms (Fig. 2/1 between No. 60 and 67) and bears (Fig. 17 and 6 No. 11). Above, remnants of flank polishings corresponding traces of an enormous Ice Age (LGM) glacier ( on the right) are preserved ( on the right) which in filling (Photo 133). These are – from below to above – many places have crumbled away. The glacigenic sharpen- ground moraine remnants ( small) and evidently glacigenic ing which reaches as far as the rock gendarmes, provides flank abrasions (the three lowest ; Fig. 2/1 between No. 60 evidence of a maximum glacial ice level of at least 5500 m and 68) which mediate to an orographic left Late Glacial pol- (Fig. 40) in this valley cross profile. ish line at 5300 m asl ( white). The High Glacial flank abrasions reached much higher up ( black, top), so that 3.12. Reconstruction of the maximum Ice Age glacier ice the High Glacial glacier level ( black) in the uppermost filling of the Basna valley down-valley of the present-day Sokha Nala attained c. 5900 m. During the LGM it crossed Chogolungma glacier terminal and in the connected side the Sokha La, a transfluence pass (Fig. 2/1 between No. 68 valleys and 64), and passed without a threshold into the level of the Biafo ice stream network. The S-wall of the 6066 m-summit In the valley chamber of the settlement of Arandu the main (half-right below No. 68; Fig. 2/1 below No. 68) is built up valley is shaped like a trough (Photo 129; Fig. 2/1 half-right from gneiss, showing classic polish forms up to the very top.  above No. 60). The Basna river, i.e. the meltwater river ( ) Up to every detail they are similar to the polish forms of of the current Chogolungma glacier ( white) has accumu- the Trolltindan wall on the orographic left in the Romsdalen lated a glacier mouth gravel floor to form the valley bottom. (Norway), which also reach as far as the summit and thus To this the tongue end of the Tippur glacier (Tippur Gans) provide evidence of an ice thickness of over 1800 m. In coming from the orographic right side valley of the same the confluence area of the Basna valley concerned here, an name is adjusted ( black on the right). The settlement of LGM-ice thickness of at least 2700 m is verifiable (Fig. 40 Arandu is situated on the gravel floor of this small glacier and 41). Obviously, the work of the glacigenic flank abrasion ( ; Fig. 2/1 half-right above No. 60), several metres above carried out by this High- to Late Glacial ice stream network, the gravel floor of the Chogolungma glacier. The Tippur val- has sharpened all summits which are over 5400 m-high into ley, which leads down from the N-flank of the Berginsho glacial horns (Photo 132 and 133; Fig. 2/1 No. 64, 65, 68). Church mountain (No. 60), is a complete valley trough, the The two tributary valleys – the Aralter- and the Dungus flanks of which have been abraded as far as its upper edges valley (Photo 127) – also connected to this confluence area in prehistoric times (Photo 130 white) so that features The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 147

Figure 42. Cross-profile (not exaggerated) across the middle Basna valley from the WSW, from the 4600 m-crest on the orographic right, towards the ENE as far as the Ganchen on the orographic left valley side, with the minimum glacier ice filling of this main valley reconstructed for the LGM. Locality: Fig. 2/2; Fig. 2/1 approximately between No. 60 and 66. of the Basna valley, are stepped hanging valleys, the orig- Bulcho down-valley as far as its confluence with the Braldu inally glacigenically rounded junction thresholds of which valley have in the meantime been transformed by the meltwater creeks of the current valley glaciers into a V-shaped valley On the orographic left valley flank, which at the same time stretch (Fig. 2/1 between No. 63/64 and 60). Evidence of this forms the W-flanks of the mountains Hikmul (No. 63, c. are the alluvial fans (Fig. 2/1 to the left of No. 66) discharged 6300 m), Ganchen (No. 66, 6462 m) and the 5046 to 5778 from these V- shaped valley stretches (Fig. 2/1 left of No. 66) m-high southern fore-summit (No. 50) of the Ganchen mas- since deglaciation, as e.g. the alluvial fan of the settlement of sif (Photo 136), ground moraines up to maximum heights Bisil ( white). Above, the valleys are wider and have – at of 3900 to 4100 m are preserved (Photo 135 white; 136 least in sections – trough valley cross-profiles ( ; Fig. 2/1 the two white on the left; Fig. 2/1 between No. 60 and left of No. 63 and 64). Ground moraine remnants on the 50; Fig. 42). They lie c. 1300 to 1500 m above the talweg valley flanks (Photo 132 white) as well as glacigenic flank and have still been reached by the main glacier during the abrasions on the bedrock ( ) indicate a prehistoric level Dhampu Stage (III, Tab 1). The ground moraine cover of the of the ice stream network about 5400 to 5500 m (Photo 127 Sirkung Stage (IV) is continuously preserved over a slope- and 132 ). The pinnacle features of the 5563 m-summit parallel distance of approximately 2 km (Photo 136 IV (No. 64) and the adjacent course of the crest (Fig. 2/1 No. 64) on the right) up to a height of 3600 m. Even the morphol- prove a glacigenic undercutting by this glacier level ( ), ogy of primary exaration traces and pressure edges of the but it cannot be ruled out that this level ( ) represents just attached glacier margin (l) can be observed. In some places the oldest Late Glacial (Stage I). However,this level – which this ground moraine is decametres- to over one hundred perhaps was not a maximum – also ran 2600 m above the metres thick (Photo 135 black). As usual, its thickness subrecent to present-day gravel floor of the valley chamber increases towards the valley bottom, so that there existed a of Gon (Photo 127 ). ground moraine pedestal built-up in the course of the Late The Basna valley bottom with its gravel floor is the cur- Glacial, which during the deglaciation has been removed rent glacier mouth gravel floor of the Chogolungma- and along the talweg of the Basna river (Photo 136 ). The ac- Tippur glacier (Photo 126, 129, 131, 134 ). It is divided cumulations on the valley ground modified to mudflow fans into a sequence of small glacier gravel floor terraces with ( white; Photo 135 ) which make up the current fields, a height of several metres at maximum (Fig. 2/1 left of contain remains of this ground moraine pedestal. The High No. 66). With their help one can recognize the retreat of the Glacial glacigenic flank abrasion (Fig. 2/1 between No. 60 50 km-long Chogolungma glacier during the last decades. and 50) reaches up from 4800 to 5100 m (Photo 135 ; 136 the two left ), thus indicating the minimum height 3.13. Reconstruction of the maximum Ice Age valley filling of the LGM-glacier level (0 ; Fig. 42). Sections of rock with glacier ice in the Basna valley from the locality of crests, situated below this ice level during the LGM, have then been undercut and afterwards roughened by the ice level which during the Late Glacial had dropped below their level (Photo 136 between No. 66 and 50). The south- 148 M. Kuhle

Figure 43. Cross-profile (not exaggerated) across the lower Basna valley, 4.3 km above its inflow into the Shigar valley, from the WSW from the 4501 m-peak on the orographic right towards the ENE as far as the 3927 m-peak on the orographic left valley side with the minimum glacier ice filling of this valley reconstructed for the LGM. Locality: Fig. 2/2; Fig. 2/1 approximately between No. 50 and No. 51. ern Ganchen fore-summit has been undercut by the High- to the valley cross-profile 4.3 km above the junction with the Late Glacial glacier level and sharpened into a glacial horn Shigar valley (Fig. 43) (Fig. 2/1 from the cross-profile be- (Fig. 2/1 No. 50). tween No. 60 and 50 downwards up to above No. 51). In this The ground moraine cover of the orographic right flank lower course, the Basna valley is also a classic whole-valley of this valley section has corresponding extensions, because trough, filled with glacier ice up to the upper margins of the here, too, late Late Glacial ground moraines are preserved flanks (Photo 136 below No. 51 half left and half right). up to a height of 3600 to 3700 m ( on the very left, right 4 km down from the Tisa Birri settlement, the orographic below and below No. 51 as well as on the very right; right main valley flank of the Mutuntoro Klas (valley) is in- IV on the left; Fig. 2/1 on the right of No. 60; Fig. 42, terrupted (Photo 137). Its orographic left flank, which joins however, this cross-profile does not include the highest oro- the orographic right flank of the Basna valley, is extensively graphic right ground moraines, but only those up to 3250 m covered with ground moraine up to a height about 4000 m asl). Their substantial thickness reaching decametres, can be asl ( white; Fig. 2/1 centre, between No. 60 and 51). These recognized here as well as on the opposite valley side by typ- ground moraine deposits and also the abrasions extending ical downthrows of large rotational slides ( ), by which the even higher up, provide evidence of a level of an Ice Age ground moraine packing gives way when the valley glacier tributary valley ( ) corresponding to that of the main has melted down and the abutment of the ice is absent. There valley. They thus confirm the overall picture of an LGM- are outcropping metamorphic rocks in the underground, but ice stream network glaciation with communicating main- in the ground moraine cover ‘swim’ erratic granite boulders and tributary glacier levels. Since deglaciation the ground () up to several metres in length, which in the longitu- moraine pedestal of this tributary stream ( black) has been dinal direction of the valley have been transported down fluvially undercut and partly dislocated into the mudflow fan over a long distance. The fine material matrix has a very at the valley exit (; Fig. 2/1 centre, between No. 60 and weak maximum in the medium sand. However, it is nearly 51). C. 6 km down-valley of the inflow of the Mutuntoro reached by the coarse silt and fine sand, whereby with a good Klas (valley), the geomorphological trough valley profile of 13% clay a high sorting coefficient (So = 5.63) is connected the Basna valley E of the settlement of Chutran was mapped (Fig. 18). The SiO2-grains, contained in an only small quan- between the 4501- and 3927 m-peak (Fig. 43). On the oro- tity, are without exception crushed. The rounded grains of graphic right side the ground moraine matrix was analysed soft rocks reveal an involvement of water, as is to be ex- (Fig. 19). The rock slope on which the ground moraine lies, pected c. 1000 m below the corresponding late Late Glacial is a 45◦-steep outer bank, undercut by the Basna river (in snow line (ELA of Stage IV = 4300 m) (Fig. 6 No. 12). The Fig. 43 WSW of the valley floor), so that since deglaciation highest orographic right mountain ridges, fringing the Basna the ground moraine has been displaced down-slopes and the valley trough above the Tisa Birri settlement, reach 4687 m. characteristics of its grain sizes have undergone a loss in They have been rounded by glacier abrasion (Photo 136 significance. However, the morphoscopic characteristics of white), so that the level of the LGM-ice stream net- the quartz grains have been completely preserved (Fig. 6 work must have been situated above (=0 on the right; No. 13). Fig. 42). As for the mantling of the slopes with ground In the entire course of the 23 km-long Basna valley, moraine and the glacigenic flank polishings reaching higher which is the subject of this chapter, numerous glacigenically up, the glaciogemorphological characteristics of this valley triangle-shaped slopes have been formed (Fig. 2/1 between section continue down-valley without interruption as far as No. 66, 60 and 51; Photo 135 on the right below No. 66; The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 149

136 on the right below No. 50; 139 on the very left). (Fig. 2/1 from the profile between No. 52 and 53 up to the These polyglacial abrasion features, polished for the last profile between No. 50 and 51) time during the LGM to Late Glacial, alternate in the lon- gitudinal profile of the valley with slope sections showing As indicated by the seven exemplary, glaciogeomorphologi- decametres- to over 100 m-thick ground moraine deposits. cal valley cross-profiles of the Chogolungma-Basna valley An example of this is the orographic left valley slope above and several of its side valleys (Fig. 37–43), investigated the settlement of Thurgu in the WSW-flank of the 3927 m- in detail, the valley system of this main valley was filled peak (Photo 138 ; Fig. 43 ENE of the valley bottom). In with ice in a glacier thickness of 1800 m (Fig. 37) up to c. the area where the outline of the valley flank runs convexly, 2900 m (Fig. 42) during the LGM. Thus glacier thicknesses at the same time forming an inner bank in the current river comparable to those of the Braldu valley system have been bed, the spur-like protruding bedrock has been polished back reached (cf. Fig. 3; Chapter 2.–3.10). Just as in this valley by the glacier ( ). Where the course of the valley flanks is system, the most important ice thickness was several kilo- indented concavely, there was a flow shadow behind the up- metres down-valley of the current glacier terminals. In the valley spur ( on the left) into which ground moraine ( entire area concerned, the LGM-glacier surface lay above black) has been pushed and then – in front of its down-valley the ELA (snow line). This is documented by the fact, that rock projection ( on the right) – stripped off by the left no LGM-lateral moraines have been found, but only ground glacier edge up to a significant thickness. After deglaciation moraines which upwards of the valley flanks have without these moraine deposits ( black), now lacking an abutment, exception turned into glacigenic abrasion- and polish fea- are especially susceptible to the formation of rills with earth tures, i.e. pure erosion forms. Towards the source area of the pyramids (Fig. 2/1 on the right above No. 51) and also slides. main valley and as far as into its tributary valleys, the LGM- The accumulation on which the settlement of Thurgu is sit- ice thickness decreased to its smallest amounts (Fig. 37). At uated ( white on the right) contains primary remnants of the lower valley exit, in the confluence area with the Braldu ground- and lateral moraine of the late Late Glacial (Sirkum (Blaldu-) valley, i.e. at the place where the two valleys merge Stage IV), however, it is covered by a mudflow fan of dislo- to form the Shigar valley, the glacier thickness including cated ground moraine. This has been transported here from the ground moraine which probably moved as far down as the enclosed depression formed in the meantime (to the the rock ground, has still come to approximately 2500 m right of black). In the adjacent region, where the ground (Fig. 5). Because rock bottom heights of the trough ground moraine was primarily thin, it has even been preserved up are concerned, extrapolated from the dipping trough flanks to the upper slope, i.e. up to approximately the mountain (see above), the real LGM-ice thickness might differ from ridge ( white). As evidenced by the glacigenic abrasion the data of the cross- profiles (Fig. 3–5 and 37–42) by a few traces on the highest elevations of both the valley flanks hundred metres at maximum. In this case the maximum ice (Photo 138 ;99 on the right and centre; 136 thickness of 2900 m (see above), for instance, would have to on the left below No. 51; 139 half left below No. 50), in this be corrected to at most 2600 m (Fig. 42) which in principle valley cross-profile (Fig. 43) the level of the LGM-minimum is no differing result. Neither the dimensions of the infill- thickness of the ice must have been above their culmina- ing of the relief with glacier ice nor the resulting prehistoric tions, running at 4700 m asl. A good 4 km down from this glaciation type are affected by this inexactness. Its was def- cross-profile, the lower Basna valley joins the Braldu val- initely a maximum glaciation which exeeded the thickness ley (Chapter 3.10); they both are glacigenic troughs with a of the Ice Age Alpine glaciers, reaching at most 1800 to gravel bottom (Fig. 2/1 on the right above No. 51). Here, 2000 m, by 20 to 30%. The type of glaciation was that of an the orographic left valley flank, we are talking about, peters ice stream network communicating with the glacier systems out and dips as a mountain spur (Photo 139 black, cen- of the Hunza valley in the W and the Hispar-Biafo-Baltoro tre) under the Shigar valley bottom. Its perfectly glacigenic system in the N up to the NE across the highest passes. rounding ( black, centre; Fig. 2/1 between No. 50 and 51) ‘Communicating’ means to be connected with an approxi- and ground moraine cover ( on the left) once more pro- mately unified, uninterrupted ice surface levelled out by the vides evidence (see above; Photo 136 on the right of No. 50; transfluences. Corresponding to that of the simultaneous up- Photo 138; Fig. 43) of the joint glacier surface of the Basna- per Braldu glacier (Photo 5 and 65–67), the highest LGM-ice and Braldu ice streams which already existed at a distance levels reached an altitude of 5800-6400 m (Photo 113). of over 7 km upwards of their confluence during the LGM (Stage 0). 3.15. The maximum Ice Age glaciation of the Shigar valley

3.14. Summary of Chapter 3.11–3.13: The LGM-glaciation At the head of the Shigar valley, in the confluence of in the Chogolungma-Basna valley from the upper valley the Braldu- and Basna (or Basha) valley, Oestreich (1906: head in the Malubiting- (7458 m) and Spantik (7027 m) Fig. 28) has already approached the accumulations of edged  massif as far as its lower valley exit and the confluence with coarse boulders (Photo 99 and 139 ) as ‘rock-slide de- the Braldu valley, i.e. its inflow into the Shigar valley bris’. Dainelli (1922, plate LIV) classifies them as terminal moraine of his ‘4th Advance’ and Norin (1925) has de- scribed them as ‘low morainic ridges ... protruding through the gravel formation in the middle of the valley ...’, de- posited by ‘a composite glacier’ of the Braldu- and Basna 150 M. Kuhle valley glaciation (cited after Hewitt 1999: 231). Hewitt (Fig. 2/1 on the right of No. 51; Fig. 20; Fig. 6 No. 14). (ibid.) provides a detailed analysis of at least three ‘rock But despite the great similarity of the granulometric compo- avalanches’ the ‘conspicuous breakout scars (of which lie) sition to that of a moraine, the complete absence of quartz 600 m-wide and 700 m-high’ in the orographic right flank grains is an indication against glacigenic transport over a far of the Shigar valley. He refers to them as Ghoro Choh I-III distance and the corresponding mixing through. Apart from rock avalanches (ibid. Fig. 10). According to his findings that, the glacier ice has left behind a completely evacuated of mega-clasts in the eastern valley flank above the Haidar- valley. This argues in favour of the suggestion that even bad settlement ‘Bollah’, 7 km away from its breakout scar, the last late Late Glacial glacier filling, that of the Sirkung the rock avalanche has surged up the orographic left slope Stage IV, has flowed through the entire Shigar valley as far by even 150 m. He suggests that the rock avalanches dis- as the Indus valley. The orographic right accumulations are charged into a Shigar valley, which was free of ice during decametres-thick remnants of ground moraine (Photo 99 the Holocene. white; Fig. 2/1 on the right above No. 51) undercut by the We are interested in the traces of the preceding maxi- gravel bed of the Holocene Shigar river (glacial trough with mum glacier filling of this valley section, the flank abra- gravel-bottom between No. 51 and 47; Fig. 5). These ground sions of which might have led to the slope steepenings moraine remnants have partly been interrupted and modified which have created the conditions for important postglacial by mudflows fans from the side valleys (Photo 141 small; rock avalanches like these. Authors like Norin (1925) and Fig. 2/1 from right below No. 51 to right below No. 72). Dainelli (1922) – the latter during his ‘4th Advance’ which Mudflow fans of this type are also on the orographic left most likely corresponds with the Late Glacial (Stage I–IV (Photo 140 and 141 in the foreground; Fig. 2/1 between after Kuhle 1982a) - have assumed that in former times the No. 72 and 46); for the most part they consist of displaced glaciers from the Basna- and Braldu valley have reached ground moraine material from the valley flanks (Photo 140 up to here. As we have seen in the chapters above, the ice on the right; 141 white; Fig. 2/1 on the left of and below thickness probably has markedly exceeded the ice fillings No. 47) and side valleys (Photo 140 on the left and in the reconstructed by these authors, even during the Late Glacial middle). Ground moraines of the ‘pedestal moraine’ type (Stage I–IV after Tab 1). In the course of this chapter this can be diagnosed in the very thick accumulations formed will become still clearer. First indications as to the height of like terraces on the orographic right side (Photo 141 black the break-off are provided by the observations and data of between No. 74 and 51). They have been heaped up by the Hewitt (1999) – for us this is at the same time a glacigeni- tributary glaciers against the Shigar parent glacier (Fig. 2/1 cally prepared height of the crumbling away. It lay 700 m to the right of No. 72–74). For the reconstruction of min- above the valley bottom (see above), that is at approximately imum ice thicknesses which clearly exceed the 500 m ob- 3100 m asl. The ground moraines found on this valley flank served in the Shigar valley (see above) the ground moraines, reach c. 700 m higher up (Fig. 5, WSW valley side). The which as remnants are preserved on the slopes, are sufficient. glacigenic flank abrasions on the orographic right even reach Three exemplarily high ground moraine remnants have re- as far as 4600–4700 m asl, so that an LGM-glacier level mained on three glacigenically triangular-shaped slopes on (Photo 99 on the very left) is indicated a good 2200 m the orographic right (Fig. 2/1 above No. 72) at 3600–3800 m above the valley bottom. asl, 1200–1500 m above the gravel floor (Photo 141 white In his main opus Lydekker (1883) describes indicators on the right and left below No. 51, on the right below of a prehistoric glaciation of the Braldu valley as far as its No. 72). They are so thick that they have been dissected inflow into the Shigar valley. In the ‘Geology of part of into several metres-deep flush rills and on the steep parts Dardistan, and neighbouring districts’ (1881: 47f) of the slopes are fissured into earth-pyramid-like pipes (be- he reconstructs a 500 m-thick glacier with the help of glacial tween white and black on the right below No. 72). C. traces up to the confluence with the Basna valley. With the 18 km further down-valley an orographic right moraine rem- exception of the U-shaped valley form and erratic boulders nant, too, reaches quite far, namely as far as c. 3600 ( near the Strongdokmo La, he has found no indications of a below No. 74), up a glacigenically triangular-shaped slope glaciation further down-valley, but he assumes that a Shigar (Fig. 2/1 No. 74). The glacigenic flank abrasions are highest glacier has reached the Basin of Skardu. Oestreich (1906: preserved where the density of the side valleys is only small 80) confirms this suggestion. These observations of the two ( and ) and, accordingly, the undercutting by their slopes researchers concern a former glacier thickness of c. a quarter is relatively ineffective. The highest one reaches 4650 m ( of that of the author, who has found traces of a maximum below No. 51); the almost freshly preserved flank polishing ice thickness of a good 2200 m (see above) in the Shigar on the orographic right ( on the left below No. 74) trends valley. The ice thickness of 500 m reconstructed, i.e. as- from the valley bottom up to a good 3400 m. On the oro- sumed by these researchers, most likely corresponds to the graphic left side an adequate glacigenic picture of the valley late Late Glacial ice thickness during Stage IV (=Sirkung flank is presented (Photo 140; Fig. 2/1 on the left and be- Stage, Tab 1), which 17 km up the Basna valley still came to low No. 47). The highest covers of ground moraine reach c. 1000 m (see Photo 136 IV). c. 3550 m ( on the right) up to 3800 m asl (Photo 143 The only accumulative slope ledge on the orographic left background on the right). Here too, the glacigenic flank which might be a lateral moraine, is the rock fall next to the abrasions have left behind a series of triangle-shaped slopes Mungo settlement – the Ghoro Choh I–III rock avalanches situated between the inflows of the side valleys ( on the The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 151

Figure 44. 17 km-wide cross-profile (not exaggerated) through the middle Shigar valley, half-way between the confluence of the Basna- and Braldu valley and 30 km above its inflow into the Indus valley (Skardu Basin) from SW, from the 5189 m-peak situated on the orographic right in the Haramosh Range, a SSE- satellite of the 5770 (or 5691)m-peaks (Fig. 2/1 No. 72), to the NE as far as the 6171 m-peak, the southern summit of the 6251 (or 6400) m-high Koser Gunge in the Mango Range (Fig. 2/1 No. 47) on the orographic left valley side with the glacier ice filling of this classic trough valley reconstructed for the LGM. Locality: Fig. 2/2; Fig. 2/1 between and below No. 72 and 47. right; Fig. 2/1 No. 47), which partly have been smoothed 1000 m-thick tributary glaciers have still joined the Shigar by band polishing of the outcropping edges of the stratum parent glacier here, even during the Late Glacial (Stage I–IV, (Photo 140 ). The polish line runs down from c. 4650 m as Tab 1). The Skoro Lungma tributary stream had a short- far as 3500 m ( ; Photo 143 on the right of No. 47 path connection over the Skoro La (Fig. 2/1 transfluence up to 0 ). Evidence of this LGM-glacier-level is provided pass below No. 45) to the upper Braldu glacier in the val- by the corresponding orographic right polish lines at the ley chamber of the Askole settlement (cf. chap. 3.5.). It has same altitude (Photo 141 white on the left of No. 51 polished out a relatively wide valley, which in the upper as far as black on the left of No. 74). Owing to this part of its cross-profile is thoroughly trough-like-concave. reconstruction of the thickness of the Shigar parent glacier, Only near the talweg has the subglacial Late Glacial melt- the ground moraine findings in the hanging side valleys at a water erosion set gorge- and V-shaped cross-profiles into height of 4400 to 4600 m become understandable (Photo 140 the trough ground (Fig. 2/1 on the left below No. 46). In below ; 141 on the right of ), because the side glaciers comparison, the Baumaharet Lungpa (Photo 142) is a gorge- have communicated with the parent glacier. Accordingly, the shaped trough valley with very steep flanks (Fig. 2/1 above central cross-profile of the Shigar valley (Fig. 44) shows a No. 73 on the left) the glacigenic flank abrasions of which trough with a postglacial gravel bottom (glaciofluvial gravel (above No. 73) have been roughened by crumblings, but can floor) to which syngenetic mudflow fans are adjusted. This still be recognized high up ( ). In this valley only basal trough has been flowed through by a main valley glacier at ground moraine remnants with earth pyramids have survived a thickness of c. 2100 m during the LGM and polished out (, Fig. 2/1 on the left of No. 73). Oestreich (1906: 79/80) during several Pleistocene glaciations. has already identified them as being remnants of pedestal Two orographic left side valleys of the valley chamber moraines (Fig. 2/1 on the left above No. 73), accumulated by of the Shigar valley discussed here, exemplify traces of its the tributary glacier at its confluence with the main glacier. glaciation: the Skoro Lungma and the Baumaharet Lungpa He has applied them to provide evidence of the simultane- (Photo 42). Dainelli (1922, plate V and LIV) has identified ous Shigar parent glacier. In this connection the pedestal moraines at the valley exit of the first, which he classifies as moraines, i.e. the ground moraine pedestal at the exits of belonging to his 3rd Glacier-expansion. However, not only the orographic right Shigar side valleys must be referred longish ice margin moraines are concerned as he has mapped to (Photo 41 black between No. 74 and 51). During the them, but even ground moraines covering both slopes of the last Late Glacial Stage (Sirkung Stage IV; Tab 1), when the Skoro Lungma over large parts and reaching as far as c. ELA ran c. 700 m lower than at present (current ELA c. 3400 m asl (Photo 143 on the right of No. 47, Fig. 2/1 5000 m asl), i.e. at 4300 m, the side glaciers had probably on the left of No. 46). Hewitt (1999, Fig. 2), too, does not still reached the Shigar parent glacier. From the LGM up to contradict their glacial genesis, i.e. he has not diagnosed this stage the ground moraines of the glacier tongue-ends of them as being rock avalanche debris. Dainelli (ibid.) has the side valleys, tending to melt down, have been progres- also found moraines in the NW-parallel Daltombore Lungma sively accumulated against the lowering edge of the main (Fig. 2/1 on the left below No. 45) which leads down from glacier to form pedestals of ground moraine. At the same the Cherichor massif (No. 45, 6030 m). Without doubt, over time the main glacier became narrower, so that the moraine pedestals have been built-up and project into the main valley. 152 M. Kuhle

Up to the present their remnants ( black between No. 74 reach up to a height of at least 3400 m ( on the right of and 51) have been preserved in the dead angle of the sub- No. 79). Ground moraine is preserved on the prominent pil- and postglacial meltwater erosion ( ). This backward linear lar, polished-out concavely ( white on the right; Photo 141 erosion, which has first removed the ground- and pedestal third from the left), as well as on the rock ledges next to moraines at the valley exits, has today already reached the it (Photo 143 the three on the left of No. 47; Photo 144 high valleys, dissecting their trough grounds (Fig. 2/1 be- on the left; Fig. 2/1 on the right of No. 74). The local tween No. 72 and 74) of bedrock ( )aswell.TheLGM-to height of the LGM-ice-level at the exit of the Shigar valley Late Glacial heights of the snow-line (ELA) between 3700 is large-scale and confirmed by the simultaneous ice level and 4300 m suggest the subglacial meltwater erosion of the in the Skardu basin, which is even verifiable by high-lying lower 1300-1900 altitude metres as far down as the main ground moraines (Photo 148 on the left). This ground valley bottom below 2400 m asl (see Tab 1). Above 4300 m, moraine- and polish line locality (Fig. 2/1 below No. 74) the bottoms of the side valleys have been hardly dissected so is situated immediately behind the polished rock spur at the far. exit of the Shigar valley (see above, Photo 143 on the right A further glaciogeomorphologicalkey locality is the oro- of No. 79), on the side of Peak No. 74 which faces Skardu graphic left transfluence pass from the Shigar- into the Indus (Photo 149 white and black on the right below No. 74). valley, the Strongdokmo La (Fig. 2/1 on the left of No. 37), It is not possible that the Shigar glacier has polished it, but ◦ which has already been discussed. Here, a typical glacial only the Indus glacier. The 160 -angle formed by the flanks polish depression- and polish threshold landscape has been of the Shigar- and Indus valley makes clear that a dead angle preserved, the depressions of which are filled with loose ma- has existed here, so that the Shigar glacier was unable to terial (Photo 144 and 145 ) pierced by roches moutonnées polish. (Photo 144 white and black below No. 47; Photo 145 Owing to these large-scale arrangements of the positions black on the right; Photo 146 white on the right). Part of of the glaciogeomorphological indicators of an LGM-ice- the loose material can be evidenced as being ground moraine level, the glacigenic shaping of the southern section of the (Fig. 21 and 6 No. 15). 430 quartz grains of this ground Strongdokma La becomes understandable and trivial (Photo moraine have been microscopically examined: 427 were 145 and ). The partly rounded rocks and round-polished glacigenically crushed, the remaining three were rounded, hills rise up to a height of a good 2900 m, i.e. 700 m above i.e. glaciofluvially reshaped. The ice overburden has pressed the present-day level of the Shigar river. In parts they are this obviously metres- to decametres-thick ground moraine abraded in such a perfectly streamlined fashion ( on the (Photo 144 black, middle) to the side of the roche mou- right) that this additionally supports a local thickness of the tonnée rocks ( white) and then it has been forced upwards overflowing ice of c. 500 m (LGM-ice level c. 3400 m asl, along them. It has to be stressed that this is no weathered ma- see above). Here, too, very large, light erratic granite boul- terial of roches moutonnées, accumulated as a small debris ders have been met in the moraine formation as well as on cone from a rock rill, but that ground moraine is concerned the dark phyllite bedrock ( ). The fresh state of preser- here! The polymict boulders () – among them erratic gran- vation of the glacigenic forms in a continental mountainous ite boulders – ( black), lying 110 m above the present-day environment signified by an insolation- and frost weathering gravel floor of the Shigar river, are fluvially speaking not like this, confirms the assumption of their LGM- to late Late understandable. The roche moutonnée forms ( black below Glacial age (Stage 0–IV, Tab 1). No. 47 and white; Fig. 2/1 on the left of No. 73) point to a S-direction of the ice flow, out of the Shigar- and into 3.15.1. Summary of the observations on the maximum Ice the Indus valley (Skardu basin). Without doubt this flow Age glaciation of the Shigar valley (Fig. 2/1 from between direction concerns the glaciers of the Late Glacial (Stage No. 50 and 51 to between 74 and 73) I–IV), which were the last with a forming effect. Before Norin (1925, Tavl. 5) who has obviously taken into consider- (Stage 0–I), the ice filling of the Indus valley – being the ation neither the approach of Lydekker (1883) nor Oestreich main valley with an overriding importance – might have (1906) or Dainelli (1922), thought the Shigar valley to have been too thick to permit a substantial inflow of tributary been free of glaciers during the Ice Age, whereas Lydekker glaciers. In contrast to a High Glacial (LGM = Stage 0) and Oestreich have indirectly come to the conclusion that a minimum glacier level at 3400 m asl ( ; Photo 141 Shigar glacier has reached the Indus valley. The thickness left margin; 147 on the left below No. 73) confirmed by of this Ice Age glacier, however, was left open. Our recon- flank abrasions (Photo 141 left margin, Photo 144 black struction proves that the upper Shigar glacier must have been on the right) and their upper limit, the Late Glacial Shigar c. 2400 m thick (Fig. 5), the middle c. 2150 m (Fig. 44) glacier was no longer 1200 m thick (as the LGM glacier), but and the lower in the area of its confluence into an Indus only 400 m. This is evidenced by the orographic left lateral parent glacier still 1200 m – plus an estimated thickness of moraine above the confluence saddle ( I–IV; Fig. 2/1 on the gravel body of c. 100 m on the valley bottom under the the left of No. 73). The relatively important thickness of current Shigar river (Photo 143 ). The surface of the ice the LGM-Shigar glacier in the area of its confluence into stream was c. 10.7 (Fig. 5) to 11.5 km-wide (Fig. 44). The the Indus valley is also documented on the orographic right Braldu- and Basna glacier were its source branches, and 5- side, where – opposite to the confluence saddle (Strong- to 24 km-long (Baumaharet Lungpa) tributary glaciers have dokmo La) –, flank abrasions (Photo 143 black on the left) joined from the SW and NE side valleys. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 153 te of the 5321 m-peak, No. 77) and the arshakala (on the right of No. 74), 16 km above amosh Range in the NE on the orographic right valley side. In ocality: Fig. 2/2; Fig. 2/1 between No. 77 and 74. and N of the ground-moraine-covered Blukro, the glacier ice-filling area of the Shigar- and between the Deosai plateau in the of which is covered with ground moraine. Locality: Fig. 2/2; Fig. 2/1 C. 21 km-wide cross-profile (not exaggerated) of the middle Indus valley, here of the over 36 km-long Skardu Basin between the 5273 m-peak (a NW-satelli 22 km-wide cross-profile (not exaggerated) of the middle Indus valley, here of the good 36 km-long Skardu Basin between the 5321 m-peak (No. 75) and the M reconstructed for the LGM has left behind two classic trough-cross-profiles, the bedrock of which is also mantled with ground moraine in some places. L Marshakala-E-ridge (on the right ofS No. on 74), the 12.3 orographic km left down-valley and of the the Haramosh upper, Range i.e. in eastern the margin N of on the the basin. orographic The right cross-profile valley lies side. in In the the confluence lower 1500 altitude-metres of this profile, situated S Figure 45. Figure 46. the lower 1400 altitude-metresbetween of No. this 75 profile and the 74. glacier ice-filling reconstructed for the LGM has left behind a classic trough cross-profile the rock its lower NW-exit leading into a further stretch of the Indus Gorge. The basin lies between the Deosai plateau in the SW on the orographic left and the Har 154 M. Kuhle

3.16. The highest continuous prehistoric glacier level, i.e. The hose cirque in the Shinkar summit-wall is a convinc- the maximum Ice Age (LGM) ice cover in the Basin of ing indicator of the ELA (snow-line altitude) (Photo 147 Skardu in the middle Indus valley (Fig. 2/1 between ; Fig. 2/1 No. 73). It reaches as far down as 3400 m; No. 72–74 and 75–79) the medium height of its catchment area is c. 5100 m, so that the orographic ELA can be calculated according to the With regard to the confluence area of the Shigar- and Indus formula: mean altitude of frame-ridge (m asl) − altitude valley (Photo 146) the question arises concerning the exis- of tongue end (m asl)/2 + altitude of tongue end (m asl) tence of an Indus main valley glacier. Oestreich (1906: 72 = 5100 − 3400/2 + 3400 = 4250 m asl. The present- Fig. 25), who has already diagnosed the glacigenic roche- day ELA in a SW-exposition runs here at c. 5100 m; this moutonnée- landscape of the Strongdokmo saddle in the is evidenced by the couloirs filled with perennial firn and confluence area of the Shigar valley and was confirmed by firn-ice, which are situated above the cirque bottom (above the author (Chapter 3.15), also points to a roche mouton- ). Correspondingly, the snow-line of the prehistoric cirque née next to the Narh settlement at the exit of the Skardu glacier, which has formed this hose cirque, ran 850 m lower Basin situated to the east (ibid.: 61 Fig. 19). Accordingly, than the current ELA. An ELA-depression by 850 m is char- an Indus main valley glacier has reached the Skardu Basin. acteristic of the Dhampu- Stage III (cf. Tab 1). Accordingly, This finding, too, has been confirmed by our observations at that time the glacier tongue last reached the lowest pre- which contribute further data. So, for instance, metres-thick served area of the bottom of that hose cirque at 3400 m remnants of ground moraine have been found up to a height asl. During the LGM, when an ELA-depression of 1200– of c. 3200 m asl on the orographic right side of the Indus 1300 m existed to the north as well as to the south (Kuhle valley far above the Narh settlement, 5–7 km up the Indus, 1994b: 266ff; Fig. 138; 1997: 121, 153ff; Figs. 39–45), this in the dead angle of the 3981 m-spur in the area of the inflow hanging glacier tongue has reached the reconstructed (see of the Shigar valley (Photo 147 small on the right below above) Indus glacier level at 3400 m ( below No. 73). No. 73; Fig. 2/1 below No. 73). Orographic right deposits of During the early-Late Glacial Stages I and II the already low- ground moraines of an Indus parent glacier like this reach up ered Indus glacier level has perhaps even just been reached to the flank of that 3981 m-spur (Photo 147, the two small – or even just not been reached – by this cirque glacier. on the left below No. 73). A ground moraine complex, This exemplary calculation has been carried out for a SW- channelized by rills and dispersed into earth-pyramid-like exposition which is unfavourable for glaciation. It has been pillars, even reaches a thickness of several decametres at a undertaken to make clear that during the LGM the hanging height of 3300 m, i.e. 1100 m above the Indus valley bottom glaciers, flowing steeply down from the over 5100 m-high ( ). It has been preserved on a steeply sloping, glacigenically surrounding mountains (Fig. 2/1 No. 51 and 72–79), have abraded rock face. The highest glacigenic abrasion areas reached the Indus glacier surface in the Skardu Basin, situ- here, form a continuous polish line about 3400 m ( fine, ated between c. 100 and 600 m below the snow-line. The two below and half right below No. 73; Fig. 2/1 below No. 73). lowest cirques (Photo 146  white; Fig. 2/1 on the right of On the orographic left side the flank polishing is preserved No. 77) indicate a significantly lower orographic snow-line on a glacigenically triangular-shaped face (Fig. 2/1 below in the shady N-exposition. No. 73) even up to 3700 m ( fine on the very right). On In correspondence to the reconstructed Ice Age glacier this valley side ice influx has come from a 4200-4600 m-high level about and over 3400 m asl, the roches moutonnées ris- remnant of an old face with self-glaciation (0 ). Dur- ing up to 2925 or even 2984 m (Fig. 2/1 on the right below ing the LGM the ELA (snow-line) did not run higher than No. 74 and on the left below No. 73) and the rock hills in 3800 m asl. Remnants of flank abrasions with correspond- the Skardu Basin (Photo 145 black and white on the right; ing rock roundings (Fig. 2/1 on the right above No. 77), but 147 black on the left) lay under a glacier cover of 400 m at also remnants of ground moraines, have been preserved on minimum during the LGM. Their glacigenic abrasion forms, the orographic left side as far as the inflow of the Satpare analysed from different perspectives (cf. Photos 145–150), Lungma ( on the very right; medium-large and large on confirm this more (Photo 145 on the very left and right; the right of No. 73). These glacigenically erosive and accu- 146 on the very right; 147 on the left and right below mulative remnants are interrupted by postglacial crumblings, No. 73) or less clearly (Photo 145 black and white below which develop rock falls here, and, somewhat up the Indus No. 76; 146 black and white on the right of No. 76; 147 valley, in part attain the dimensions of rock avalanches (; on the left and 148; 149 white and 150). Thus, the arrange- Photo 146 and ; Fig. 2/1 on the right above No. 77) ment of the positions of abrasion forms on isolated ‘riegels’ (cf. Hewitt 1999: 222 Fig. 2 No. 4–7). These rock spallings, (barrier mountains) in the Skardu Basin, prove a minimum which naturally also carry along deposited moraine, ought to height of the LGM-ice level of over 3000 m (apart from be understood as a result of the slope-steepening glacigenic the flank abrasions and deposits of ground moraines on the flank polishing. Owing to this, they are described here – valley flanks of this Indus valley-section which have already as well as in the entire preceding glaciogeomorphological been introduced). This observation is confirmed by erratic text – as glacigenically-prepared ‘crumblings’, which have boulders and ground moraines preserved on several rock been developed after deglaciation. According to this ge- hills. The erratic boulders on the roches moutonnées of the netic classification, those crumblings are indirect glacial Strongdokomo La have already been discussed (Chap. 3.15). indicators. The two rock hills north of Skardu, isolated from the valley The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 155

flanks and flowed round by the Indus (Photo 147 and 149), is situated, namely 240 to 440 m, i.e. 480 to 690 m, pre- show overlays of ground moraines and erratics (the two clude its genesis by the deposits of rock avalanches as far as left of No. 73; Photo 148 on the right and ; 147 the possible. two on the left; 145 below No. 76; 150 and ; 146 The easternmost section of the orographic right flank of below No. 76; Fig. 2/1 above No. 77). The author agrees the Skardu Basin has already been introduced as to its rem- with Lydekker (1881: 48) and Oestreich (1906: 70–73 and nants of ground moraine and the glacigenic flank abrasions Fig. 20) who approach these accumulations as moraines; the preserved (Photo 147 below No. 73). So, too, glaciogeo- latter has also mapped their position in an approximately morphological indicators like this continue downwards of correct way. However, the ground moraine overlay on the the junction with the Shigar valley to the W and then NW eastern ‘riegel’ (barrier mountain) is not only limited to its (Fig. 2/1 below No. 74). There, flank abrasions (Photo 149 western margin (Photo 148 on the right), as described black on the right below No. 74) reach up to c. 3450 m asl by Oestreich (ibid.), but it covers the entire rock ‘riegel’ ( white); (Fig. 45 on the left below the 4150 m-point). At as far as its NE-side (Photo 145 below No. 76). In ad- the place, where the Shigar valley flank turns into the Indus dition, the accumulation reaches not only up to 300 m above valleyflank( fine on the left), the glacigenic polish band the Indus, but up to 480 to 690 m on the eastern ‘riegel’ is covered with ground moraine up to approximately this al- (Photo 148) and 240 to 440 m on the Karpochi, i.e. the titude (Photo 148 below ; Fig. 45 on the left below the western ‘riegel’. The two researchers suggest that – probably 4150 m-point). It concerns covers several metres in thickness because of the minor altitude of that moraine overlay – the into which postglacial flush rills are set in. Ground moraine Ice Age ‘Bascha-Braldu-glacier’ has come to an end here in overlays over relatively large expanses of the smoothed and the Skardu Basin. The author, by contrast, reconstructs an rounded abrasion faces (Photo 151 and ) have also been ice filling in the Skardu Basin which was at least four-times preserved on the left (to the E) and right (to the W) of the thicker, and an Indus parent glacier which has completely junction with the Marshakala or Strandokmo Lungma, as flowed through this basin and continued NW of the Ponedas well as on the flanks of the tributary valley. If even the rock settlement down into the Indus gorge (Fig. 2/1 on the left of breaks away at many places since the deglaciation ( ), the No. 72) (see below Chap. 5). ground moraine must have been eroded the more intensively. On the SSW-slope of the Karpochi the loose rock, ap- Accordingly, its covers have been furrowed or – below ero- proached as moraine, is exposed. It is a substrate rich in sional channels in the rock – removed by the short but heavy matrix with a high density, into which polymict boulders up discharge of the rainwater as far down as the bedrock (on to metres in size are embedded in isolation from each other. the right and left of on the very left). The highest finding Erratic granite boulders are among them (cf. Photo 150 ); of moraine is preserved here at c. 1270 m above the Indus edged and rounded boulders are assorted. These deposits ( ). Judging by the glacigenic form of the side valley, an Ice (see also Photo 149 black; 150 ) as well as the accumu- Age Strandokmo tributary glacier has reached as far as the lations on the Blukro (Fig. 45), the eastern of the two central Indus glacier surface – despite its S-exposition. For this, an ‘riegels’ (Photo 147 the two on the left; 148 on the right; orographic ELA at c. 4200 m asl was necessary, i.e. an ELA 149 the two white below No. 73), give the impression depression of c. 1000 m. of a mantling with ground moraine of both rock hills by an On the opposite, southern flank of the Skardu Basin Indus glacier overflowing them from E to W. The small-scale (Photo 152), ground moraines have been preserved in niches combination of these accumulations with the well-preserved up to a height of 3350 m, but also in remnants of decame- glacigenic rock abrasions and -polishings points in the same tres in thickness at the foot of the slope (; Fig. 2/1 above direction (Fig. 2/1 above No. 77; Photo 145 below No. 76; No. 77; Fig. 45 on the right of the 5273 m-peak). Flank abra- 146 black; 147 on the left; 149 black, large; 150 sions as roundings of banking edges are only verifiable at a white). According to the presently active wasting away of small scale ( ). At a large scale these remnants of abrasions these abrasion roundings in the form of fresh crumblings have merged to a polish band with a polish line at c. 3400 m (Photo 147 ; 148 ), their convergent emergence as ( ; Fig. 45 on the right of the 5273 m-peak). The process weathering forms has to be ruled out, because they must be of thawing-down of the glacier margin here since the LGM, prehistoric features the development of which has no equiv- i.e. the highest glaciogemorphologically verifiable glacier alent here today. The freshness of these crumblings is made level (see Fig. 45) becomes clear through a pedestal moraine, obvious by the fact that they interrupt ( ) continuous rock which ‘grows out of’ the valley flank ( white, large). It roundings (Photo 147 on the left) as well as by the debris concerns the pedestal moraine of a steep hanging glacier slopes, which they have developed below (Photo 148 )and flowing down from a cirque () (Fig. 2/1 above No. 77). which are adjusted () to the current level of the Indus-river- This Late Glacial pedestal moraine has been accumulated bed (). The central, completely separated position of the step by step from dislocated ground moraine of the main Karpochi and Blukro (Fig. 45; Photo 145, 146 below Nr.76; glacier (Indus glacier). At the same time it shows the char- 149 on the left margin and on the left below No. 73; 147; acteristics of a ground moraine ramp over which the cirque also the Photos 153 and 155 show the Karpochi’s 4 km- glacier has flowed into the main glacier. During a last stage distance to the S-flank of the basin), 4 to 5 km away from the such a ground moraine ramp or overthrust ground moraine marginal slopes of the basin, and their relatively important ramp has been pushed against the main glacier as only an height above the basin-bottom on which this loose material end moraine and then, kame-like, built-up against it. Ow- 156 M. Kuhle ing to the vast catchment area of the Indus glacier, showing Out of the four species of ground moraines described branches of valley glaciers of many hundred kilometres in of the orographic left flank of the Skardu Basin (see text length, this has still occupied the Skardu Basin at a time of Photo 153), the highest preserved, less-thick remnants when the tongue of the cirque glacier had already retreated are most important for the reconstruction of a maximum ice from its surface and come to an end high up in the valley level and glacier thickness. On the triangle-shaped face SW flank. NW of the exit of the Satpara Lungma, for which He- above the Tindschus settlement, they reach up to 3300 m witt (1999, Figs.7,8) has evidenced a large rock avalanche (the two black on the left above white; Fig. 2/1 on (Photo 153 ; Fig. 2/1 above No. 77), the orographic left the right above No. 75). The cross profile through the mid- flank of the Skardu Basin (Indus valley) discussed here, dle Skardu Basin depicts this overlay of loose material, too continues. At the mountain spur between the exit of the (Fig. 46 on the right below the 5321 m-peak). The probabil- Satpara Lungma and the western parallel valley, the ‘Burji ity and even the possibility that loose material is concerned Lungma’, four areas of rock break-out ( ), separated from here which differs from that of ground moraine, is low, i.e. each other and controlled by bc-clefts, are situated. These it can be ruled out. A rock avalanche would only have a rock avalanches have been approached as postglacial crum- narrow catchment area here; a break-out scar is lacking. A blings (Fig. 2/1 on the left above No. 77) of glacigenic flank gravitational mass-movement like this, once released, would abrasions. Hewitt (ibid. Fig. 2, Tab 1) has marked this area as not have been deposited on this solid rock slope, poor in ◦ ‘2.’ and indicated the accompanying rock avalanche deposits friction, with an approximately steady steepness of c. 32 , as ‘Astama’. The correspondingly precipitous rock faces and but would have fallen at least as far as the slope foot without -edges of these breakages (Photo 153 ) contrast clearly slowing down. There is also no roughness or a hilly toma- with the rounded rock areas ( ) of the main valley flank (debris-)landscape on the surface, as is typical of the debris which continues down the Indus. This is the glacigenic flank of rock avalanches (cf. Photo 153 on the right of ). The abrasion reaching up to an altitude about 3400 m ( ). geomorphological opposite is true, because there exists a This height of the polish line, which provides evidence cover of loose material smoothed on the surface ( black of the Ice Age glacier level, increases by 100 m at minimum above white), which has not even been subsequently dis- in the orographic left side valley, the ‘Burji Lungma’ ( sected by rills. A glacier, however, like a huge bricklayer’s below No. 78). Accordingly, the flank polishings ( ; Fig. 2/1 trowel, spreads its ground moraine evenly and without fric- on the right of No. 78) there testify to a tributary glacier, tion and thereby smoothly over the rock slope areas. For this the level of which was adjusted to the Indus parent glacier, reason and because there is no alternative, the loose rock can which it has joined. The same applies to the Satpara tributary be diagnosed sedimentologically and geomorphologically as glacier stream, the polish line of which rises continuously being ground moraine. from the Skardu Basin as far as the Deosai Plateau ( The fact, that the ground moraine covers have been de- below No. 77; Fig. 2/1 on the left of No. 77; cf. Photo 157- posited as far up as the glacier level, gives proof of a glacier 160). Obviously there existed a simultaneous outlet glacier surface at 3300 m that lay below the simultaneous snow-line flowing down from the Deosai Plateau and joining the Indus (ELA). glacier (see Chap. 4). The orographic left flanks of the ‘Burji The ground moraine ramps on the lower slope, bent Lungma’ merge in a rock spur, which in a classic fashion has like segments of trough profiles ( below No. 75 and 79), been shaped glacigenically. It has been sharpened from both have been developed simultaneously with those high ground sides by the merging ice streams and also – in accordance moraine covers. As far as their surface is preserved, it is to the brittle medium provided by the glacier ice – rounded smooth, too. However, the very thick ground moraine rem- by abrasion (second from the left). Downwards from c. nants discharged from the side valleys, as e.g. the ‘Bainsah 3200 m, metres- to decametres-thick ground moraine has Lungma’ ( on the left below on the left of No. 75) been deposited on this spur ( below the second from and the steep side valleys SW of the Tindschus settlement the left). In the course of 14 km from the inflow of the ‘Burji ( white), are younger. They have been thrown up by the Lungma’ to the NW, along the left flank of the Skardu Basin, side glaciers of these side valleys, which are still partly the LGM glacier surface reconstructed by means of polish glaciated, against the Indus main glacier in the form of lines and the highest remnants of ground moraine (all on pedestal moraines or ground moraine ramps (Fig. 2/1 on the right of No. 78) has dropped by c. 150-200 m (Fig. 2/1 the right of No. 75 and 76) and accumulated to an impor- on the right of No. 78-79). tant thickness. This has taken place during the Late Glacial Corresponding indicators are the characteristically (Stage I–IV) when the main glacier had already melted down triangular- shaped faces themselves, forming the basin flank and receded at least from the higher parts of the valley flanks. (Fig. 2/1 on the right of No. 78–79). These are truncated Norin (1925 Tavl.5) has also described part of these accumu- spurs polished-back between the inflows of the side valleys, lations, namely those at the exit of the ‘Bainsah Lungma’, as as can also be observed in the currently glaciated areas of the moraines, but as end moraines. In his map they fringe two Baltoro-, Biafo- and Chogolungma glacier (cf. Photo 28, 66, small basins of the tongues of side valley glaciers at the exit 121). There, they are still partly in the process of develop- of the side valley. However, he assumed the Skardu Basin ment and show the rock- specific variations of this key form. (Indus valley), to have been glacier-free during the Ice Age. In the downward-continuation of the first cross-profile through the Skardu Basin (Fig. 45) and also down-valley The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 157 the Karpochi and the junction with the Marshakala Lungma, duction of the width of the valley base from c. 7 km (Fig. 46) the ground moraine mantle on the orographic right valley in the basin to c. 1.3 km at the head of the gorge near Gulcho. flank is obvious (Fig. 2/1 No. 74; Fig. 46 on the left below It is not necessary to discuss once more the interpretation the Marshakala). So, for instance, these debris slopes of of Godwin-Austen (1864), Dainelli (1922), Norin (1925: ground moraine have been observed at the junction of the Tavl.5), Owen (1988b) and Haserodt (1989: 196/197), who gorge of Kuardu, where Godwin-Austen (1864: 23 and 26) considered the valley-obstructing, coarse-blocky accumula- has already found ‘lacrustine deposits’ and ‘conglomerates tion of Katzarah (Kachura) (Photo 154 )tobeanIceAge with huge blocks’ about 4000 feet, i.e. 1200 m above the end moraine. This has already been disproved by Hewitt Indus, which he considered to have been transported here (1999), and the author agrees with him in every detail. by the river. Norin (1925, Tavl.5), too, has mapped his so- The Indus glacier, i.e. the orographic left side glacier called ‘Indus conglomerates’ at approximately this locality, from the Shigarthang Lungma, which just reaches the bot- but less far up the slope. Whilst these two authors assumed tom of the Indus valley, did not come to an end here during a glacier-free Skardu Basin, Oestreich (1906: 73) has inter- the maximum extension of the ice – as these authors have preted these accumulations – at least up to 300 m above the assumed – but, according to the author’s reconstruction, the current Indus level – as being moraines. According to the Indus glacier had a thickness of c. 1000 m here during author’s opinion this is correct. Lydekker (1883: 36f) agrees the LGM and flowed down the gorge stretch of the Indus. insofar as he comes to the result that the Shigar glacier has It cannot be ruled out that Late Glacial end- and lateral reached the Skardu Basin, and at the same time overflowed moraine material of the Stages II–IV (cf.Tab 1) is buried the hills of the Blukro and Karpochi. On the other hand he under the edged, coarse-blocky debris of the Katzarah rock agrees with Godwin-Austen with regard to a lacrustine, i.e. avalanche. The ice of the Late Glacial Stage I (Ghasa-Stage) fluvial deposit at Kuardu, which he confirms up to a relative which belonged to an ELA-depression of 1100 m, and prob- height at 300 m (Lydekker 1883: 67). ably also that of Stage II (Taglung-Stage: ELA-depression The very thick, locally many times reworked orographic 1000 m, see Tab 1) has completely covered the bottom right ground- to lateral moraine deposit at Kuardu and of the Skardu Basin and left the basin through the gorge, further down-valley (Photo 154 second from the left) in- continuing downwards. evitably shows a Late Glacial character as to its great variety of the features preserved. There are indications of pedestal 3.16.1. Summary of the maximum Ice Age glaciation of the moraine ramps (Fig. 2/1 between No. 72 and 74) and at Skardu Basin (Indus valley) and its ice level (Fig. 2/1 some places of kames with interposed glaciofluvial sedi- between No. 79, 74, 73 and 77) ments. Its most highly situated remnants (see above) provide Whilst Lydekker (1883: 36f), Oestreich (1906: 73) and evidence of an LGM-glacier level at 3300 m asl ( on Dainelli (1922: Plates V and LIV) have reconstructed a Shi- the left; Fig. 46 on the left below the Marshakala). The gar glacier – the latter also an Indus main glacier – which corresponding orographic left moraine deposit (Fig. 46 on has reached the Skardu Basin and was somewhat more than the right below the 5321 m-peak) basally forms the very 300 m thick during the LGM (cf. also Haserodt 1989: 199), thick moraine pedestal in the area of the Schagari and Tind- the author, who also refers to an Indus parent glacier, into schus settlements (Photo 153 white). As a tapering-out which the Shigar glacier has flowed, reconstructs an ice ground moraine cover, it reaches as far as a relative height of thickness of c. 1000 to 1500 m (Fig. 45 and 46) in the Skardu 1200 m (3300 m asl) ( black below No. 76–79). 12 km Basin – 1500 m at its upper start in the E and 1000 m at the downwards of this cross-profile (Fig. 46), the jagged, al- lower end in the WNW. The thickness of the bottom of loose most 3100 m-high rock head named Katsala (N-satellite of rock in the Skardu Basin and thus the exact height of the the Phara, No. 79) is situated above the Koneore settlement rock-bottom underneath, can only roughly be extrapolated (Tsok) at the north-western end of the Skardu Basin. The from the steepness of the plunging outcropping valley flanks ground moraine remnant preserved there (Fig. 154 white; about 1900 m asl (Fig. 45 and 46). At the then ice level, the Fig. 2/1 above No. 79) documents that it has been mantled Skardu Basin was c. 34 km-long and up to 13 km-wide. At and overflowed by the Indus glacier ( ). Glacier traces its upper start in the E, above the inflow of the Shigar valley, in the form of ground moraines (the left black) have also its glacier-ice-filling reached up to 3500–3700 m asl, in the been preserved on the orographic right flank of the Skardu middle up to 3300–3400 m asl (Fig. 45 and 46) and at its exit Basin above the Shot Kore and Kandore settlements. In the in the WNW up to 3100 m. At the upper start of the basin meantime, several of the glacigenically rounded flank abra- this High Glacial glacier surface only just reached the level sions are half-free ( ) of moraine (Fig. 2/1 below No. 72). of the snow-line (ELA), but in the middle and lower basin Here, towards the lower end and exit of the Skardu Basin, area it lay 200 to 600 m below, so that several strings of the LGM-glacier level has been lowered to c. 3100 m asl. surface moraine could have existed. In the confluence area This decrease in thickness of the Indus glacier to c. 1000 m of the Shigar- and Indus glacier, in the continuation of the is a result of the abrupt increase of the gradient at the exit of Shinkar WSW-crest (Fig. 2/1 diagonally left below No. 73), the basin, deriving from the gorge-stretch of the Indus valley the most important medial moraine string might have been which sets in between the Poneda and Gulcho settlements. developed from the merging lateral moraines of these two However, this decrease in thickness in consequence of the large tributary streams above the Strongdokmo La. The po- increasing velocity of flow, has been counteracted by the re- sition of the glacier surface below the snow-line is evidenced 158 M. Kuhle

Figure 47. Cross-profile (not exaggerated) of the lower Satpare Lungma 4.8 km above its exit, W of the 5321 m-high summit (No. 77). The ground moraine covers on the slopes provide evidence of a Satpare glacier being a NNE-outlet-glacier of the Deosai plateau with a minimum thickness of 1100 m during the LGM. On the immediately connected valley slopes the then glacier feeding areas above 3800 m were too small to develop this thick Satpare Lungma glacier, so that the mass balance points to an outlet glacier. Locality: Fig. 2/2; Photo 157 before ; Fig. 2/1 on the left of No. 77. due to the fact, that the ground moraine on the valley flanks to 3 km up-valley of the Satpara Tso (Photo 155 white on reaches up to the polish line and thus up to the ice level (see the left and the two first black from the left). With regard Fig. 46). to the arrangement of the positions, the glacigenic abrasion forms and rock roundings are also connected with them ( ; Fig. 2/1 half-left above No. 77). They provide evidence of 4. The Ice Age glaciation (LGM) of the Deosai plateau an LGM-ice level ( white) about 3400 m asl, so that an (Fig. 2/1 between No. 80-84 and 75-78) ice thickness of c. 1000 m has been reconstructed. This sug- gests at the same time that the Satpara Tso rock avalanche(s) 4.1. The Satpare (Satpara, Satparu, Satpura) Lungma (‘-Skardu rock avalanche(s)’) has (must have) (valley) (Fig. 2/1 on the left of No. 77) taken place in the Late Glacial up to the postglacial period, i.e., more exactly, that it (or they) occurred in this area Oestreich (1906) and then also Dainelli (1922), Norin (1925) after the deglaciation of the Satpare Lungma glacier dur- and Schroder et al. (1993) have approached the Satpara Tso ing the Late Glacial Stage III (Dhampu Stage, cf. Tab 1). (lake) as being dammed-up by a terminal moraine. Dainelli Accordingly, the observation of Oestreich (1906: 77), who and Norin have classified this moraine as belonging to an has described ‘considerably rounded gneiss boulders below ice margin position of an Ice Age outlet glacier of the Deo- a rock avalanche talus’ here, can be integrated, too, as being sai plateau. The first has suggested, too, that it belonged to correct. To be precise, high-lying ground moraine material his ‘4th Advance’. After Dainelli, the ‘3rd Advance’ of the is concerned here (Photo 156 ), which has come down outlet glacier has left behind its deposits in the area of the together with the rock avalanche(s) and survived relatively Skardu settlement. The massively disturbed gravel fan- and undamaged. lacrustine sediments there have been approached by Bür- Thus, a tributary glacier, the Satpare Lungma glacier, has gisser et al. (1982), Owen (1988a, unpublished) and Cronin joined the Indus glacier (the ice filling of the Skardu Basin, (1989) as ‘glacitectonic or disturbed till’, so that the con- see above) and still had a surface height about 3500 m ( ) clusion of Dainelli (1922) was confirmed. This contradicts in this junction. Therefore, no ‘narrow gorge of the Satpua Hewitt (1999: 228–231) who not only queries the interpreta- Valley’ (Hewitt 1999: 228) exists here at the exit of this val- tion as ‘glacitectonic’, but also considers the accumulation ley, but rather a classic trough valley (Photo 157 ; Fig. 2/1 damming-up the Satpara lake as being a ‘rock slide-rock on the left of No. 77), the upper slopes of which have been avalanche’. oversteepened by glacier flank erosion and, owing to this, The author nearly completely agrees with Hewitt’s opin- have been prepared for the rock slide-rock avalanche(s). ion. ‘Nearly’, because besides the correctly described rock 4 to 5 km up-valley, ground moraine covers (; Fig. 2/1 avalanche deposits (Fig. 2/1 on the left above No. 77; on the left of No. 77) testify to an increase of the LGM- Photo 155 ) and river terraces () etc. (cf. Hewitt 1999: glacier level as far as an altitude about 3800 m ( right Fig.7), accumulations of ground moraine do also exist in dif- half of the panorama), so that the ice-thickness of the Satpare ferent altitudinal positions and states of preservation above Lungma glacier has reached a good 1100 m here (Fig. 47). those rock avalanche deposits on the orographic left side, 2 The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 159

at most half of the slope height (e.g. right of the right ( , 500 to 700 m above the valley bottom), abrasion roundings ( ) and upper polish lines ( white on the left) indicate a slightly increasing LGM glacier surface in an up-valley direction (0 ) and an ice thickness about 1000 m. On the orographic right the Late Glacial glacier level, already described 3.7 km down-valley, can again be observed in the lower third of the slope ( II–III; Fig. 2/1 on the left of No. 77). Another 3 km further up-valley, an end moraine is situ- ated which is especially developed on the orographic right side and can be approached as a Late Glacial ice margin position of the Sirkung Stage (Photo 159 IV; Fig. 2/1 half-left below No. 77) at 3200 m asl. This height is consis- tent with an ELA about 4200 m at that time. The material of the end moraine has been analysed sedimentologically (Fig. 22) and morphometrically (Fig. 6 No. 16) and con- firmed, so that a rock avalanche or a mudflow accumulation as an alternative can be ruled out. On the orographic left Figure 48. One of three exemplary profiles (not exaggerated) in the area of valley side ground- and lateral moraine remnants of the next- the Deosai plateau (see also Fig. 49 and 50); in order to leave the signa- ture legible, the ground moraine, however, has been represented as thicker older Dhampu Stage ( III) are preserved. Besides sporadic than it is. The hilly to highland-like surface, with a difference in height of remnants of ground moraines, the older, higher-lying Late 700 m on this NS-profile, shows the area N of the 4481 m-hill, depicted Glacial (Stage II–I) glacier traces as well as those of the in Photo 161. The LGM-glacier-surface has been reconstructed according to the suggestion that it must have run above the hills with and without a valley glacier with the verifiable maximum altitude of the ground moraine cover, which have been abraded by the glacigenic ground glacier level ( 0), have left behind flank polishings and polishing. This is hypothetical insofar, as the exact ice thickness is no longer -abrasions ( ) as well as glacigenically triangle-shaped verifiable. Due to the fact that the ELA lay below the height of the plateau, slopes (Fig. 2/1 half-left below No. 77). the ice thickness is realistic. The depression of the glacier surface is a result of the ice which increasingly flowed down to the near Satpare Lungma on A valley section of c. 5 km in length follows, which, the NNE margin of the plateau. Locality: Fig. 2/2; Fig. 2/1 in the middle glaciogemorphologically speaking, is comparatively ster- between No. 77,80 and 84. ile. Due to debris tali from surficially crumblings, deriving from easily-weathering mica-schists which outcrop above, it shows a V-shaped valley cross-profile. Nevertheless, high- The tributary glaciers joining from both sides ( white lying glacigenic flank abrasions are obvious (Fig. 2/1 on and black on the very right; Photo 158 on the the left below No. 77). The two glacigenic side valleys very right) were impounded against the main glacier up to connected to the orographic right, and a cirque floor, also the same level of the glacier surface. This, too, is proved situated to the E, are evident (Fig. 2/1 below No. 77). by ground moraines (Photo 157, the two on the left) and In the upper reaches of the Satpare valley, i.e. where at glacigenic rock abrasions on the slopes ( on the very left 4100 m the Satpare Lungma comes down from the Deosai and right; Photo 158 on the very right). Accordingly, the plateau (Fig. 48) leading to the NNE, a typical start of a moraine remnants on the orographic right lower slope of the glacier valley has been preserved (Photo 160). It is as char- main valley (Photo 157 II–III) are classified as belong- acteristic as those in the former Norwegian fjell- and high ing to the Late Glacial Stages II and III (cf.Tab 1). At that plateau areas when they were completely glaciated by an time, when the ELA- (snow-line) depression had decreased inland ice sheet. The upper 5 km of the valley show a trough to a mere 1000 to 800 m and the ELA ran here, on the valley cross-profile (Fig. 2/1 on the left below No. 77). NNE margin of the Deosai plateau, at c. 4000 m, the Sat- Whilst the first 2 km are rather flat (left half), the following pare Lungma outlet glacier has only just reached the valley 3 km down-valley are already similar to an Alpine U-shaped exit, i.e. the Skardu Basin. The valley bottom of the Satpare valley with basal debris tali () and upper slopes which are Lungma has been made up from the late Late Glacial sander roughened by crumblings in the bedrock (on the right and (Stage IV, gravel field No. 1) and last from the current gravel left above ). As for this valley head, the roche-moutonnée- floor ( black) as well as from alluvial fans ( large and like glacigenic abrasion knobs on the culminations of the white), so that the ground moraine is completely covered valley flanks ( white and black in the middle and half-right; here (Photo 158 ). Fig. 2/1 on the left below No. 77) are evidence of an LGM- In the valley chamber connected up-valley, remnants of ice surface ( ) which had priority over the relief. This ground moraine pedestals are preserved ( white and below points to a corresponding snow-line at a height markedly black, small, on the right) which point out that before the below 4000 m, probably about 3700 to 3800 m, because accumulation of the gravel floor on the valley bottom ()has only several 100 m above the ELA, the glacier ice on the taken place, the ground moraine was dissected and partly bottom of the valley head – which, as happens here, leads removed by the Satpare river. Whilst the ground moraines down rather steeply –, is able to rise above the valley flanks. have survived mainly on the lower slope sections, i.e. reach 160 M. Kuhle

4.2. The prehistoric glaciation of the Deosai plateau (Deusi gested to be morainic, sedimentary rocks as e.g. quartzite high plateau) (Photo 161) and granites also occur in the boulders. In the centre of the Deosai plateau (Fig. 2/1 in the middle Where the geomorphologic high plateau character sets in, a between No. 83 and 84), where the creeks join to form the large-scale to completely covering ground moraine landform Shigar river (Photo 162), the valley bottom has been fluvially can be observed (Photo 160 second from the left; 161 ). remoulded (, ). On the slopes glacigenic abrasion round- Especially on the up to km-wide high valley bottoms ( white) ings can be evidenced (e.g. on the very left) as well as and in the smaller depressions between the roches mouton- sedimentologically classic ground moraines ( e.g. on the nées and abraded glacially streamlined hills ( ; Fig. 2/1 very left; Fig. 23) with portions of quartz grains from which between No. 77, 80, 84), the ground moraine creates a com- up to 100% are glacially crushed (Fig. 6 No. 17). On the val- plete cover. Towards the rock knobs the moraine decreases ley bottom below, i.e. in the talweg area, the accumulation of ( black) and in places the polished rock is devoid of it ( a glaciofluvial terrace landscape (Photo 162) has inset since on the very left; Fig. 48). the Late Glacial deglaciation, i.e. after the Taglung Stage Here, the pioneering feat of Oestreich (1906: 86–87, 91) (II; see Tab. 1). Here, glaciofluvially washed and displaced has to be emphasized. He has reached the Deusi plateau, as ground moraine material is concerned, sedimentated in the he called it, not through the Satpare Lungma (see above) – as form of two Late Glacial glacier mouth gravel floor terraces we did – but over the Burje La, following the Burje creek (in ( 2and 1). Between these oldest and highest terraces the Burji Tschu) from the Skardu Basin up to the N margin of the gravel floor bodies No. −0to−2 and last the historic the high plateau. Crossing the Deosai plateau from here, he to recent gravel fields No. −3to−8 have been deposited ( describes a prehistoric glacial landscape with these charac- −0–−8) (Tab 1) (Fig. 2/1 between No. 83 and 84) during the teristic words: ‘Alle Formen sind sanft gerundet, wellig und neoglacial period. The postglacial reshaping on the Deosai kuppig, alles ist von dem einstmals darüber hinweg strei- plateau, however, is only restricted to loose rocks like these. chenden Eise geschliffen worden.’ (ibid.: 86). However, his Also in this respect it is similar to the 500 to 1000 m higher assessment as to the expansion of the glaciers and the ice Tibet (Kuhle 1988g, 1991a, 1999). The glacially streamlined thickness connected to it is contradictory, when he writes: hills, as well as the roche-moutonnée-like rock knobs ( )set ‘Die Deusi waren zur Eiszeit ein gewaltiger Eisbehälter, und upon them, and the completely preserved trough valleys and es scheint, dass sie nicht etwa nur ein Firnbecken waren, transfluence passes with trough-shaped cross-profiles ( ) sondern vielmehr eine wirkliche Gletscherausbreitung, nach have survived without any modification (Fig. 2/1 between Art der Vorlandgletscher.’ (ibid.: 86). Accordingly, a pied- No. 83, 82, 84). Thus, the roundings of the highest mountain mont glacier of this type would only have flowed down ridges provide evidence of a covering LGM-glaciation of from the mountains fringing the plateau to the plateau area the centre ( ; Fig. 49). This is indicated, too, by a fur- and thus into the mountain foreland. Later, however, he ther exemplary locality with a ground moraine overlay and says ‘..., zu Zeiten mögen die Gletscher individualisiert a surficial scatter of relatively large, far-travelled boulders gewesen sein, zu Zeiten verschmolzen zu einer allgemeinen (Photo 163, 164, Fig. 2/1 on the right above No. 81). The Gletscherbedeckung. Die Deusi stellten alsdann ein grosses insignificant degree of weathering of the boulder surfaces – Eisreservoir dar, und das Eis strömte nicht nur in der natür- despite the freeze-and-thaw climate on the highland – points lichen Abzugsrinne, im Schigartal, hinab, sondern, wie ich to a Last Glacial, more exactly, Late Glacial sedimentation vermute, auch über die Erniedrigungen der Umrandung.’ during the Taglung Stage (II) c. 15,000 years ago. (ebd.: 87). The latter he proves with the help of erratics. 3 km W of this W/E-profile studied in detail (Fig. 49), According to our findings, the second of the two glaciation beyond a hill ridge, a further segment of the landscape variations was true for the LGM, because a continuous ice (Photo 165) has been observed, which cannot be explained cover had been built up at a thickness of c. 300 to 700 m fluvially or periglacially. The valley slanting to the S, is above the mountain ridges or even 900 m above the high flowed through anastomisingly by the orographic right trib- valley bottoms (Fig. 48–50). utary river of the Schigar river. It has created a valley floor Evidence of ground moraine (e.g. on the profile-line in of boulders by washing-out the ground moraine (). At Fig. 48) is provided by metres-sized (Photo 161 ), far- the same time the valley slopes have been undercut by lat- travelled boulders – because they are facetted to rounded eral erosion, so that loose material has also been displaced – in a polymict composition () in or upon a clay- and from there. It is metres-thick material () consisting of silt-containing matrix ( white). Besides the non-sorted polymict, partly erratic, rounded boulders () ‘swimming’ composition of the material the undulating surface with its in a clayey-silty matrix ( black on the very left). Owing to non-uniform, medium to flat incline also contradicts a fluvial this, weathering in situ has to be ruled out. Sedimentolog- accumulation. Mudflow dynamics (debris- or mudflows) on ically speaking these diamictites bear all the characteristics the plateau have to be ruled out, because catchment areas of far-travelled material, which at the same time has not been providing the necessary quantities of debris- and water at a fluvially displaced. They are considered to be moraines and sufficient difference in height and gradient of the ground, – geomorphologically – ground moraines. The two terrace can also be excluded. In addition to gneiss boulders which forms ( black below middle and below No. 78) are may originate from the underground and which, together also made up from loose rock and can most easily be inter- with conglomerate blocks, Oestreich (ibid.) has already sug- preted as being remnants of a ground moraine pedestal. In The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 161

Figure 49. One of three exemplary profiles (not exaggerated) in the area of the Deosai plateau (cf. Fig. 48 and 50). The gravel cover and the ground moraine are represented as thicker than they are so to leave the signature legible. The hilly to highland-like surface with a difference in height of 600mon this WE-profile shows the area depicted in the Photos 163 to 166. The LGM-glacier-surface indicated has been reconstructed according to the suggestion that it must have been situated above the hills with or without a ground moraine cover, which have been abraded by the glacigenic ground scouring. This is hypothetical insofar, as the exact thickness of the ice is no longer verifiable. Due to the fact that the ELA ran c. 400 m below the height of the plateau, the ice thickness of 200–900 m at a compact outline of the high plain of 24 to 28 km on average is realistic. Locality: Fig. 2/2; Photo 163–166; Fig. 2/1 on the right below No. 85 and on the right above No. 81, both at the same distance. this case, the ground moraine pedestal would have been cut by the river down to a depth of about 15 to 20 m and removed over the entire width of the river flood land (). At the same time, the fine material would have been flushed out so that the coarse blocks would have been displaced solely verti- cally downward, remaining consolidated in the river flood land (). A different interpretation of these terraces is that they might have been lateral moraines on both sides of a late Late Glacial valley glacier during Stage IV (Tab 1), which have lastly been reshaped to form lateral kames. In this case the terrace would have been created by the accumulation of slope material against the valley glacier, which had melted- down to a flatter, narrower shape, across the original lateral moraine. The abraded fjell-landscape ( ) makes an LGM-glacier surface (= Stage 0 = Würm glaciation) about 4800 m prob- able (Fig. 49); this also becomes obvious 3 km more to the W down-valley (Photo 166 ; Fig. 50). Here, the ground moraine landscape can immediately be diagnosed by the large-scale scatter of boulders transported by the Figure 50. One of three exemplary profiles in the area of the Deosai plateau (see also Fig. 48 and 49); the ground moraine has been represented as glacier ice ( ; Fig. 2/1 half-right above No. 81) as well thicker than it is so to leave the signature legible. From the high valley as by the typical later fluvial reshaping on the slopes (); bottoms as far as the upper slopes, the ground moraine becomes thinner this applies also to the forming of the glacially streamlined and toward the hill-tops it breaks off completely. This is a typical effect of ice covers which have priority over the relief. The ice overlay concerns the hills and the polish thresholds ( ; Fig. 2/1 half-right above LGM. Locality: Fig. 2/2; Photo 166; Fig. 2/1 on the right below No. 85 and No. 81). The flushing rills ( white) are of a minor age on the right above No. 81, both at the same distance. and they testify to a complete geomorphological change of the regime compared with the rounding and accumulating processes during the Ice Age. It is impossible that these the roughening of the small-scale exposed bedrock (above have been periglacial, because currently, i.e. at the time of ) by frost weathering – brings about an only slightly re- the rill development, solifluction also takes place here. This shaping of the glacial landscape. Nevertheless, the morainic becomes evident through drop-shaped solifluction garlands character of the loose-rock overlay has been exemplarily in- (Photo 167 below black on the right) and – together with 162 M. Kuhle vestigated on representative hill slopes (Fig. 24; 6 No. 18; erosion below the Late Glacial snow-line. During the LGM Fig. 2/1 on the right below No. 85). the ELA ran at c. 3600 m (in the Nanga-Parbat-massif 50 to The Scheosar Tso (lake; Photo 167) shows all features 60 km to the W at 3400 to 3600 m asl, Kuhle 1997: 123) of a glacigenic pass lake as they are typical of transfluence and during the Late Glacial Stages II to III about 300 to passes formed by glacier scouring (well-known Alpine ex- 500 m higher, i.e. 100 to 300 m higher than in the area of amples: Toten- lake on the Grimsel-pass, Upper-Engadine- the ‘tor’ (). Therefore at 3850 m asl a subglacial discharge lakes on the Maloja-pass etc.). Its over-deepened basin has had already been developed here at that time, dissecting the been created by ground scouring of the overflowing ice, i.e. trough valley bottom (between below and on the right as a polish depression between the polish thresholds ( ). of ) (root of a subglacial ravine: Fig. 2/1 below No. 85). The speed of the ice discharge forced by the western plateau So, the steep-walled ‘tor’ might have been made up in this margin might explain the locality of the lake. way, i.e. by fluvial erosion below the glacier. In this glacio- Whilst on the eastern N-margin of the Deosai plateau, geomorphologic and paleoclimatic connection, given by the where the Satpare Lungma sets in (Photo 160 left half) and glacier indicators and the ELA, the Late Glacial lateral- and the ice discharge into the Satpare Lungma outlet glacier end moraine at 3900 to 3600 m (Photo 168 IV; the sec- has taken place in a soft gradient curve of the underground ond IV from the left is a corresponding ground moraine (Chapt. 4.1), developing a large funnel which has sucked remnant or kame) is appropriate. It has to be classified as away the ice, i.e. a large-scale depression in the glacier sur- belonging to the Sirkung Stage (Tab 1) (Fig. 2/1 IV below face of the plateau (Fig. 48) – here, on the western margin No. 85). of the plateau, the Sartschur La (pass), a rock threshold (Photo 167 ; Fig. 2/1 on the right above No. 81) does 4.4. Summary of the prehistoric glaciation on the Deosai exist, over which the ice has flowed down abruptly and plateau steeply into the Das Khilin Gah (valley). However, here too the LGM-ice-level must have dropped from c. 4800 m on The detailed geomorphological findings in the field, as well the plateau (Fig. 50) to c. 4450 m asl ( on the very as the sedimentological laboratory analyses, testify to a com- right). This means that the ice above the roche moutonnée plete glacier cover of the hilly relief of the high plateau up of the marginal threshold ( white) would have been only to a level at 4700–4900 m asl. This is the surface height of 130 m thick. This is a minimum thickness for the develop- the maximum Ice Age glacier level (Fig. 48–50). Thus, the ment of distinct roche moutonnée forms like these. Because nearly round glacier face of the Deosai plateau amounted this plateau area lies c. 600 m above the LGM snow-line to c. 24 km in diametre. The glaciation, which, according altitude, a greater ice thickness could be suggested without to the freshness of its forms and sediments, belongs to the any problem. last Ice Age, provides evidence of a snow-line-depression as far as below 4000 m asl. This is the medium hill- and 4.3 The prehistoric glaciation of the upper Das Khilin Gah high valley bottom surface of the plateau. Calculated with deriving from an LGM-outlet-glacier, which flowed down the help of current small mountain glaciers and firn patches from the Deosai plateau to the WNW (Fig. 2/1 below (Photo 161,162,166 No. 80–82 and 84) the present-day cli- No. 85) matic snow-line runs about 4800 m. This means that the plateau was glaciated up to Stage III (the Late Glacial The upper 13 km of the Das Khilin Gah and the connected Dhampu Stage according to Tab 1), because at a large-scale side valleys, as well as source depressions of a still minor the ELA-depression amounted to 800–900 m. During the order, have been glacigenically abraded and rounded as far LGM (Stage 0, Tab 1) the snow-line has even run c. 400 m as above the valley flanks (Photo 168 ). There rounded below the height of the plateau. In a semi-arid climate this rock steps (second white from the left) and roches mou- means a difference in temperature of nearly 3◦C(2.8◦)onthe tonnées occur (the first black and fourth white from the glacier ground. This points to a cold-based ice lying on the left) as well as truncated spurs with glacigenically triangle- Deosai plateau during the LGM, and to a warm-based during shaped faces (third white from the left and first and third the Late Glacial. The glacigenic abrasion forms preserved black from the right) and preserved trough cross-profiles are rather smoothly-polished and softly-shaped (Photo 161, ( ) (Fig. 2/1 below No. 85). Further evidences of accumu- 164, 166, 167 ), whilst cold-based ice, which from time to lation are provided by the ground moraine covers, observed time is frozen to the underground, produces rough exaration- from the talweg up to at least 400 m up the valley slopes (; and detraction forms. Accordingly, the final Late Glacial ice Fig. 2/1 above No. 82). Thus, a valley glaciation is proved cover might have been the cause of their development. empirically, which also continues on this side of the trans- The outlet-glaciers, which during the LGM (= Würm = fluence pass ( ) leading from the Deosai plateau to the W Stage 0) were decakilometres-long and flowed down radially (Sartschur La). The Das Khilin Gah glacier is to be under- from the central Deosai-plateau-glacier into the valleys lead- stood – as just the synchronous Satpare Lungma glacier (see ing down from its margin, as e.g. the Satpare Lungma or the above) – as an outlet glacier of the Deosai plateau. Das Khilin Gah, reached as far as 2500 and 2400 m and then Besides the glacigenic abrasion forms discussed, typ- joined the next larger main glaciers, the Indus- and the As- ical ‘tors’, which have survived the Late Glacial glacier tor glacier respectively. During the Late Glacial Stages II or scouring, are also preserved (). The development of this III (cf. Tab 1) the terminus of the Satpare outlet-glacier has ‘tor’-example () has been prepared by subglacial meltwater even just reached the Skardu Basin (Indus valley), whilst the The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 163

Satpare Lungma glacier came to an end at 3200 m asl during Stage IV without having flowed through half the length of the Satpare Lungma (Fig. 2/1 IV at No. 77). During this final last Late Glacial Stage IV, when the ELA ran about 4200 m asl, i.e. already 200 m above the Deosai plateau, the Satpare Lungma glacier probably was no longer an outlet-glacier but a local valley glacier. Now it was mainly fed by the local, shortly-connected, steep hanging- and side glaciers on the orographic right, flowing down from the comparatively high 5032 m- and 5058 m-peaks (Fig. 2/1 below No. 77). Proba- bly, the Deosai ice had already melted down over large parts, so that the Satpare Lungma valley head was nearly free of ice. This does not correspond to the ice margin position of Stage IV in the Das Khilin Gah (Fig. 2/1 IV below No. 85). Here, the high summits are lacking and the highest Deosai plateau area, a good 4200 m-high, is situated only 4 km away. Generally, the minor reshaping of the glacial landform of the Deosai plateau since the deglaciation which actually Figure 51. Valley cross-profile (not exaggerated) through the middle Das only took place in the loose material, has to be stressed. Ex- Khilin Gah seen facing NNE (orographic right flank) to SSW (left flank) emplary for this are the Late Glacial to postglacial glacioflu- up-valley; to leave the signature legible, the gravel cover and the ground vial terraces, i.e. gravel plains on the high valley bottoms moraine have been represented as thicker than they are. The lower half of (Photo 162), the insignificant development of mudflow- and the LGM glacier- filling of the valley is documented by moraine deposits. On the valley bottom they are covered with the youngest Late Glacial gravel alluvial debris fans (Photo 164 Fig. 2/1 on the left above floor (No. 1; cf.Tab. 1). The upper half of the glacier ice-filling as far No. 84) or the glaciofluvial flushing of ground moraine as 3700 m is proved by traces of glacigenic abrasion. Locality: Fig. 2/2; pedestals and the corresponding compaction of the boulders Photo 169; Fig. 2/1 half-left below No. 86. contained (Photo 165 ). The cirque development observed in the marginal mountain-chains (Photo 162 ; Fig. 2/1 and above 82) join the valley chamber investigated in detail, No. 81) occurred repeatedly during the Pleistocene, early- which leads from the Jidim settlement up to 3.2 km further as well as late-glacially. It last took place in the last Late down. So, the Das Khilin Gah becomes a main valley of Glacial, i.e. during Stage IV (Sirkung Stage, cf. Tab 1) when a next higher order. Here, the orographic left flank, i.e. the the ELA ran about 4200–4300 m. mountain spur on the first intermediate valley ridge, has been abraded as far as beyond its culmination ( white; Fig. 2/1 4.5. The maximum Ice Age glaciation (LGM) of the middle on the right of No. 82). This also applies to the abraded slope and lower Das Khilin Gah as the large right side valley of as far as the next-lower orographic left valley junction ( the Astor (Astar) valley next to Nanga Parbat (Fig. 2/1 on black on the left), which has therefore also to be approached the left of No. 85–87) as a glacigenically triangular-shaped face (Fig. 2/1 above The middle Das Khilin Gah presented here is a rather well- No. 82). On the orographic left a third polished mountain preserved glacial valley with a characteristic trough cross- spur ( black on the right) confirms a highest LGM-ice profile (Photo 168 on the right; Fig. 2/1 No. 85). Char- level, which, following the valley incline, has dropped from acteristic abrasion forms of glacier flank polishing are also 3900 m to 3700 m asl ( and 0; Fig. 51) in this valley the triangular-shaped slopes on the back-polished mountain section. On the lower slopes Late Glacial ground moraine spurs between two side valley junctions ( on the right of remnants and the remains of lateral moraine ledges have No. 82; Fig. 2/1 No. 85). Additionally, mantlings of ground been observed (the three black and white above; Fig. 2/1 moraine are verifiable on the slopes ( small, on the very III on the left below No. 86), which, considering the arrange- right; Fig. 2/1 No. 85,86). The highest, unambigously re- ment of their position to the end moraine of Stage IV (Photo constructable valley glacier surface ( on the left below 168 IV, Fig. 2/1 IV below No. 85), belong to the Dhampu No. 86) has run in the valley chamber of the Jidim set- Stage (III, cf. Tab 1). On the steeper trough valley flanks tlement at c. 3900 m, i.e. about 600 m above the valley late Late Glacial (Stage IV) to postglacial rock crumblings bottom (Photo 169 on the left). The LGM-snow-line (Fig. 2/1 on the left below No. 86) have heaped up debris tali at c. 3600 m asl (see Chapt. 4.3) definitely lay below the over ground moraine cores since the deglaciation (Photo 169 glacier surface, so that a glacier feeding area the type of a ). firn stream glacier has existed as far as Jidim and still further From this locality and the corresponding trough-valley- down-valley. Accordingly, glacier ice- and -firn lay also on like cross-profiles (Fig. 51) 15 to 16 km down the Das Khilin the higher valley flanks (Photo 168 below No. 82 and Gah, the Taramdas settlement is situated. In this valley sec- 86–85). tion ground moraine remnants have been preserved on both ◦  ◦  From the orographic left three glacigenic trough valleys valley slopes (35 10’25 N/74 58’40 E; 2700 m asl) which (Photo 169 below No. 81, and left of it; Fig. 2/1 No. 81–82 are at least 30–35 m-thick. They reach as far as c. 100 m- 164 M. Kuhle high up the slopes – on the orographic right even somewhat But first reference is made to further observations in higher (Fig. 2/1 on the left of No. 86). As far as this val- the field: c. 2-3 km down-valley of those orographic right ley cross-profile and still further, up to the inflow into the kame terrace (see above), at the lower valley exit, the Astor valley, sporadically preserved flank abrasions are ev- bridge is situated, over which the route switches to the oro- ident (Fig. 2/1 on the left of No. 86 up to left of No. 87). graphic left valley flank (35◦15’30 N/74◦51 E; 2450 m The trough valley flanks are interrupted by the junctions of asl). Here, undisturbed ground moraine deposits, which have side valleys. As a result, glacigenically triangular-shaped been heavily compacted by the ice pressure, are preserved on slopes have been formed, created by back-polished moun- both sides of the Khilin Gah (here also named Das Khirim tain spurs of intermediate valley ridges. The valley bottom Gah) river in a primary position. They contain facetted to of the Das Khilin Gah is made up from a gravel accumula- polymict boulders in size up to several metres, which, iso- tion with terrace steps, interpreted as being a Late Glacial lated from each other, ‘swim’ in a fine matrix (Fig. 2/1 on gravel floor (glacier mouth gravel floor or sander) (Fig. 2/1 the left somewhat below No. 87). Again further down-valley, on the left below No. 87). In some places it might cover the Astor valley with its valley chamber of Gurikot contin- deposits of ground moraine. The large orographic right side ues in a NW-direction. Here, the Astor river has dissected valley leading from the Khume settlement (‘Khume Lungma the gray-coloured ground moraine reshaped by mudflow- or Tschu’) up the main valley, is also a typical trough valley and alluvial fans as well as by fluvial furrowing since the (Fig. 2/1 between No. 86 and 87). The massifs of the 4848 deglaciation, to a depth of c. 100 m (see Kuhle 1997: 205 m-peak (No. 85), the 4843 m-peak (No. 86) and the 5718 m- Photo 86 on the right below; 131/132 Fig. 28 on the right peak (No. 87) belong to its upper catchment area as well as of No. 35). In the context of the glacier history of the entire northwestern marginal areas of the Deosai plateau (Fig. 2/1 Nanga Parbat massif, the author has investigated in detail between No. 86 and 83), so that at a comparable Ice Age this area of the Basin of Gurikot in the Astor valley in the climatic snow-line (ELA) about 3600 m asl and the same summer of 1987 (Kuhle 1988b: 588; 1988c: 11; 1989: 271– exposition, a glacier ice filling similar to that of the main 273; 1991: 299; 1993: 108–110; 1996; 1997; 1998a: 90–94. valley, the Das Khilin Gah, has to be suggested anyway. The glaciogeomorphological and sedimentological findings About 2.5 km above the inflow of the Das Khilin Gah provide evidence of a maximum, probably LGM-ice-level in into the Astor valley in the valley chamber of the Pakora the Astor valley in the junction area of the Das Khilin Gah settlement, (35◦15’10 N/74◦53’20 E; height of the val- at c. 3700 m (Kuhle 1996: 138 Photo 1 below No. 5, ley bottom c. 2600 m asl) a c. 120 m-high kame-terrace 142/143, 154 Fig. 2 No. 32-36; 1997: 102/103, 131/132 is situated on the orographic right, accumulated from an Fig. 28 No. 32–36); this means c. 1250 m-high above those orographic right side valley against the Late Glacial Das side valley bottom which is still partly covered with ground Khilin Gah glacier arm (Fig. 2/1 on the left somewhat be- moraine (see above, Fig. 2/1 on the left, somewhat below low No. 87). It consists of displaced moraine material. A No. 87). During the Late Glacial Stage I the Astor glacier younger postglacial alluvial fan reaches through the kame- thickness has still amounted to 750 m (Kuhle 1997: 203– terrace, which in the meantime has been dissected by the 205, Photo 85 I–II) so that the Astor glacier surface creek of this right side valley. This kame terrace provides lay c. 300 m above that side valley bottom. Owing to this, evidence of a Late Glacial glacier thickness of c. 130 m and we must imagine an Astor glacier which flowed into the might be classified as belonging to the Taglung (II)- or Ghasa Das Khilin Gah. The significantly higher catchment area Stage (I; cf.Tab 1). A maximum thickness of the Das Khilin of the Nanga Parbat-massif, which accordingly – compared Gah glacier, joining the Astor glacier, is proved here by the with that of the Das Khilin Gah and the Deosai plateau mantlings of ground moraine (Fig. 2/1 on the left of No. 87) connected to it – is at present still more strongly glaciated above the kame level up to an altitude of c. 2850 m and (climatic snow-lines (ELA): currently 4600–4700 m, during the glacigenically triangle-shaped face (Fig. 2/1 on the left the LGM 3400-3500 m asl), has built-up an ice flow in the below No. 87; cf. Kuhle 1996: 155, Fig. 2 on the right above Astor glacier, which has probably pressed into this side val- No. 31 and 32) reaching c. 100 m higher up, as well as by the ley over many kilometres before it could be compensated adjacent glacigenic rock-abrasions. The ice was at least 350 by the Das Khilin Gah glacier-flow down-valley toward the m-thick, but it might, however, have been far thicker (see NE. The fact that the Ice Age (LGM) Astor glacier has met below). Directly opposite, on the NE-exposed, orographic the side valley glacier up to a level about 3200–3500 m asl, left valley flank, classic ground moraine in the shape of a may have been the cause of an ice connection between the ramp formed like a trough-profile segment, confirms this Deosai plateau and the Nanga Parbat ice stream network. In finding of an Ice Age Das Khilin Gah glacier (Fig. 2/1 on the perspective of the mass balance, the medium height of the left below No. 87, on the left above Khume). the catchment area at an ELA about 3600 m asl (see above) was too low to allow the Das Khilin Gah glacier to flow Here, however, the question has to be asked, whether the much deeper down than a few kilometres down-valley of the glacier ice has come from the much more important Astor Jidim settlement (i.e. up to approximately the cross-profile valley, i.e. has flowed into this side valley from below, or of Fig. 51). whether it has followed the Das Khilin Gah from above as From the 5718 m-peak (Fig. 2/1 No. 87) as a relatively far down as the valley exit (see below). very high, local catchment area which even today shows high valley glaciers (see Kuhle 1997: 205 Photo 86  below The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 165

No. 1), a steep valley glacier in continuation of the current to be classified as being from the LGM (Stage 0; 0); cirque glacier flowed down the ‘Pakora Lungma’ toward the and a second, running where the fresh abrasions come to an SW to the Das Khilin Gah valley bottom (ibid.: 131/132 end, so that it can accordingly be referred to as being from Fig. 28 on the right above No. 31) during the LGM. Because the oldest Late Glacial Ghasa-Stage (I; cf.Tab 1) ( I). of that, a glacier infilling of the lower Das Khilin Gah has Moraines in situ (), but also replaced moraines (), occur taken place in addition to the ice injection of the Astor val- in the zones near to the talweg. It has not been proved that ley. The Ice Age ‘Khume Lungma’ glacier (Fig. 2/1 between the large polymict boulders contained (♦ and ) are partly No. 86 and 87) with its 4843 m (No. 86) to 5718 m-high erratic (Fig. 2/1 below No. 72). As to the findings in this (No. 87) catchment areas has also contributed to this. valley section it has to be taken into consideration that the Finally it has to be pointed out that Dainelli (1922), orographic right flank of the Indus gorge rises steeply from who agrees with Oestreich (1906) as to the glaciation of the the valley bottom as far as beyond the current snow-line. Deosai plateau (Dainelli 1922: Tav.LXXVII.Fig. 2), in his The hanging glacier flowing down from the 5220 m-peak Tav.CLXXVII. has already sketched out a continuous valley (a SE-satellite of the 5770 m-peak, Fig. 2/1 No. 72) in a glacier from the Deosai plateau through the Das Khilin Gah SW-exposition, has joined the Indus parent glacier provid- as far as the Astor glacier, which he claims to belong to his ing local moraine. Here, Dainelli (1922 Tav.CLXXVII.) has ‘Terza Espansione Glaciale’. However, he has not visited correctly mapped an orographic right side glacier for the this area and has thus obviously deduced the Das Khilin Gah LGM, i.e. his ‘Terza Espansione Glaciale’, and also an oro- glacier on theoretical grounds. graphic left one, which has left the Turmik or Meyto Lungma (Fig. 2/1 on the right below No. 88; 1.5 km down the Indus from the cross-profile Fig. 52) and reached the Indus main 5. The Ice Age glaciation (LGM) of the middle Indus valley, because here, too, a catchment area of up to 5405 m valley between the Skardu Basin (Ponedas settlement) is connected. Dainelli points out that, 2 km down the Indus and the inflow of the (Fig. 2/1 between above from this inflow of the side glacier, his Indus glacier filling, No. 79 and above No. 92) which he supposes to be only 14 km-long from the Skardu Basin up to here, has totally ended (ibid.). The author, how- Dainelli (1922 Tav.V. and Tav.CLXXVII. as well as Tav.XLI ever, assumes a c. 1200 m-thick Indus main valley glacier, Fig. 2; Tav.XLII Fig. 1; Tav.XLIII. Fig. 1 and 3) assumed verifiable by ground moraines and, further above, flank abra- for his ‘Terza Espansione Glaciale’, which corresponds to sions (Fig. 52), i.e. an ice stream, which, due to the inflow the Würm Glaciation or LGM, an ice-free Skardu Basin. At of side glaciers, has become 200 m thicker than in the lower the same time, however, he suggested a glaciation of the Skardu Basin. In the valley chamber of the Dasu settlement lower exit of the Skardu Basin – which is discussed here (Fig. 53), the Indus glacier was even c. 1300 m-thick during – deriving from the orographic left side valley. Here he has the LGM: whilst the talweg declined, the glacier remained reconstructed a Shigarthang Lungma glacier, considering the at approximately the same level. This has to be related to ‘Kazarah rock avalanche’ – as the accumulation of coarse the substantial ice inflow from the orographic right Tormik boulders at Kazarh (or Cazzura, i.e. Kachura) has been ap- Lungma (Fig. 2/1 on the left of No. 51) and the left Trik proached by Hewitt (1999) – to be its end moraine (see Lungma (Fig. 2/1 above No. 88) (Photo 171 ). above Chap. 3.16). The author, however, who also interprets Here, both flanks of the Indus valley and these side val- this accumulation as a postglacial rock avalanche, has come leys have risen to c. 1400–1600 m above the ELA during to the conclusion that the LGM Indus glacier has not only the LGM, so that the side glaciers, also without the Indus reached the Skardu Basin, but has even filled it (Fig. 45 and main glacier, would have reached the main valley bottom 46) to the extent that, leaving the basin and flowing into the at about 2140–1900 m asl. Naturally, they have in any case downward valley stretch of the Indus gorge, its ice was c. reached and nourished the surface of the Indus glacier about 1000 m-thick (see Chap. 3.16.1). The corresponding glacier 3100–3200 m. In many places this applies especially to the level lay at c. 3200 m (Photo 154 ). orographic right side of the Indus gorge with its side valleys Going on from these data of the Skardu Basin, we fol- before it has reached the Gilgit river. low only the glacier traces from the basin into the Indus Flank abrasions and glacigenically triangle-shaped faces gorge. Here, at the start of the gorge, i.e. W of the ‘Kazarah occur on the back-polished mountain spurs between the wall rock avalanche’, glacigenic abrasion forms are evident on gullies (Fig. 2/1 between above No. 88 and below No. 72). both gorge flanks from the talweg (Indus) at 2145 m asl up- In several of the steepest gorge sections they are the only ward (Photo 170 white and black on the right; Fig. 2/1 glacier traces indicating the glacier level by their upper lim- below No. 72). The roche moutonnée, half of which has its (Fig. 52). The gorge flanks, concavely polished out by been linear-erosively worn down by a torrent ( white on glacier abrasion are remarkable, so that a typical ‘gorge-like the right), evidences once more that the smoothings in the trough’ (Kuhle 1982a, 1983a) has been developed (Fig. 2/1 fresh and completely unweathered rock originate from pre- between above No. 88 and below No. 72). In the wider historic times and that they are not to be confused with forms Indus valley section near the Dasu (or Smurdo) settlement of weathering. Due to the state of roughening since the (Photo 171), large portions of morainic material have been deglaciation, two ice levels can be differentiated: an older, preserved on the valley bottom ( large); ground moraine higher one up to which the polishings reach, which have has survived on the flanks, and especially in the position been more strongly roughened by weathering and which has 166 M. Kuhle

Figure 52. Valley cross-profile (not exaggerated) across the Indus Gorge from facing SSW (orographic left flank) to NNE (right flank) looking down-valley. In order to leave the signatures legible, the gravel cover has been represented as thicker than it is. Ground moraine deposits on the valley bottom have been covered or replaced by Late Glacial to recent gravel floors (No. 2 to −7; cf. Tab. 1) since the deglaciation after the Taglung Stage (II). The glacier ice filling up to c. 3200 m is evidenced by glacigenic traces of abrasion. Locality: Fig. 2/2; 7 km down the Indus from the viewpoint of Photo 170; Fig. 2/1 on the right of No. 88. of the spur unfavourable to removal, up to 3200 m asl ( too, a larger ground moraine complex (; Fig. 2/1 on the small; Fig. 53 on the right flank: Fig. 2/1 on the left of right above No. 91), similar to that at the exit of the ‘Tulu No. 51). The moraine mass on the valley bottom profits Lungma’ (see above), has been preserved on a truncated from the pedestal moraines at the exits of the Tormik- and spur. This topographic situation is favourable to moraine ac- Trik Lungma (Fig. 2/1 between No. 88 and 51). Though the cumulation, because the side glacier has edged out the parent valley bottom was situated at least 1700 m below the ELA glacier and thus created space for its pedestal moraine. during the LGM, and despite its subglacial dissection by On the bottom of the Indus gorge roches moutonnées hydrostatically confined meltwater, developing a subglacial or remnants of them have been preserved sporadically ravine (Fig. 2/1 half-left below No. 51), roches moutonnées (Photo 173 on the very right; Fig. 2/1 on the left below have been preserved ( on the right; Fig. 2/1 above No. 88). No. 89). The characteristic forms of dispersion, such as e.g. In the course of the 40 km-long Indus gorge stretch con- rills, roots of earth pyramids, moraine slides or crumblings tinuing down-valley up to the next exemplary cross-profile of abraded rock, are only cursorily pointed out here; they (Fig. 54), the ‘gorge-shaped trough- or trough-shaped gorge occur frequently and regularly (Photo 171–174; Fig. 2/1 character’ (ibid.) does not undergo a change worth men- between No. 72–91). tioning (Fig. 2/1 between above No. 91 and above No. 88), It is nearly impossible to interpret the loose rocks on the i.e. it naturally changes only in the confluences of the side valley slopes in the area of the next lower Indus valley cross- valleys. Two examples are provided by the junctions of the profile (Fig. 55) as being not glacigenic, i.e. as something ‘Tulu Lungma’ (Photo 172) after 24 km and the ‘5090 m- different from moraines (Photo 175). A large rock avalanche peak S-valley’ (Fig. 173) after 38 km. Here, glacigenically has to be ruled out, because the loose rock has been laid triangle-shaped slopes, developed from truncated spurs, are down in several complexes which are separated from each the rule (Fig. 2/1 below and on the right below No. 89). other (); several small rock avalanches are impossible, Owing to a lesser decline of the slopes, ground moraine because, falling down the mountain flank, they must have remnants have survived on them (Photo 172 and 173 ; stopped on their own in order to come to a standstill. Due Fig. 2/1 below No. 89). The bottoms of the hanging side to the steepness of the slopes this is unthinkable (see e.g. valleys have been regularly dissected by subglacial ravines, black, small). Accordingly, a valley filling up to their height, developed here during the LGM up to the deglaciation (be- namely about 800 m above the talweg, would be necessary low and half-right below No. 89) (Photo 172 ; 173 below to explain those accumulations as rock avalanches. How- ). Between the exemplarily narrow, trough-shaped gorge ever, for a huge rock avalanche such as this, the necessary profiles (Fig. 54 and 55), 3 km down-valley from Fig. 54, the break-out scar is absent. Small rock falls can be observed Ice Age Bulache Gah glacier has joined the Indus glacier, in many places ( ; Fig. 2/1 above No. 91); but they have flowing down from the currently still glaciated 5569 (or taken place since the deglaciation, because they are adjusted 5559; Fig. 2/1 No. 91) m-massif, which forms the dividing to the moraines (), i.e. have even occurred in their ma- crest to the Astor valley, adjacent to the SW (cf. Kuhle 1997: terial afterwards. A catchment area for the development of 131/132 Fig. 28 on the right of No. 46) (Photo 174). Here, small local hanging glaciers on the valley slopes is also The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 167

Figure 53. Valley cross-profile (not exaggerated) across the Indus Gorge from facing SSE (orographic left flank) to NNW (right flank) looking down-valley. The sketched-out LGM-glacier-filling of the valley is evidenced by deposits of ground moraine, which, even in the talweg, have not yet been replaced by a gravel cover at a thickness worth mentioning. The valley cross-profile has been widened, i.e. polished out to a trough-shape (cf. Photo 171 at ). On the orographic left side, the glacier ice-filling has been evidenced by glacigenic abrasion traces up to an altitude about nearly 3200 m asl. Locality: Fig.2/2; 3.5 km down the Indus, i.e. the talweg, from the viewpoint in Photo 171; Fig. 2/1 above No. 88. lacking: in this valley chamber the slopes are neither high feeding areas of the Karakorum at over 6000 and 7000 m, enough to reach a catchment area (cf. Fig. 55) nor do side was adjusted to the Indus parent glacier about 3100 m asl valley forms exist, which, at an ELA about 3800-3700 m, ( 0). This high level of the side valley glacier only be- could have reached down to the Indus valley talweg. This comes understandable by the back-damming ice filling of the proves that ground moraines (; Fig. 2/1 above No. 91) of main valley, particularly because the Puparash- or Haramosh an Indus parent glacier are concerned here. Only the feed- Lungma is a very short and steep valley and so would be ing area of the huge connected ice stream network had an unable to contain a thick glacier without an abutment. At area beyond 3800 m sufficiently large for the ice to flow 1400 m, 15 km away from the confluence with the Gilgit val- down to (here) 1550 m. The abrasion forms testify to an ice ley, the Puparash-Haramosh Lungma glacier has once more thickness of approximately 1600 m here. Corresponding are provided the Indus glacier with an important ice mass. the conditions in the area of the example in the next lower Here, the main valley already bears the characteristics Indus valley cross-profile, 8–10 km down-valley (Fig. 2/2 of a normal glacigenic trough valley (Fig. 2/1 on the left No. 56; Fig. 56; Photo 176). Hewitt (1998: 4, Fig. 1 No. 96) of No. 90; Photo 178 ). The end of the mountain spur has mapped a rock avalanche in this valley chamber. But on the orographic left had been reshaped to a ‘riegel’ (bar here, too, a break-out scar large enough to have the material mountain) and this to a roche moutonnée ( on the left of surged up to over 1000 m-high is lacking. In many places large; Fig. 2/1 on the left of No. 90). During the Late Glacial ( above) minor rock falls ( ) have come down onto the (Stage IV) the space between the roche moutonnée and the ground moraines (; Fig. 2/1 half-left above No. 91) on the spur ( large) has still been reached by the tongue of the orographic right slope. Puparash-Haramosh Lungma glacier and filled with ground From this cross-profile on (Fig. 56) the valley develops moraine and moraine material. In the main valley the Indus from a ‘gorge-shaped trough’ to a trough with a V-shaped parent glacier had already melted down. This succession of profile near to the talweg (Fig. 2/1 on the left above No. 91 High Glacial ground polishing with abrasion forms ( )and up to left below No. 90). Despite all structural-geological Late Glacial mantling with ground moraine () can be ob- conditions which are unknown in this valley, the V-shaped served in this valley chamber in many places (Fig. 2/1 on profile has to be deduced from the subglacial meltwater the left of No. 90). After the deglaciation the replacement stream, and the widening of the valley from the decreas- of the moraine cover ( and ) followed, which locally has ing decline of the talweg towards the Gilgit river (see also taken place several times and in great variety, as well as the Fig. 57 and 58). youngest fluvial aggradation (Fig. 2/1 on the left of No. 90) The Puparash or Haramosh Lungma, newly re- and its dissection ( white). The current, i.e. interglacial investigated by Meiners (2001) as to its prehistoric glacia- glacigenic shaping, is limited to cirques ( black; Fig. 2/1 tion, is connected to the Indus valley with an exit mantled No. 90) at an altitude beyond 4800 m asl. high-up with moraines (Photo 177 ) on the orographic right 7 km down the Indus valley from the junction of the (Fig. 2/1 on the left somewhat above No. 53). The LGM- Puparash-Haramosh Lungma, in the area of a glacigenically level of this tributary stream, flowing down from the highest polished-out valley-cross-profile which at the level of the 168 M. Kuhle

Figure 54. Valley cross-profile (not exaggerated) across the Indus gorge from facing SSW (orographic left flank) to NNE (right flank) looking down-valley. The sketched-out LGM-glacier-filling of the valley is documented by deposits of ground moraine on the orographic right as far as nearly half the height of its filling. They have been replaced by a gravel cover in the talweg since the deglaciation after the Taglung-Stage (IV; see Tab. 1) at the latest – perhaps already subglacially. The valley cross-profile is nearly V-shaped and has only been slightly concavely widened by glacigenic flank polishing over at most a few 100 m in the line of slope. On the orographic left the glacier ice-filling is completely evidenced by glacigenic abrasion forms up to a good 3100 m asl; on the orographic right it becomes obvious as to the upper 850 m. Locality: Fig. 2/2; 1.7 km down the Indus, i.e. the talweg, from the viewpoint in Photo 173; Fig. 2/1 between No. 89 and 91.

Figure 55. Valley cross-profile (not exaggerated) across the Indus Gorge from facing SSW (orographic left flank) to NNE (right flank) looking down-valley. On the orographic right the indicated LGM glacier-filling of the valley is evidenced by ground moraine covers as far as 2900 m; in the talweg they have been replaced by a gravel cover or they have already been syngenetically interrupted subglacially through a gravel floor between the left and right valley slope. The lower area of the valley cross-profile is nearly V-shaped; the upper one, above the rock shoulder on the orographic left, has been widened by glacigenic flank polishing (Photo 175 ). However, due to the ground moraine overlay, the true position of the surface of the rock flank can only roughly be interpolated. The glacier ice-filling up to an altitude of a good 3100 m asl is evidenced as for the upper 750 m by glacigenic abrasion forms on the orographic left. Locality: Fig. 2/2; 2 km up the Indus, i.e. the talweg, from the viewpoint in Photo 175; Fig. 2/1 immediately above No. 91. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 169

Figure 56. Valley cross-profile (not exaggerated) across the Indus Gorge above the inflow of the Gilgit river, facing W (orographic left flank) to E (right flank) looking down-valley. On the orographic right the indicated LGM glacier-filling of the valley is evidenced up to an altitude at 2650 m and on the orographic left up to 2200 m. On the orographic left side these moraine covers on the slopes are interrupted by steep rock slopes; on the valley bottom, near the talweg, they have been replaced by the deposit of gravels. Gravel layers of washed-out ground moraine like these (Photo 176 and ) might be syngenetical and so could have already been developed beneath the High- to Late Glacial glacier. The lower 550 m of the valley cross-profile, however, are already trough-shaped but narrow; the upper segment of the cross-profile as far as 3200 m asl is also trough-shaped and, in addition, very wide; the lower segment has partly been formed by the syngenetical, subglacial meltwater erosion. As for the upper 500 m the glacier ice-filling up to a height of a good 3100 m asl has been evidenced by glacigenic abrasion roundings in the bedrock. Locality: Fig. 2/2; c. 2 km up the Indus, i.e. the talweg, from the viewpoint in Photo 176; Fig. 2/1 somewhat to the left above No. 91.

Figure 57. Valley cross-profile (not exaggerated) across the Indus Gorge above the inflow of the Gilgit river, from facing SSE (orographic left flank) to NNW (right flank) looking down-valley. The indicated LGM glacier-filling of the relatively wide trough (Photo 179 ) is evidenced by ground moraines as far as a height of c. 2400 m (orographic right). The ground moraine layers are covered by deposits of rock avalanches on both slopes; on the valley bottom, near to the talweg, they have been replaced by gravel deposits. Gravel layers of washed-out ground moraine like these (Photo 178 and 179 ) might be syngenetical and so could have already been created beneath the High- to Late Glacial glacier. The glacier ice-filling up to a good 3100 m is proved by glacigenic abrasion roundings in the bedrock occurring on the upper c. 750 m. The trough form which, compared with the up-valley cross-profiles (Fig. 52–55), is wide, can be explained by the decreasing incline of the valley bottom (this applies also to Fig. 58). Locality: Fig. 2/2; 1.7 km up the Indus, i.e. the talweg, from the viewpoint in Photo 179; Fig. 2/1 on the left of No. 90. 170 M. Kuhle

LGM-ice is 7 km-wide (Fig. 57; Fig. 2/2), very freshly proached as a postglacial, fluvial undercutting by a moving preserved forms of glacier polishing and -smoothing have outer bank of the Indus river, or as a subglacial fluvial un- survived (Photo 180 and 179 large). Naturally, these traces dercutting below the joint Gilgit tributary stream and Indus of the ice are freshest where they have still recently been parent glacier. covered with ground moraine () (Fig. 2/1 on the left of The four-stepped terrace landscape filled into the No. 90 and half-right above No. 92). On the glacier bottom, glacigenically shaped valley relief (from to ; Fig. 2/1 a good 2 km below the ELA and at an LGM-ice-thickness above No. 92; cf. Photo 178  white, 179, 181 ) is young. of c. 1700 m, a waterfilm has existed between ice and rock, It is younger than the roches moutonnées (Photo 181 in the developed on thermal grounds as well as because of the ex- middle below), which have naturally been released from the ceeding of the pressure-melting-point. Thus, the gleaming ice only since the deglaciation and are covered by its terrace fine-polish, i.e. the shining rock-polish becomes understand- gravels. These 50 to 210 m-high gravel bodies are composed able. The sporadic flush-bowls (Photo 180 ) document of Holocene to historic river gravels of the Indus, dammed- the simultaneous presence of hydrostatically confined water up by rock avalanches and debris flow cones or -fans from with a forming effect. However, exactly these polish-forms the Indus valley flanks and side valleys. They have been (Photo 180) belong to the Late Glacial, i.e. Dhampu- or dissected syngenetically with the cutting of overspills into Sirkung Stage (III or IV, Tab 1), i.e. to the time of the last these barriers of loose material by the Indus. An example prehistoric glacier cover. Naturally, the ice pressure had fi- of this process is provided by the debris flow fan from the nally decreased, but the portions of water between the ice Bundschi Gah (Fig. 2/1 below No. 92; Photo 182 ). It is and the rock, necessary for the fine-polish, continued to ex- built-up from dislocated moraine material ( I–II; Fig. 2/1 ist. The separate flush-bowls () prove, that all other forms on the left of No. 91) and has dammed-up the Indus several are not fluvial and thus cannot be explained by the Indus at times, so that at least a few of the terrace levels concerned a higher river-level. have been developed in this way ( black; Photo 181 ). Here, too, the stratigraphically younger cover of ground Down-valley of the orographic left mountain spur in the moraine has again been worn down in many places, i.e. junction area of the Indus- into the Gilgit valley, the joint left replaced, during a longer period (Photo 179 ); there, the valley flank of the Indus-Gilgit valley starts, named Indus polishes have already splintered-off ( small). The different valley from here on (right half of the panorama; Fig. 2/2 colour of the ground moraine covers is striking: the dark between the cross-profiles Fig. 57 and 58). This slope in one on the dark rock ( white) mainly consists of local the transition to that main valley of a higher order shows moraine and is covered with slope debris: the light one ( glacigenic flank abrasions (three on the right), just reach- black) is denser and erratic (Fig. 2/1 on the left of No. 90 ing 3100 m, which mark the prehistoric glacier level ( and half-right above No. 92); replaced lake sediments are black on the right and white fine). It corresponds to that also contained. The last process of sedimentation, which one up-valley, marked by a clear polish cavetto ( white has still not come to an end, is that of the rock avalanches on the left). Approximately half of its abrasion faces is still (; Fig. 57) and smaller rock crumblings ( on the very covered with remnants of ground moraines (three white on left; Photo 180 ) taking place since the deglaciation. It the right; Fig. 2/1 half-right above No. 92). Currently these has been prepared by the glacigenic oversteepening of the debris bodies are removed through rill cuttings and at the valley flanks, which, as a result of the glacier erosion, have same time locally reshaped into earth pyramids (Fig. 2/1 on developed a U-profile (Fig. 57). Thus, the rock avalanches the right of No. 92), i.e. they are definitely prehistoric. The are the last stage of the glaciogemorphological cycle and no only different prehistoric possibility as to their development alternative. is glaciation, so that the alternative development as debris In the continuing, c. 8 km-long, section of the trough tali has to be ruled out. valley (Photo 181 ), the Indus has again cut into the rock According to the data extracted by the author in 1987 of the trough ground; here, too, the development of this (Kuhle 1988b: 588), the Gilgit- and the Indus glacier have dissection might have been caused by subglacially confined flowed together to form a joint lower Indus parent glacier water, which, due to cavitation corrasion, had an especially (Fig. 2) in the area of this valley cross-profile. Dainelli erosive effect (Photo 181 ; Fig. 2/1 above No. 92). Dur- (1922 Tav.CLXXVII.) suggested for this confluence neither ing the LGM the Indus glacier ground lay c. 2200 m below an Indus- nor a Gilgit- and lower Hunza valley glacier. The the snow-line. Even its surface lay 500 m below it. From author reconstructed a Hunza glacier, which, as the Manu- the heavily torn surface of this gorge glacier, meltwater has and Bagrot glacier, has flowed into the also glaciated Gilgit run through all crevasses into – and finally also beneath – valley, so that their ice merged into the Indus glacier (cf. the glacier, and then – accelerated by enormous hydrostatic also Kuhle 1988a,c; 1989, 1991, 1993). The communicating pressures – has been pressed with extremely high velocities glacier levels of these tributary streams have just reached a through subglacial ice tunnels. After this linear erosion, the height of 3100 m (Fig. 58; Fig. 2/2). The joint glacier surface glacier has continued its work, polishing the ground of the is evidenced by further abrasions and deposits of ground valley bottom. This is proved by the abrasion roundings ( moraines (Photo 182 and ; Fig. 2/1 on the right and in the middle, below). So, the basal flank steepening in the half-right below No. 92) in the orographic left valley flank orographic left flank of the Indus trough, down-valley of the downwards of the confluence concerned. Here, this large inflow of the Gilgit river (Photo 182 ), can either be ap- ice stream, which was the most important outlet glacier of The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 171

Figure 58. Valley cross-profile (not exaggerated) across the Indus valley, 5.5 km down from the inflow of the Gilgit river, in the junction area of the Saz Nala (river), facing WSW (orographic right flank) to ENE (left flank) looking up-valley. The indicated LGM glacier-filling of the c. 13 km-wide trough (Photo 182 ) was about 1800 m-thick and can be evidenced by a ground moraine cover up to an altitude of c. 3000 m (on the orographic left). This glacier ice-filling is also confirmed by glacigenic abrasion roundings in the bedrock which are sporadically exposed. The valley bottom is made up of terraced gravel deposits up to 2.5 km in width; part of these gravel layers might be syngenetical with the ground moraines and so has already been developed beneath the High- to Late Glacial (Stage 0 to I or II, see Tab. 1) glacier and fluvially reworked after the deglaciation. Locality: Fig. 2/2; 5.6 km down the Indus valley, i.e. from the viewpoint in Photo 182 directly to the S; Fig. 2/1 half-left above No. 91. the Karakorum-S-slope (Fig. 2), had a width of somewhat vol.2: 139), who in this connection has pointed out that the over 11 km and was c. 1700 m-thick. It has left behind an - trough profiles in the glaciated Karakorum always occur in according to its size, harmonic – trough valley cross-profile the areas, where the insignificant valley incline leads to an (Fig. 58), which, since the deglaciation, has been filled to a increase of the pressure forces in the glacier, and thus also to box-shaped glacial trough valley with a gravel bottom ( ; an increased polishing of the flanks. Fig. 2/1 above No. 92). The slope form of the 1965 m- A further factor which has increased the ground pol- hill (No. 92), which in contrast is stretched and precipitous, ish was the subglacial meltwater erosion beneath the Indus becomes understandable by the fluvial undercutting of the glacier. Above the gorge stretch, i.e. throughout the large Indus (). Skardu Basin over at least 60 km the glacier surface has already lain below the LGM snow-line at 3800–3600m asl. 5.1. Summary of the maximum glaciation (LGM) of the The meltwater beneath the 1000–1700 m-thick ice (here Indus valley in the course of its gorge between the Skardu already 1500–2300 m below the ELA) as hydrostatically Basin and the Gilgit river (Fig. 2/1; 2/2; Fig. 52-58) confined water, had a very high velocity of flow and thus erosional force. This led to the subglacial exaration of a This 135 km-long, gorge-like narrow and, as for the incline narrow, ravine-like cross-profile below the trough cross- of the talweg, steep valley course, has been continuously profile. The overlying glacier worked over the ground by flowed through by an ice stream, which was 1000 to 1700 polishing it afterwards, so that the ravine-profile has been m-thick (in the confluence with the Gilgit valley). This syngenetically widened to a V-shape (cf. Photo 173 black is confirmed by ground moraine covers on the slopes and = trough bottom, below white, middle and on the right glacigenic flank abrasions up to a height of at least 3200 m = V-shaped profile; 175 = trough and below = V- at the head of the gorge (= exit of the Skardu Basin) and shape; Fig. 55 and 56) (as for details see Kuhle 1982a: 60; somewhat below 3100 m asl at its end. 1983a: 158–160). Based on this interpretation, it is diffi- The upper four valley cross-profiles (Fig. 52–56) show cult to understand the development of a ground moraine a V-shaped gorge character, in parts widened to a ‘trough- pedestal or pedestal moraine, verifiable in the Indus gorge shaped gorge’ or a ‘gorge-shaped trough’ by flank polishing. stretch (Photo 75 large), as being syngenetical. Where At a steep valley incline, glacigenically V-shaped valleys of bedrock has been eroded, the synchronous accumulation this type are not unusual, but in the Karakorum they are of ground moraine is impossible. Synchronism is at most rather rare, because the valley incline is lacking. However, understandable by means of spatial differentiation, i.e. in they are the rule for all prehistorically glaciated Himalaya such a way, that ground moraine has been accumulated to cross-valleys (Kuhle 1982a: 59/60, 1983a: 154/155) and are a rather important thickness in the flow shadow behind rock to be deduced from the ground polishing, which, against that ribs. But perhaps a chronological separation applies: in this of the flank polishing, reduced by the tractive forces of the case, ground moraine pedestals have been built-up during glacier, has increased. This idea goes back to Visser (1938 172 M. Kuhle the deglaciation, in the time of the last Late Glacial Stages 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998a) (cf. Fig. 2). Schroder (1989: 144), III to IV (cf.Tab 1). who has listened to the author’s presentation in Leicester, Due to the Rakaposhi- and Haramosh chain, which im- March 1988, approximately follows this reconstruction, sug- mediately to the N reach up to over 6000 and even 7000 m, gesting a glacier terminus 25–100 km away from Nanga the 135 km-long section of the Indus gorge has received an Parbat, down the Indus. Dainelli (1922) has not visited this enormous influx of ice from the N through its orographic section of the Indus valley down-valley of the Skardu Basin, right side valleys, from the Ice Age Tormik glacier, Stak (or but has assumed an 18 km-long glaciation of the Indus val- Sak) Nala glacier with the Kohtia Lungma tributary stream ley for the LGM, deriving from the Astor valley and the from the Haramosh-E-flank (7397 or 7409 m; Fig. 2/1 valleys of the Nanga Parbat massif exposed to the WNW No. 53), Boroluma glacier, Ishakapal glacier, Puparash- (ibid. Tav. CLXXVII). In contrast to the reconstruction of Haramosh Lungma glacier (cf. Meiners 2001) and Darchan the author, based on field investigations, Dainelli’s ice has Gah glacier, to quote only the most important of them. But only occupied the foot of the Nanga Parbat and has come also from the left side valleys the glacier termini have still to an end c. 95 km up-valley of the Indus glacier termi- reached the 3200–3100 m-high level of the Indus parent nus indicated by the author. A further difference is, that in glacier, because the orographic snow-line had run there in Dainelli’s map no Indus valley glacier is marked between a N-exposition at only 3600 m during the LGM. this influx of the Astor valley glacier and the Skardu Basin, In this shady gorge stretch the very productive side and hence over an Indus stretch of 150 km. According to glaciers on the orographic right might still have fed the Indus the assumption of Dainelli (see Chapt. 5) an inflow of a val- parent glacier, when in the Late Glacial sections of the upper ley glacier has not taken place from the Gilgit- and lower Indus valley had already been cleared of ice. Hunza valley either. The author, however, has evidenced The Ice Age glacier influx from the Gilgit valley con- a continuous Hunza-Gilgit ice stream for the LGM, which nected to the orographic right, has already been investigated he has made probable with the help of fresh glacier striae (Kuhle 1988a-c,1989, 1991, 1993) (cf. Fig. 2) as well as (Kuhle 1988a,b,c, 1989, 1991,1993) (see Fig. 2 and 2/2). the orographic left glacier inflow into the lower Indus parent The Astor glacier, which Dainelli (ibid.) considered as hav- glacier by the Astor glacier and the rest of the side glaciers ing reached the Indus, has been confirmed by the author’s from the Nanga Parbat massif (Kuhle 1996, 1997). The Pho- field investigations (1987) (Kuhle 1988b,1996,1997) (see tos 111 and 112 of the last mentioned study (ibid.: 225, 226) Fig. 2/2). According to their fieldwork (1934) Finsterwalder show the area of the Nanga Parbat (Rakhiot valley and cur- (1938: 174) and Troll (1938a,b) contradict this opinion. rent glaciers) with the High Glacial glacier level of the Indus They pointed out that the Astor glacier has extended only parent glacier down- valley of the junction with the Gilgit somewhat farther than up to the Astor settlement, and that valley, introduced in detail here. the Astor valley, continuing in a downstream direction over 25-30 km, remained non-glaciated. In connection with the Das Khilin Gah glacier (see Fig. 2/2), which has joined the 6. Summary of the field- and laboratory data as to the Astor glacier, the author has newly referred in detail to his maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and reconstruction of an Astor glacier being c. 1500-thick in the South Karakorum in the Braldu-, Basna-, Shigar- and LGM (see Chapt.4.5.) (Kuhle 1996,1997). Haserodt’s inter- Indus valley system as well as on the Deosai plateau pretation (1989) has already been discussed (Kuhle 1996 and between the Skardu Basin and the Astor valley 1997). He describes the Indus valley below the Skardu Basin concerning the heights of their glacier levels and their as not being flowed through by an Ice Age valley glacier, ice thicknesses (Fig. 2/1 and 2/2) but as having only been reached by the tongue ends of side valley glaciers. 6.1. The glaciogemorphologically reconstructed prehistoric Dainelli (ibid.) has not provided field observations of the glacier extension in the light of the state of knowledge so far Indus valley from a few kilometres away from the Skardu Basin in a downstream direction, because he has not visited As for the results of the field investigations mainly carried this area. However, for his Mindel- and Riß-glaciation (1st out in 1997 and 2000 introduced here in detail, it is fun- and 2nd glaciation) he has postulated an Indus glacier which damentally new that a continuous ice stream network has he supposed to have filled the valley below the Skardu Basin. existed for the entire research area (Fig. 2/1) and that no A certain inductively obtained anticipation of the author’s LGM-glacier terminus could be reconstructed. Only dur- results may be seen in Dainelli’s observation (1922) that ing the Late Glacial did this ice stream network disperse the Skardu Basin, which he had investigated in detail, had into separate glaciers. The High Glacial ice stream network been filled and polished out by the glacier ice during these merged into the Indus glacier and thus had only one lowest two older (earlier than LGM) glaciations. This assumption, glacier terminus, namely that of the Indus parent glacier. In however, is not based on a 1400 m-thick ice-filling of the the course of his previous fieldwork done 115 km down- basin, as has been reconstructed by the author (Fig. 45, valley from Nanga Parbat (113 km down from the junction of 46; Fig. 2/2), but on a valley bottom, which during his 1st the Rakhiot valley) between the Sazin settlement and 20 km ◦  ◦  Quaternary glaciation was still higher and – until the end of down the Indus (down from 35 32 N/73 18 E), the author his 2nd glaciation (Riß- or pre- LGM) – has been polished has reconstructed the lowest LGM-tongue end of the Indus down to the level of the present-day rock bottom below the glacier at c. 850–800 m asl (Kuhle 1988a-c, 1989, 1991, The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 173 lake sediments and gravels. He describes and maps (ibid. literature as to the prehistoric glaciation of the Karakorum Tav.5) moraine-like deposits on the two ‘riegels’ Blukro and we owe to von Wissmann (1959). As for the Indus valley Karpochi as well as on the basin flanks c. 500–1000 m above section which continues 90 km SSE of the Skardu Basin the valley bottom and classifies them as belonging to the 2nd from the Kargil Basin upward, as well as for the connected glaciation, without inferring from them the corresponding Zanskar Himalaya (Fig. 2) is to be referred to the author’s glacier thickness at that time. This may be explained by the further field observations on the maximum Ice Age glacia- fact that Dainelli considers the height of the trough bottom tion (Kuhle 1998a: 88/89; Kuhle & Kuhle 1997); also for as having been much higher at the start of the 2nd glaciation the area 50 km NW of the Biafo glacier (Fig. 2) in the than at its end, whilst the highest moraine findings could Shimshal region (Kuhle 1996a, 1998a) and on the Karako- be dated as being from its start (from the 2nd glaciation). rum N-slope (Fig. 2) from the K2 up to the Tarim Basin A further observation of Dainelli (1922 Tav.LIV.), which is (Kuhle 1988b,d,e,f; 1994b; 1996b; 1998g. important from the perspective of the findings introduced Probably the Late Glacial end moraines (Stage I-IV, by the author, are the deposits mapped as ‘Morene della Tab 1) in the Indus valley section with its large side val- 2. espansione’ at greater heights on both slopes of the Shi- leys Braldu-, Basna- and Shigar valley, connected at Skardu, gar valley. These are sediments confirmed by the author as have in part been glaciofluvially and -limnically buried in moraines, i.e. ground moraines (Fig. 5 and 44; Fig. 2/2), the Skardu Basin (Fig. 2/2 in the area of Profile 45 and but which he has classified as belonging to the LGM glacier 46). Downstream of the Skardu Basin, in the narrow Indus filling. Summing up, the following has to be established: gorge up to the junction of the Gilgit river (Stage IV and III) whilst the author recognizes the preserved glacier traces as (Fig. 2/2 between Profile 52 and 57), but also further down- indicators of the LGM, which have completely reshaped an valley in the Nanga Parbat area (Stage II and I) (Fig. 2/2 older glacier history (during a previous stage of uplift of Profile 58 and below) they have been removed by the Indus the Karakorum at a different sea-level), Dainelli goes so river bearing plenty of water, and finally their remnants have far back into the past that – due to the then inevitably very been covered by the river gravels. Late Glacial end moraines important influence of the tectonic history of uplift (Schnei- (Stage III and IV) from the outlet glaciers of the Deosai der 1956, 1957), which for the most part is unknown – plateau glacier have survived – at least in remnants – in the his findings allow neither a reconstruction of the ice lev- Satpare Lungma and Das Khilin Gah (Fig. 2/2 S of Profile els or glacier thicknesses nor a paleoclimatic approach by 47; at Profile 51) (see Chapt.4.1 and 4.5). As for the rest, calculations as to the snow-line and glacier surfaces. Com- the Late Glacial glacier levels of the Stages I to IV (Tab 1) pared with this, Dainelli’s glacier reconstructions for his 3rd and their ice thicknesses have been reconstructed with the glaciation (1922 Tav.CLXXVII) are realistic. Chronologi- help of sporadically preserved lateral moraine ledges with cally it belongs to the LGM, but, according to the author’s and without erratics. observations in the field, it corresponds to the glacier ex- With regard to the differentiation of the Late Glacial ice tension during the High Glacial (Stage 0 = LGM) only in margins from the Holocene, neoglacial to historic ice mar- some areas – so e.g. on the Deosai plateau –, whilst for the gins of the Stages V to XII (cf Tab.2) in the Karakorum is most part it applies to that during the Late Glacial (in part to be referred here to the detailed observations of Meiners to that of the Stages I, II, III or IV; cf.Tab. 1). After having (1996, 1997, 1998, 2001). The postglacial reworking and discussed the observations of Dainelli, which were new at destruction, i.e. reshaping of ground- and lateral moraines, that time, Lydekker (1883) and Oestreich (1906), being the as well as the development of kames and related glacigenic definitely classical authors of the prehistoric glaciation of lateral forms of those High (LGM) to Late Glacial (I–IV) the Shigar valley as far as down to the Skardu Basin, are to Karakorum glaciers since the deglaciation have been inves- be acknowledged again (see Chap. 3.15) in this summary. tigated and typified by Iturrizaga (1997, 1998, 1999, 2001). Both authors have also introduced personal field observa- The comprehensive work of Kalvoda (1992) on the geo- tions on the Ice Age glaciation of the Braldu- and Basna morphology of the Himalaya and Karakorum is completely valley, merging into the Shigar valley (ibid.). Norin (1925), indispensable with regard to the postglacial high mountain however, who has worked there later and confirms the results geomorphology in our regional connection as well as to of Lydekker (1883), Oestreich (1906) and Dainelli (1922) the general understanding. As for the hardrock geology the only in part, has supposed the Braldu- and Basna valley to standard work of Searle (1991)is to be referred to. have been prehistorically glaciated, but neither the Shigar valley nor the Skardu Basin. Nevertheless, according to his 6.2. The glaciogeomorphologically reconstructed heights of investigations small valley glaciers have reached the basin the ice levels and glacier thicknesses of the prehistoric ice margin from much lower catchment areas from the S and stream network SW. Oestreich (1906) was obviously the first researcher who has recognized the complete glaciation of the Deosai plateau In addition to the reconstruction of the maximum extension (see Chap. 4.2.). of Ice Age glacier cover, also studied by the researchers In part very critical comments on the field data and in- mentioned above, the author’s field observations over several vestigation results of the classic researchers quoted here – months and their interpretation were focused on the glacio- with which the author does not agree –, but also a useful gemorphological evidence of the corresponding heights of compilation of the older Quaternary-geological expedition the ice level and glacier thicknesses at that time. Only in this way is the extension of the glacier surface of the prehis- 174 M. Kuhle toric Karakorum ice stream network recognizable. Merely the Chogolungma glacier valley and the continuing Basna the height of the glacier surface provides indications as to valley to c. 1800–2900 m (Chap. 3.14; Fig. 37–42; Fig. 2/2). the extension of the feeding area and the actual glacier form In the valley exits the Braldu glacier was still 2500 (Fig. 4) as well as the dome-shaped geometry of the surface of this and the Basna glacier c. 2600 m-thick (Fig. 43; Fig. 2/2). ice stream network. Its dammed-back, accumulative ele- All these most important valley glacier thicknesses of the vation and the autonomous-increase of its catchment areas Ice Age Karakorum lay above the snow-line (cf. Fig. 3– above the snow-line (ELA) become only understandable in 44 with the climatic snow-line altitudes in Fig. 2/2). They this way. Additionally, the ice thicknesses point to the flow have still exceeded the maximum LGM-glacier thicknesses dynamics of the glacier and the glacio-isostatic load of the of the Alpine ice stream network reaching c. 1800–2000 m crust. From the extension of the Karakorum ice stream net- by 20–30%, and may have had glacioisostatic effects up work (Fig. 2) on, the reconstructed glacier face is not only an to a depression about 50–100 m. In the very wide Shigar indicator of the Ice Age (LGM) thermal and hygrical climate valley the ice thickness has been reduced from c. 2400 m change in the subtropics, but, due to its surface albedo, also (Fig. 5) via 2150 m (Fig. 44) to c. 1300 m at the valley an effective cooling-amplifier (Kuhle 1985b, 1986e, 1987f, exit (Chap. 3.15.1). This corresponds approximately to the 1988b, 1998a, 2002 etc.). then ice thickness in the connected Skardu Basin; there it Distributed over the reserach area (Fig. 2/2), the 25 rep- has reached c. 1500 m (Fig. 45 and 46; Fig. 2/2) and de- resentative glaciogeomorphologic valley- and glacier cross- creased to c. 1000 m towards the NW, i.e. the exit of the profiles (Fig. 3–5, 37–58) show prehistoric glacier levels basin (Chap. 3.16.1). In the Indus gorge below the Skardu from 6200 (Fig. 37) down to 3100 m asl (Fig. 58): the first is Basin the level of the glacier surface has only minimally situated in the currently still glaciated regions of the highest dropped by 100 to 150 m, but the ice thickness has again summits in the Central Karakorum (Muztagh-Karakorum) increased up to 1700 m as far as the Gilgit glacier (Fig. 52- and the latter in the area of the Indus outlet glacier below 57; Fig. 2/2; Chap. 5.1). The reason for this is the deeply the inflow of the Ice Age Gilgit glacier (Fig. 2/2). In the dissected and steep course of the gorge, showing numerous area of the present-day upper Baltoro glacier between K2, narrow bends. In this gorge the ice was nearly blocked, i.e Broad Peak, Gasherbrum IV, Baltoro Kangri and Chogolisa due to the resistance by friction it flowed down very slowly. the ice level has even reached 6300 m asl (extreme value: At the same time the gorge glacier has been dammed-up by 6400 m) (Chap. 2–2.5). So too in the area of the current the c. 1800 m-thick Gilgit glacier as far as its suface level at Biafo glacier, the LGM-glacier surface has reached simi- c. 3100 m asl. The Indus- and the Gilgit glacier have both lar sea levels (Chap. 3.3). Correspondingly, in the areas of formed a parent glacier with a width up to 11 km (Fig. 58), the present-day Chogolungma-, Biafo- and Baltoro glacier which came in contact with the Astor glacier and the Nanga three dome-like ice culminations have existed in the large- Parbat ice stream network and mediated to an ice margin at scale cross-profile of the LGM ice stream network (Fig. 2/2). only just 800–850 m (Chap. 6.1). These very flat ice cupolas cannot just been explained by The ice level of the Deosai plateau glacier which on av- the reconstructed glacier cover, height of the ice level and erage is 24 km in size, lay approximately between 4700 and glacier thickness in the research area discussed here, but 4900 m asl, so that ice thicknesses of c. 200 m above the only by the entire Karakorum ice stream network, extending hill cupolas, and at most c. 900 m above the high valley bot- over c. 125,000 km2, depicted in Figure 2, and the mountain toms, could be extrapolated as being probable (Fig. 48–50; relief lying beneath. The ice-cupolas of these domes have Fig. 2/2; Chap. 4.4). The Deosai outlet glaciers investigated, communicated with each other over the transfluence passes the Satpare Lungma (Fig. 47) and Das Khilin Gah (Fig. 51; (Fig. 2/1), that means they have formed an approximately Fig. 2/2), have produced glacier connections to the Skardu continuous, i.e. unbroken, level of the ice surface without Basin, i.e. Astor valley, and thus to the ice stream network today’s breaks of the incline. This adjustment of the level has of the Karakorum S-slope, and at the same time to the Indus taken place across the transfluence passes. The ice overlay of ice stream network. In these terms, the Deosai glacier can be the Deosai plateau has made up a fourth dome, from which indicated as being one part of this entirety. outlet glaciers also flowed down the nearly actiniformly- The altitudes of the climatic glacier snow-lines (ELA) arranged valleys (Chap. 4.4). All these ice levels with their in the research area, summarized in Figure 2/2, in connec- large-scale surface inclines have met at the lowest point of tion with the 25 cross-profiles of the valley glaciers, lead to their joint ice discharge exactly at the place where, N of the deduction that the communicating surface of the most Nanga Parbat, the Astor glacier has merged into the Indus productive glacier branches of the ice stream network has glacier (Fig. 2/1 below No. 92; Fig. 2/2 below No. (Fig).58). remained below this snow-line from the lower Shigar val- Here, too, the talwegs join, so that the LGM-ice stream ley on as far as the Skardu Basin between Profile Fig. 44 network has flowed down subordinated to the relief, i.e. and Profile Fig. 45. Here, the ELA has run between about following the valley incline. 3700 and 3800 m asl during the LGM. From this it follows In the middle Braldo valley (or Braldu-,Biaho-,Blaldo that in this area the surface moraine cover sets in and, due Lungpa) an ice thickness of about 2600–2900 m has been to the growing ablation process down the Indus, may have reached (Fig. 3; Fig. 2/2). In the Baltoro glacier valley the increased rapidly. A condition for this is the feeding of the ice thickness amounted to c. 2400-2900 m (Chap. 2.11.), in glaciers, also participating during the glacial periods, from the Biafo glacier valley to c. 2450–2950 m (Chap. 3.3), in the steep faces of the highest mountains as e.g. the K2, Broad The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 175

Peak, Ogre, Spantik, Laila etc., which at that time still tow- iments caused by rock avalanches. Owing to this, the author ered 1000–2000 m above the highest glacier surfaces. Even considers the concept of the search for end moraines in the more debris has been produced by the participation of the Karakorum – pursued by many researchers – as method- numerous ground- and lateral moraines, which in the narrow ologically wrong. Thus he has concentrated his work on the valley network were very massive, and which in the con- sedimentological and geomorphological analysis of the val- fluences have first met to form internal- and then medial ley flanks and the search for ground- and lateral moraines moraines. In the middle to lower Skardu Basin (Fig. 2/2 there, as well as on the reconstruction of flank polishes, from Profile (Fig.) 46 on), this surface moraine developed for it is mainly the reconstruction of the ice levels which from avalanche-rock-debris merging with medial moraines enables a prehistoric glaciation in the high mountains to of the Central Karakorum (Muztagh), might have completely be estimated. The analysis of end-moraines, however, is covered the Indus parent glacier. Naturally, the participation naturally due mainly to the mountain forelands and low- of the covering glaciation of the Deosai plateau in this de- lands (Kuhle 1991b). The glaciogeomorphological analysis bris supply was only subordinated. Despite this substantial, of valley cross-profiles and valley flanks introduced here, albedo-decreasing production of surface moraine, at least which has led to the reconstruction of the c. 125,000 km2 80% of the surface of the ice stream network were situated extended and continuous Indus-Karakorum ice stream net- outside, i.e. at the same time above the surface moraine work (Fig. 2), also confirms through the realization of areas, so that they have reflected c. 75-90% of the global glacigenically over-steepened trough valley cross-profiles radiation on snow, firn and ice (Kuhle & Jacobsen 1988). the destabilisation of the valley flanks (cf. Kuhle, Meiners The result of this was a cooling and autonomous amplifica- & Iturrizaga 1998). Accordingly, rock avalanches as have tion as to the build-up and preservation of the Karakorum ice been described by Hewitt (1998 Fig. 1) do not contradict, but stream network (Kuhle 1988e). rather confirm the very large, 1000 to 2900 m-thick glacia- In the course of several glacial periods, the pre-glacial tion of the type of ice stream network reconstructed by the valley relief with its high plateau remnants (Deosai plateau) author as the actual condition for those prolific postglacial lying in between, the development of which had started in crumblings. the pre-Pleistocene and which was created by backward river Anyone who through glaciogeomorphological data col- erosion, has been glacigenically polished out, i.e. abraded lection has worked on the still extended Karakorum glaciers and – below the ELA – at the same time subglacially as e.g. the Baltoro-, Biafo-, Chogolungma glacier, will know dissected (Chapt. 5.1). During the interglacial periods the about the youngest, prehistoric surfaces of the trough walls, fluvial relief has been rejuvenated. At present the destruction which have been – and still are – heavily roughened by of the glacial relief is again taking place. current crumblings every day – and even of those to which valley glacier ice is still today attached on the lower slopes. 6.3. Postglacial rock avalanches as a confirmation of the Because of this relief-specific cause of gravitational mass LGM-glaciation movement, occurring not only in the bedrock, but naturally rather in the loose rock on the steep slopes, the attempts of The valuable reconstruction of rock avalanches in the so-called absolute datings on the background of the previ- Karakorum, mainly and most recently carried out by Hewitt ous physical- technical possibilities in the high mountains (1998 and 1999), is rightly an objection to the glaciation are methodically wrong. The continuing primary, secondary, concept of Dainelli (1922) and the epigonal literature, which tertiary, quaternary etc. replacement of the loose material as postglacial rock avalanches has misinterpreted as LGM- and well as of the datable boulder surfaces, their uncovering by Late Glacial end- moraines. flushing, and also their burying which takes place again and Hewitt (1999) introduces three examples of misinterpre- again and, in the Karakorum, even increases to an extreme tation (see above) from the Basin of Skardu and the Shigar extent because of the insignificant plant cover, disqualifies valley, i.e. our investigation area. As has already been de- this attempt at establishing ages in this steep relief nearly to scribed, the author completely agrees as to these isolated the category of a pseudo-scientific method. Dating attempts cases. At the same time, however, he does not recognize such as these, as well as the investigation of end moraines a contradiction to the glaciation history of the Karakorum, (see above), are rather due to the lowland than to the Karako- discussed here, but, in contrast, a confirmation. According rum Himalaya. The cold aridity with its poverty of plants is to the author’s opinion, which contradicts that of Dainelli, unfavourable even for a C14-analysis. especially in the Central Karakorum, no LGM- (3rd espan- However, the desire for an absolute dating of those pre- sione) end moraines are verifiable, because the ice stream historic glaciations of the ice stream network can be fulfilled network had only one joint ice margin position at c. 850– geomorphologically. The author has classified it as belong- 800 m asl in the lower Indus valley (Chapt. 6.1). In addition ing to the LGM, because the interglacial destruction of the Late Glacial end moraines have not been preserved, but the trough forms – as has been evidenced geomorphody- have been completely removed by the abundant and very namically by the current flank roughening and as has been erosion-effective meltwater in the forefield of the melting- confirmed by the numerous postglacial crumblings observed back ice stream network, especially in the narrow valley by Hewitt (ibid.) – takes place so fast that the preservation receptacles (cf. Kuhle 1994b: 184–186 Fig. 47 and 48). of the forms of a pre-LGM glaciation can be ruled out. Where this cannot be applied, as e.g. in the 10 km-wide Additionally, the history of the up-lift of the Karakorum Skardu Basin, they have been buried by damming-up of sed- 176 M. Kuhle

(Schneider 1956, 1957 and others) points to the time mark and end moraines, can be considered as belonging to the LGM as to the most extended glaciation by the fact, that the LGM. They are situated below the exits of the Tori valley height of the high mountains was noticeable lower during the at 1250 m (32◦12’30 N/76◦22’30 E) and the Triund valley pre-LGM. Thus, for the development of this extended ice at 1200 m asl (32◦12’50 N/76◦21’10 E). stream network a snow-line depression of several hundred metres more than in the LGM would have been necessary. 7.3. Supplements to the lowest LGM-ice margin positions of However, this is a climatically very improbable and therefore the Annapurna Himalaya (cf. Kuhle 1982a) (Fig. 1 No. 2) inadmissible additional consideration. In his map on the LGM glacier cover, sketched out during the According to the hierarchy of the scientific question, it expeditions 1976 and 1977 (ibid. Bd.II Abb.8), the author has been primarily worked on the geomorphological recon- has put the end of the Ice Age Modi Khola glacier above the struction of the prehistoric glacier cover. Inevitably the exact confluence with the synchronous Chomrong Khola glacier. age of the phenomenon which has to be evidenced is sec- However, a question mark has been added to the glacier ter- ondary. A wrong dating is not able to relativize the existence minal (ibid. Abb.8?, on the left below D). In the meantime of a prehistoric ice stream network. further interpretations of the data and additional findings in 1995 and 1998 yielded information that its tongue received 7. Lowest prehistoric ice margin positions of several an influx from the Chomrong Khola- and Kyumnu Khola valley glacier systems in the Hindukush, Himalaya and glacier during the LGM (Stage 0) and flowed down as far in East-Tibet near the Minya Konka-massif (Fig. 1) as c. 800 m asl up to the Dobila locality at the junction of theJareKhola(28◦13’50 N/83◦43 E) (Photo 188 ; 189 7.1. The lowest preserved, probably LGM-ice margin ). The trough valley cross-profile of the lower Modi Khola position in Chitral, Hindukush (Fig. 1 No. 22) ( ) reaches up to there, as does an orographic right kame- terrace (Photo 188 ). Down-valley the glacier mouth gravel Haserodt (1989) has suggested that the Ice Age Chitral floor terraces of Chuwa (Kusma) set in (ibid. Bd.I: 71/72, glacier terminated c. 8 km up-valley of the Buni settle- Bd.II Abb.7 and 105–108; Kuhle 1983a: 193–196). Among ment, so that the Mastuj- or Chitral main valley should have others, the following observations testify to this prehistoric been free of ice. Kamp (1999), in contrast, assumes that glacier extension: ground moraines up to at least 2400 m the prehistoric Chitral glacier has reached at most 100 km asl at the spur between the Chomrong- and Modi Khola ( further down-valley, as far as the Drohse settlement at black on the right) and on the orographic right side at the exit 1300 m asl. According to the author’s reconstruction the of the junction area of the Kyumnu Khola up to 2000 m (near LGM-Chitral glacier has even flowed down 15 km further Udi) ( black on the left); prehistoric subglacial potholes on (Photo 183; Fig. 2 on the left above No. 97), i.e. as far the orographic left between Landrung and Tolka at a height as the valley chamber of Mirkhani at 1050–1100 m asl  ◦  ◦  of 300–500 m above the current talweg ( ) and an oro- (35 28’40 N/71 46’30 E; Fig. 2 No. 97). This ice stream graphic right ground moraine cover ( white) at the inflow was not only thicker than 500 m, as has been supposed by of the Bhurungdi Khola at c. 1450 m asl. Accordingly, the Kamp (ibid.: 189), but three-times thicker. Whilst Kamp Modi Khola glacier near Birethanti (cf. Kuhle 1982a Bd.II (ibid.) does not assume a transfluence of the Tirich Mir Abb.8,d) still had a thickness of approximately 400 m ( glacier over the Zani pass, the author’s findings of granite white). erratics above the depression of the pass argue in favour of The LGM-Seti Khola glacier has also been mapped as this transfluence (Photo 184; Fig. 2 No. 96), thus providing being uncertain (ibid.: Abb.8? above K). With the help of evidence of a more important ice thickness. two up to 3 m-long erratic gneiss boulders (Photo 190 )on a rock head of schist bedrock W of Ghachok at 1500-1540 m 7.2. The Ice glacier filling of the Lahaul valley (SE-Zanskar asl, 350-390 m above the current talweg (Photo 190 ), its Himal) and two ice margin positions (probably LGM) in the LGM-glacier tongue end (position of the glacier mouth) can SE Pir Panjal Range SW-slope, NE of Dharamsala (Fig. 1 be extrapolated at c. 1000 m asl ( ). At an ice thickness of No. 17) c. 300-400 m and a glacier width of 2.5–3 km at Ghachok, The 3980 m-high Rothang (Jot) pass (32◦21’45 N/ the High Glacial Seti Khola glacier has in all probability 77◦14’50 E) was a transfluence pass over which the Lahaul reached the junction of the Seti- and Yamdi Khola situated glacier has flowed into the Kullu valley adjacent to the S. 6 km further down-valley (28◦16’20 N/83◦57’30 E) ( ). This is evidenced by glacigenic abrasion forms (Photo 185 The erratic boulders derive from the Himalaya main crest large) as well as its ground moraine cover (). Due to (Annapurna III–IV). According to the arrangement of their this transfluence the level of the Lahaul glacier has run at a positions they can neither be explained by mudflows (or re- height just about 4300–4400 m ( ). Its ice thickness has lated phenomena) (Fort 1986: 118) nor by a ‘Late Glacial amounted here to c. 1100–1200 m (see also Kuhle 1998a). glacial extent’ (ibid.: 108). Fort, however, does not come The two parallel valleys which from the 4971 m-high to a decision as to these two possible interpretations of the SE Pir Panjal massif NE of Dharamsala peter out into the accumulations in the Seti Khola cross-profile of Ghachok. Himalaya foreland to the SSW, have been glaciated as far Both of them can be ruled out by these erratics. down as the foreland (Photo 186, 187 ). Their lowest ice margin positions, recognizable by well-preserved lateral- The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 177 178 M. Kuhle

p Photo 1. 360°-panorama of the Upper Baltoro glacier with its northern tributary stream, the Godwin Austen glacier, taken from 4760 m asl (35°47′ N/76°31′ 20″ E) (Fig.2 No.1,3,6,9,10). At the end of this tributary stream, right in the north, the 8617 m-high K2 (Tschogori), second-highest mountain on earth (No.1), is situated. In front of it the Savoia glacier flows from the left (orographic right) side into the Godwin Austen glacier. The Chogolisa (No.6, 7665 m) is in the S with Concordia in front at an altitude of 4500-4600 m. Here, the Godwin Austen- and Upper Baltoro glacier are joining and the Baltoro glacier flows down to the W, i.e. to the right. To the orographic left is the WSW-flank of the 8047 m-high Broad Peak (No.3, Palchan Kangri). To the orographic right the Marble Peak (No.9, 6238 m) and Mitre Peak (No.10, 6010 m) can be seen. Right of the Marble Peak is a spur peak (––) polished glacigenically up to its sharpened summit (k on the right below No.9); it has got a glacially triangular-shaped slope (Fig.2 on the right above No.9). () mark the present-day strings of surface moraine. They are interrupted by detritus-free bands of glacier ice. The subtropically intense insolation creates white ice pyramids on them. (▼) signify present-day debris cones, deposited against the margins of the valley glaciers. They consist of older ground moraine material, dislocated from higher valley flank positions, as well as from the crumbling rock flanks of prehistoric glacigenic polish areas. In places where the denudation and the development of rills has only slightly advanced, glacigenic flank polishings are still preserved (k). (––) marks the Ice Age (LGM) glacier level at c. 6000-6250 m asl. It is evidenced by flank polishings breaking off in an upward direction (e.g. Fig.2 on the right below No.1) as well as by polish cavettos. This maximum glacier level ran 1200-1400 m above the present one. Photo M.Kuhle, 15.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 179 180 M. Kuhle

n Photo 2. Taken at c. 4800 m from the surface moraine () of the Godwin Austen glacier looking towards the N to the S-face of the K2 (8617 m) with the Fillipi glacier. The surface moraine is made up from polymict boulders of sedimentary rocks as e.g. crystalline schist, quartzite and gneiss. Only some of them are rounded at the edges. The rounded rock heads (k on the right) at the foot of the Broad Peak have been polished by the Godwin Austen glacier, the ice of which attained a much higher altitude during the High- (LGM) to Late Glacial (Fig.2 on the right below No.1). Flank polishings are also preserved on the opposite valley flank (j left). The glacier has polished back the confluence spur in the inset between Godwin Austen- (right) and the Savoia glacier (left) (j on the left). This glacially triangular-shaped slope and ‘truncated spur’ (Fig.2 left of No.1) reaches up to the 6394 m-high satellite of the Nera Peak sharpened by the ice stream network of the glacier. Up to this altitude, i.e. c. 1400 m above the modern level, the LGM-glacier level can be evidenced (––). The upper part of the glacially triangular-shaped slope has already been roughened by meltwater, ravines and rock falls (above j on the left) since the deglaciation. Such denudation and roughening takes place within only a few centuries or millennia. This is documented by the again roughened rock island in the Fillipi glacier (left of j centre). Photo M.Kuhle, 15.9.1997.

m Photo 4. At 4650 m asl, looking down the Godwin Austen glacier which over large parts is covered with surface moraine (), via Concordia (Baltoro glacier) situated c. 4 km away, facing S to the 7665 m-high Chogolisa (No.6). (lk) mark prehistoric flank polishings on metamorphic sedimentary bedrocks. The flattening of the profile line of the Chogolisa-N-spur provides evidence of the linking up of the two polish bands and flank polishings of the joining Vigne- (right) and Upper Baltoro glacier (left) at a far higher Ice Age glacier level. (––) is the corresponding glacier polish limit, i.e. the maximum prehistoric ice level (LGM) at c. 6300 m asl. () signifies remnants of ground moraine, reshaped by avalanches and meltwater which regularly show forms of debris cones. See Fig.2 No.6. Photo M.Kuhle, 15.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 181 182 M. Kuhle The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 183 184 M. Kuhle

n Photo 3. 200°-panorama taken from the large central medial moraine of the Godwin Austen glacier () at 4700 m asl (35°46′ N/76°31′ 45″ E) facing S with the Chogolisa (No.6, 7665 m) and the glacier confluence Concordia in the middleground, the drainage of the Baltoro parent glacier to the E with the Paiju Peak (No.11, 6600 m) and the Godwin Austen glacier with the K2 (No.1, 8617 m) in the N. Furthermore the Mitre Peak (No.10, 6010 m), the Masherbrum (No.5, 7821 m) and the Marble Peak (No.9, 6238 m) are visible. (––) marks the glacio-gemorphologically recorded position of the Ice Age (LGM) glacier surface. It ran between 5950 m asl at Concordia (––middleground of the panorama-centre) and 6400 m asl in the area of the Upper Baltoro glacier (––on the very left) and upper Godwin Austen glacier (––right third). The valley flanks, which extend up to the prehistoric glacier level (––), have been polished glacigenically (k). Since the deglaciation, i.e. since the lowering of the glacier level up to its present-day position (), these glacigenic smoothings and roundings are broken away and at the same time have been roughened. The debris of the breakages, also containing crumbled and dislocated ground moraine, have formed fresh debris cones and -slopes in new slope-gullies (▼). The dark sedimentary bedrocks are especially susceptible to this postglacial reshaping (in the areas of k). The massif-crystalline gneisses create steeper, very coarsely structured valley flanks (below ––between No.5 and 11 background). The Marble Peak has towered above the glacier surface by c. 150 m and due to the great stability of the marble has formed a nunatak with steep faces, i.e. a classic glacial horn. (See Fig.2 No.1,9,10,6). Photo M.Kuhle, 15.9.1997.

p Photo 6. At 4550 m, 1 km E from Concordia, i.e. from the centre of the glacier confluence, looking towards the NNE across the Baltoro- and lower Godwin Austen glaciers to the Broad Peak (No.3, 8047 m). () mark the Baltoro glacier covered by petrographically different surface moraine. The two components of the Broad Peak glacier flowing together in the junction area are visible (). (j) shows a few of the glacigenic rock polishings which have only been preserved in parts. They mediate to the prehistoric glacier level (––) evidenced by their occurrence. The undercutting of the rock faces through the present-day glacier margins of the Baltoro glacier () and of the Broad Peak glacier components () seems to have a steepening effect and at the same time to intensify the breakages (Fig.2 No.4) that due to the absent contiguity of the ice take place anyway. Photo M.Kuhle, 16.9.1997.

n Photo 5. 300°-panorama taken from Concordia at 4550 m asl, i.e. from the centre of the confluence area of Godwin Austen- (on the very left) and Upper Baltoro glacier (panorama-centre) from the glacier surface moraine covered with freshly fallen snow () (35°33′ 30″ N/76°44′ 30″ E). The camp (for scale) is put up between large boulders of the surface moraine, 1.8-3 km away from the valley flanks. Correspondingly, the present-day ice thickness is to be interpolated with the help of the dip of the valley flanks to c. 1300-1500 m. The K2 (No.1) is situated in the N, the Broad Peak (No.3, 8047 m) in the NE, the Gasherbrum IV (No.4, 7980 m) approx. in the E, the Baltoro Kangri (Golden Throne, No.7, 7312 m) in the SE, the Mitre Peak (No.10, 6010 m) in the S and the Paiju Peak (No.11, 6600 m) approx. in the W. (j) marks the Ice Age (LGM) to Late Glacial glacier flank polishings on glacially triangular-shaped slopes and back-polished mountain spurs between the exits of side valleys on metamorphic sedimentary bedrocks (phyllites). (––) is the High Glacial (LGM) ice level related to these flank smoothings running between an altitude of 5950 m at the Mitre Peak (No.10) and 6400 m between K2 and Broad Peak (No.1 and 3). Thus, the ice must have attained the very substantial thickness of 2700-2900 m here at Concordia. The sharp glacial horns of the Mitre Peak and the adjacent summits to the right (right quarter of the panorama) suggest that they have towered above the LGM- ice surface just a little. See Fig.2 No.1,3,4,6,7,10. Photo M.Kuhle, 3.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 185 186 M. Kuhle

n Photo 7. Looking from the large Concordia glacier confluence area at 4550 m asl towards the S to the 7980 (or 7925)m-high Gasherbrum IV (No.4). Viewpoint on the surface moraine () of the Baltoro glacier, which joins the Gasherbrum glacier coming from the E (). The highest visible summit further to the right is Gasherbrum V (7321 m). It is also part of the feeding area of the Gasherbrum glacier, supplying it with avalanches. (––) shows the minimum altitude of the Ice Age glacier level, (j) are remnants of polish bands and flank polishings in the bedrock below, as well as postglacial crumblings verifiable according to their glacigenic roundings (Fig.2 No.4). At some other points of these rock slopes decametres-thick High- to Late Glacial remnants of ground moraine occur which were pressed into the glacier flow shadow of rock niches and rills and stripped off by the glacier bottom (). Photo M.Kuhle, 3.9.1997.

m Photo 8. View from the Upper Baltoro glacier ( centre) at 4660 m asl (aneroid-measurement) facing NNW (No.9; Marble Peak 6238 m) via N across the Godwin Austen glacier tributary stream, the K2 (No.1) and the Broad Peak (No.3) with the junction of the Broad Peak glacier as far as NNE to the junction of the Gasherbrum glacier ( right). The Ice Age (LGM) glacier level (––) deduced and interpolated from the partly preserved glacier polishings (j) and triangular-shaped mountain spurs on the intermediate valley ridges (j on the very left and second and fourth from the left) (Fig.2 No.9,3,4) runs approx. 1400-1500 m above this confluence centre of the Baltoro glacier. The reconstruction suggests the sharpening of the Marble Peak SW- crest to have been created by the undercutting lateral erosion of the High Glacial ice stream network (––below No.9). (▼) shows debris cones consisting of material from crumblings on the surface and of High- to Late Glacial ground moraine in the core. Photo M.Kuhle, 16.9.1997.

o Photo 9. 360°-panorama at 4680 m asl (aneroid-measurement) from the Upper Baltoro glacier in the confluence area with the Vigne glacier (below No.12), 3.9 km SE of Concordia. A frozen supra-glacial meltwater lake is in the foreground. It has been melted into the glacier ice, rich in debris (). The Baltoro Kangri (No.7, 7312 m) is situated in the SE, in the confluence area of the Abruzzi glacier (from the left) and the northern Chogolisa glacier. The Trinity Peak (No.12, 6614 m), which is part of the Masherbrum Range, is in the SSW. Between the upper Baltoro- and Vigne glacier lies the N-crest of the Chogolisa-massif glacigenically sharpened especially during the LGM (––between 7 and 12). Between Mitre Peak (No.10) and Marble Peak (No.9) the Muztagh Tower (No.8, 7273 m) becomes visible in the NW. The 7360 m-high Skilbrum (No.13) is one of the highest mountains of the orographic right side valley system of the Godwin Austen glacier (-valley). It is situated beyond the large glacier confluence of Concordia in the NNW. Behind the white glacier string made up of glacier ice poor in moraines with pyramid forms (left half of the panorama and on the very right) short, steep side valley glaciers coming from the Gasherbrum group flow into the Upper Baltoro glacier (). () is a Late Glacial to Holocene orographic right lateral moraine remnant. (▼ on the left) signifies a Holocene debris cone the surface of which is made up from the debris of crumblings. It has a High- (LGM) to Late Glacial ground moraine core. The snow of avalanches from above causes small linear mudflows to flow down over the cone surface (between and ▼). (▼ on the very right) shows ground moraine material reshaped by slope flushing. (j) are glacigenic flank polishings which up-slope are coming to an end. Thereby they document the Ice Age glacier surface (––). These polishings have formed the mountain spurs of the intermediate valley ridges by backward denudation to typical triangular slopes. Their classic shaping becomes especially clear between No.12 and 10 (Fig.2 right of No.10). Photo M.Kuhle, 16.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 187 188 M. Kuhle

o Photo 11. Long-distance exposure of the Skilbrum massif at 4725 m asl facing NW. From this viewpoint the 7360 m-high main peak of the Upper Baltoro glacier (surface moraine ) can be seen (somewhat to the right below No.13). The seemingly higher summits left and right of No.13 are the 7103 m-high Savoia III and the 7263 m-high Savoia Kangri. The marked prehistoric glacier surface (––) runs between c. 6400 (left) and 6000 m asl (right). (j) show the glacigenic major forms of flank polishings on back-polished mountain spurs roughened by postglacial breakages in its different petrography: in metamorphic sedimentary rock (j) and in massif-crystalline rock (k). () is a postglacial debris slope made up from dislocated ground moraine and crumblings of the bedrock, deposited kame-like against the present-day glacier margin. Photo M.Kuhle, 16.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 189 190 M. Kuhle The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 191 192 M. Kuhle

n Photo 10. This 360°-panorama was taken at 4725 m asl from the surface moraine (third from the left) of the Upper Baltoro glacier. No.2 is the position of the Gasherbrum-group with the satellites of Gasherbrum V (7321 m) and Gasherbrum VI (7003 m) in the ENE. Its short valley glaciers (first and second from the right) are the orographic right catchment area of the Baltoro parent glacier. No.7 is the 7312 m-high Baltoro Kangri (Golden Throne), No.6 the Chogolisa (7665 m) situated up-glacier to the SE and S, respectively. Down-glacier facing NW, the Mitre Peak (No.10, 6010 m) can be seen; on the right side of the joining Vigne glacier the Muztagh Tower (No.8, 7273 m, for details see Photo 12), the Marble Peak (No.9, 6238 m) and the Skilbrum (No.13, 7360 m; for details see Photo 11) - the last three mountains beyond Concordia - are visible. In many places remnants of glacigenic flank polishings are evident (j). Some of them have developed major forms, i.e. glacially triangular-shaped slopes in the shape of classic back-polished mountain spurs (e.g. j large) (cf. also Fig.2 between No.9,2,10). The reconstructed maximum High Glacial (LGM) glacier level (––) ran above these roundings (j) , i.e. below the sharpened crests with their acute rock towers. In the case of the important, acute-angled ice confluence of the prehistoric Upper Baltoro glacier and Vigne tributary stream the N-crest of the Chogolisa group has also been sharpened subglacially (––on the right below No.6). To enable one to imagine the important dimensions of the present-day subtropical Baltoro valley glacier system with glacier extensions of 2-3 km and over 100 m-wide strings of surface moraine, our camp with its large kitchen-tent situated below No.8-9 provides a rough scale. Photo M.Kuhle, 16.9.1997.

n Photo 13. 360°-panorama taken at 4540 m asl, 3.2 km down the glacier, i.e. W of Concordia, from the middle of the Baltoro glacier. The surface moraine () is covered with fresh snow which fell a few days before. On the left as well as on the right margin of the panorama, in the N, the 6238 m-high Marble Peak (No.9) is depicted. No.3 is the 8047 m-high Broad Peak approx. in the NE, wearing a cap of clouds; No.4 the 7980 m- high Gasherbrum IV in the E, also with a cloud cover. On the right the 7321 m-high Gasherbrum V with its satellites is situated and somewhat behind on the right Gasherbrum I (Hidden Peak, No.2), the 8068 m-high main summit of the Gasherbrum group. The G I is part of the catchment area of the Abruzzi glacier joining the Upper Baltoro glacier. No.10 = Mitre Peak (6010 m-high); on its right side, directly to the S, the Nuating- or Mitre glacier. In this direction, on the path in the foreground tramped into the snow by expedition-porters, three persons provide a scale. No.14 is the 6781 m-high Biarchedi, belonging to the catchment area of the orographic left Biarchedi tributary glacier, which also merges into the Baltoro glacier from the S. No.11 marks the Paiju Peak (c. 6600 m-high) lying c. 30 km W of the viewpoint down the Baltoro glacier. (j) indicate rock smoothings derived from the prehistoric glacigenic flank polishing which, since the drop of the ice level, have still not been completely remoulded and blurred. In places, these polish bands have created the characteristic glacigenic triangular-shaped slopes (e.g. j on the very left and the two first from the right) (Fig.2 No.4,9,10). They have been developed in massive-crystalline rock (j right and left below No.10 and 14) as well as in sedimentary rock (j on the very left and the two on the right). Their occurrence in the latter has a greater indicator value, because in the massive-crystalline rock they largely tally with the rock structure anyway and have even partly been preformed by it. (––) signifies the LGM-glacier level about 6000 m asl, i.e. c. 1400- 1500 m above the present-day glacier surface. Photo M.Kuhle, 3.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 193 194 M. Kuhle

n Photo 12. Long-distance exposure of the summit of the Muztagh Tower (No.8, 7273 m) from the Upper Baltoro glacier at 4725 m asl facing WNW, looking across a far lower rock crest in front which shows patches of firn ice. The LGM-glacier level (––) lies at ca. 6000 m. The lateral undercutting of this mountain by the High Glacial ice stream network created a classic glacial horn. It is the highest glacial horn on earth. Its longish, lance-shaped outline from ESE to WNW (Fig.2 No.8) testifies a superficial ice drainage in this direction axis. We are looking to the ESE short side of the horn, i.e. to its ESE crest. Photo M.Kuhle, 16.9.1997.

m Photo 14. Looking from 4580 m asl to the N facing a hanging valley glacier in the orographic right flank of the Baltoro valley. It is covered with dark surface moraine ( right) and flows into the Baltoro glacier (the two on the left). (——) indicates the glacier level during the LGM reconstructed according to the trough- and U-shaped valley cross-profile (Fig.2 No.9). Up to this height the preservation of the glacigenic flank polishings is complete and continuous showing the profile lines characteristic of trough valleys (lk). An even considerably higher prehistoric ice level is not to be ruled out. However, the heavy decomposition of the valley flank into ribs, pillars and sharp satellites and towers does not allow an unambigious evidence. The orographic left trough valley flank is the Marble Peak (No.9) -WSW face. Photo M.Kuhle, 3.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 195 196 M. Kuhle

n Photo 15. Taken at 4465 m asl from the surface moraine () of the Baltoro glacier covered with fresh snow. Viewpoint a few 100 metres up-glacier from the junction with the orographic left side valley glacier, the Biarchedi glacier, facing SW to the Biarchedi (6781 m, No.14) and the Upper Biarchedi glacier with its large ice fall. (l) marks the glacigenically polished trough- i.e. U- shaped valley flanks (Fig.2 No.14). The orographic left flank shows a polish face on an outcropping rock pillar (k white) rounded in the horizontal- and stretched in the vertical profile. A bi-concave polish profile, i.e. a rock face hollowed out horizontally and vertically by polishing, can be observed on the orographic right flank (l black). The granite bedrock of these trough valley walls has got a fibrous structure and roughening caused by numerous rock breakages since the deglaciation (Fig.2 No.10). Their slabby appearance is characteristic of massive-crystalline rocks and can also be recognized on the flanks of fluvially shaped valleys. Thus, these trough valley flanks do not show any obviously glacial indicators of flank polishing. This means that at this location a fluvial phenomenon of convergence going back to the rock structure can only be ruled out by relating the positions to the numerous unambiguous forms of glacier polishing in the nearest vicinity. Photo M.Kuhle 3.9.1997.

m Photo 16. Viewpoint at c. 3950 m asl approx. 1.7 km away from Urdukas down the Baltoro glacier on the surface moraine () of the main glacier (Baltoro) between huge granite boulders ( in the foreground). Expedition porters with their loads in the foreground (for scale). At a distance of 31 km towards the E, still beyond Concordia, the 7980 m-high Gasherbrum IV (No.4) is situated; left of it (to the N) the 8047 m-high Broad Peak (No.3). The shortened perspective shows the Baltoro trough almost half-filled by the present-day glacier. Glacigenic flank polishings on both sides (j) provide evidence of its ice filling during the LGM. (––) mark the ice level at Concordia (in the background further right) to have been about 6000 m (Fig.2 No.9) and in the middle valley section (middleground on the left) about 5600 m asl at that time. Photo M.Kuhle 18.9.1997.

n Photo 17. 350°-panorama taken at c. 4330 m asl from the c. 25 m-high, striking ice ridge covered with surface moraine (the left and right , next to three persons) in the middle of the Baltoro glacier (35°44′ 40″ N/76°25′ 40″ E) in the area of the Gore Camp. Upward of the Baltoro glacier, W of the viewpoint, Gasherbrum IV (No.4) and Mitre Peak (No.10) are situated and downward, in the E, the c. 6600 m-high Paiju Peak (No.11). From the orographic right the Biange glacier joins the Baltoro glacier ( centre). It emerges from the tributary streams Dre glacier and Younghusband glacier, flowing together below the Muztagh Tower (No.8, 7273 m) which lies NE from here. The Ste Ste Saddle, the 5869 m-high source saddle of the Younghusband glacier, becomes visible on the right side of the Muztagh Tower. No.5 marks the 7821 m-high Masherbrum, SSE of this viewpoint. In front of this mountain, i.e. below its NE-face, the Yermandu glacier joins the Baltoro. This confluence is below No.27, but 4.2 km before the somewhat over 6000 m-high Urdokas Peak (No.27.) () indicate end moraines in hanging- and side valley mouths the glaciers of which no longer reach the Baltoro parent glacier. Their material consists of older (LGM- to Late Glacial) ground moraine which has been pushed together. It is mixed up with the edged debris of boulders of postglacial crumblings. Over large parts the valley flanks have been rounded by the work of the prehistoric glacier. However, glacigenic rock polishings occur only in places (j). Their state of development and preservation varies according to the petrovariance of the bedrocks. As for the granite it takes the form of large slabs (the two right j) but as for the sedimentary rocks it is finely splintered (the three j between No.8 and 4). (––) shows the highest geomorphologically demonstrable glacier level. The polish line (––) runs almost continuously about 6150-6000 m asl. (è ) signifies erosion rills which have been set - and still are - into glacigenic trough flanks by the meltwater of small Late Glacial hanging glaciers and Holocene to historic snow fields at right angles to the flank polishing. Photo M.Kuhle 2.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 197 198 M. Kuhle

p Photo 18. From the central surface moraine () of the Biange glacier composed of the side moraines of the Dre glacier (left of No.8) and the Younghusband glacier (between No.8 and 15), a 360°-panorama was taken at 4480 m asl (35°46′ 25″ N/76°23′ 30″ E). The surface moraine is recruited from the present-day flank polishing which undercuts the rock slopes of the Muztagh Tower (No.8) The Ice Age ice fillings of the upper valley chambers being then a good 1000 m thicker (––on both sides of No.8) lent the Muztagh Tower the shape of a glacial horn. No. 15 is the 6930 m-high W-satellite of the Skilbrum. Between No.8 and 15 the Ste Ste Saddle (5869 m) can be seen. Downwards to the SSW, the Biange glacier converges with the Baltoro parent glacier; the 6344 m-high N-satellite (No.16) of the Biarchedi stands behind. It consists of granite. (j) marks the glacigenic flank roundings and polish remnants. In places, rills and wall gorges are filled with superficially reshaped remnants of prehistoric moraine ( black) or with debris cones, which are to a great extent made up from crumblings (▼). The present-day glacigenic lateral erosion causes even steeper lower slopes in some places (è ). ( white) is a glaciofluvially dissected end moraine which was accumulated by an interglacial hanging glacier - and still is by that one of today. (––) is the High Glacial (LGM) glacier level. Photo M.Kuhle, 5.9.1997.

m Photo 22. At 4220 m asl from the middle of the Baltoro glacier, right N of the 6344 m-peak (No.16) and S of the locality Biange Goro (35°44′ N/76°23′ E) a 190°-panorama, taken from one of the 8 to 14 m-high ice hills covered by surface moraine (). The left margin of the panorama lies towards the SSE; the Masherbrum (No.5, 7821 m) stands in the SW beyond the inflow of the Yermanendu glacier (on the left below ). The Baltoro glacier, still 24 km-long from here, flows down to the W in a slight S-bend (right of the panorama centre). As far as approx. 1800 m above the present-day ice surface the orographic right side of the glacier is flanked by valley slopes polished glacigenically during the prehistoric period (j). On these slopes ( black) - and also on the orographic left side ( white) - Ice Age to Late Glacial ground moraines have been preserved. They are situated up to 700 m above today’s glacier level ( black). () are deposits of detritus at the exits of gullies which are adjusted to the glacier surface and provide the lateral moraines with detritus. () indicate fresh rock crumblings due to the modern lateral erosion of the Yermanendu glacier. (––) is the highest demonstrable prehistoric glacier level running about 6000-6150 m asl. Photo M.Kuhle, 6.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 199 200 M. Kuhle

p Photo 19. This picture shows a section of the panorama-photos 17 and 18 in a slightly changed view. The S-face of the Muztagh Tower (No.8, 7273 m) and its E-satellite, the 6719 m-high Black Tooth, falls away to the Dre glacier by maximally 1600 m. Despite the homogeneous petrography it is divided into two parts, i.e. at the point where the up to 80°-steep upper wall passes into the flatter lower wall with an inclination of 60-45°, a bend goes through. This indicates the Ice Age glacier level (––). At places where - dependent on the spur position - the denudation by avalanches is lacking, a glacigenic rock rounding has been preserved (j). The Muztagh Tower and the Black Tooth are situated on a ENE/WSW-trending crest (cf. Photo 12). They form a basally connected, glacial horn with two summits (Fig.2 No.8). Photo M.Kuhle, 2.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 201 202 M. Kuhle

n Photo 21. From the confluence area of the Yermanendu- (middleground) and the Baltoro (foreground) glacier looking SSW (c. 200°) to the Masherbrum group. () is one of the largest boulders from the surface moraine of the Baltoro glacier. At the time when the picture was taken, the moraine - lying 1000 altitude-metres below the present- day glacier snow-line (ELA) - was covered by a three decimetres-thick layer of fresh snow. The 7821 m-high Masherbrum (No.5), the c. 3000 m-high flank of which falls away to the Yermanendu glacier, consists of reddish granite. The true shady, bi-concave section of the flank’s NE-wall rises compactly over a distance of 2000 m and with an incline of 50-80° from two wall foot glaciers up to the firn-covered summit (the shaded wall). Towards the W there stands the 7163 m-high Masherbrum E (No.33). Its flanks are mantled by decametres-thick ice with numerous ice balconies. Photo M.Kuhle, 1.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 203 204 M. Kuhle

p Photo 20. Panorama at 4310 m asl from the middle of the freshly snow-covered Baltoro glacier () W of the Gore p Photo 24. At 4200 m asl, c. 1.8 km away from Camp Gore I, down the glacier, is a glacier mill Camp across the orographic left valley flank taken from S to W. The glacigenically rounded granites of the left half of on the surface in the middle of the Baltoro glacier (35°44′ N/76°19′ 58″ E) showing especially the panorama (j) belong to the N-slopes of the Biarchedi group. No.5 is the 7821 m-high Masherbrum, the steep NE- large dimensions. (p) points to a porter with a load (for comparison of the size) on the upper edge flank of which falls away towards the Yermanendu glacier (above ). No.27 is the 6368 m-high Urdokas group beyond of the glacier mill. Approximately 20 m below the glacier surface covered by moraine ( white) the Mandu glacier, a further right tributary glacier of the Baltoro glacier from the Masherbrum group. () are morainic the supra- and intra-glacial water joins creating a 150 m2 extended meltwater reservoir. () marks accumulations of different ages: ( white) is a prehistoric ground moraine core covered by avalanches, which is the steep tongue-front of the advancing (1997) Lhungka glacier. Two tributary streams are part of preserved in a valley inlet; ( black on the left) shows prehistoric moraine material with a permafrost core causing a its catchment area flowing down on the S-flank of the 6307 m-high Lhungka summit (above ). rock glacier-like self-movement of the moraine. ( black on the right) is a prehistoric, probably Late Glacial ground There is a further tributary glacier in the western parallel valley, which today no longer reaches the moraine remnant c. 200 m above the Baltoro glacier. () are hanging- and wall-foot glaciers remoulding and erasing Baltoro glacier (above black). Both the short-trough-like tributary valleys dissect the orographic the Ice Age horizontal glacigenic flank polishing (Fig.2 above No.14) down-slopes, i.e. at a right angle. (––) marks right Baltoro valley slope, which has been polished by the High Glacial ice (j). () marks a the Ice Age glacier surface reconstructed with the help of partly preserved indicators of glacier polishing. Its level runs prehistoric remnant of ground moraine. (––) indicates the LGM ice level. Photo M.Kuhle, about 6000 m. Photo M.Kuhle, 1.9.1997. 27.8.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 205 206 M. Kuhle

p Photo 23. Detail of the orographic right Baltoro trough valley flank at 4220 m, looking from the middle of the glacier downwards in an approx. W direction. The glacial horn of the Uli Biaho I (No.26, 6417 m) stands exactly in the W; to its left, 3 km down the glacier, is the c. 6600 m-high Paiju Peak (No.11). The main summit of the Trango group (No.23) is the 6286 m-high Trango Cathedral (Trango I). No.17 indicates the 6729 m-high Mount Biale. In front of it, i.e. E of this mountain, the Muztagh glacier joins the Baltoro glacier from NNW (above on the right). The Mt. Biale, the N-flank of which is turned away in this perspective, belongs to the catchment area of the Muztagh glacier. (j) marks the glacigenic rock roundings which are often combined with glacigenically triangular-shaped slopes on back-polished mountain spurs. () is a rock face destroyed on a relatively large scale by falling rocks. Above () the bedrock granite develops column-like structures of breakages. (t white) signifies crescent-shaped crumblings. Avalanche tracks ( white) adjusted to the hanging glaciers (+) in the steep walls, destroy the rock, too. ( black) is a gully, progressively filled up by moraine and also debris of fresh crumblings in a downward direction. (o black) shows a fresh break-away which results from the undercutting by the orographic left glacier margin. Through this debris and the material of crumblings the increasing thickness of the surface moraine () towards the glacier margins can be explained. (––) is the evident maximum prehistoric ice level at altitudes about 6000 m. Photo M.Kuhle, 6.9.1997. m Photo 27. No.18 is the 6224 m-peak in the confluence-triangle between Chagaran- () and Muztagh glacier (+) (35°48′ 40″ N/ 76°17′ 40″ E). The wall gorge glacier in its SW-flank, hanging steeply down, terminates as a cold to tempered glacier with a steep tongue-front and a meltwater-string only in the middle of summer (). (j) are glacigenic rock smoothings which occur up to an altitude at 6050 m asl. They provide evidence of a High Glacial (LGM) glacier level (––) running at least 1600 m above the present-day level of the Muztagh glacier (+). (v) is an a few centuries- old debris cone below a fresh crumbling which has been (and still is) sedimented on the surface of the Muztagh glacier. Proximally its mantle is continuously supplemented by the debris of the crumblings whilst distally it is eroded by the glacier flow. Photo M.Kuhle, 1.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 207 208 M. Kuhle

m Photo 29: From the surface moraine of the Baltoro glacier (35°43′ 40″ N/76°14′ 25″ E) at 3920 m asl, looking up the Dunge glacier () facing NNW (335°) towards the 6544 m-summit (No.25), the western satellite of the Kruksum (No.19, 6600 m). It is separated by an orographic left tributary stream of the Dunge glacier (in the blind spot of the rock crest, below No.19 middleground) from the Mt. Biale W-face (also not visible). On the orographic right - seen from the Dunge glacier as well as from the Baltoro glacier - the granite-crest of the Trango Cathedral rises 2000 m, i.e. up to over 6000 m. There, the glacigenic flank smoothings are preserved the best (l). (––) indicates the LGM glacier level. At the valley head of the Dunge valley it has attained a height of c. 6200 m. The glacier snow-line (ELA) runs at c. 4800 m asl, that is in the upper third of the ice fall, torn by transverse crevasses. Photo M.Kuhle, 18.9.1997.

m Photo 30. ESE-flank of the Trango Cathedral (Trango I, No.23, 6286 m); the picture was taken from the confluence area of the Dunge glacier and the Baltoro parent glacier after a sudden drop in temperature with heavy snowfall lasting two days. The snow cover indicates the flatter parts of the granite face, whilst at places where the snow is lacking the face is steeper. The former have been rounded glacigenically. However, the rounded rock forms do not occur up to the Ice Age glacier level (––) everywhere. On the rounded, as well as on the edged, faces of the steep walls sharp breakages have been formed. Their slabby break-aways seem to preserve the round forms rounded and the straight ones edged and straight. Photo M.Kuhle, 28.8.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 209 210 M. Kuhle

p Photo 25. 360°-panorama from the orographic right, i.e. northern large medial moraine string of the Baltoro glacier ( large; 35°44′ 20″ N/76°18′ E) at c. 4090 m asl. The porter group with its load (between No.11 and 18) having a rest, gives an impression of the dimensions of the surface moraine boulders thawing out of the fresh snow. Down the glacier towards the W the c. 6600 m-high Paiju (No.11); in the N a 6224 m-high granite peak is situated above the inflow of the Chagaran glacier into the Muztagh glacier (No.18), which is one of the large orographic right tributary glaciers of the Baltoro glacier ( below No.18). Gasherbrum IV (No.4, 7980 m) stands up-glacier in the E. No.16 is the 6344 m-high Serac Peak on the orographic left of the Baltoro glacier. At its base the Yermandu glacier joins the Baltoro glacier. The commanding orographic left summit is the Masherbrum (No.5, 7821 m). Its N-flank provides the Mandu glacier, situated below, with ice. Between the second and third ()è from the right this glacier reaches the Baltoro parent glacier. No.27 are the up to 6368 m- high Urdokas Peaks on the orographic left side of the Baltoro glacier. Due to the moraine debris, the glacier margin is particularly capable of polishing and undercuts the valley flanks by lateral erosion. This becomes especially clear in the steepening of the lower slopes (è ). On the orographic right valley flanks consisting of granite, the prehistoric glacier polishings are the best preserved (j). Glacigenic rock roundings occur on the spur-shaped flank of the 6224 m-summit up to approx. 6000 m asl (j below No.18) (see Photo 27). According to these traces of the polish line, the Ice Age (LGM) segments of the glacier level (––) can be reconstructed at an altitude of 5950 to 6100 m asl. Photo M.Kuhle, 1.9.1997.

m Photo 31. The ESE- (left of No.23) and ENE-flanks (right of No.23) of the Trango Cathedral (Trango I, No.30, 6286 m). View at 4150 m from the middle of the Mandu glacier not far from its inflow into the Baltoro parent glacier. Nearby is the 6239 m-high Trango Tower (No.24) the summit form of which is typical of the petrography of granite, but which at the same time can also be explained by glacial erosion. (––) is the highest prehistoric glacier level at 6050 m asl to be evidenced here. Besides the minor decline of its talweg, the Ice Age glacier drainage of this valley system, fringed by over 2500 m-high trough flanks, has been heavily impeded by friction forces. They have found a glaciogemorphological expression in the tub-like steepness of the valley walls and the extraordinarily uniform flank abrasion. Photo M.Kuhle, 31.8.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 211 212 M. Kuhle

n Photo 32. On its orographic right the Baltoro glacier is flanked by the locality of Urdokas - a neoglacial to historic lateral moraine area. Here stands the Urdokas Peak, the northernmost satellite of which (No.27, c. 5600 m, 35°43′ 40″ N/76°14′ 20″ E) is seen from the E. Up to the highest point of the summit the flanks are glacigenically abraded (l) and sharpened. This documents that they were completely overflowed by the LGM-glacier. During the Late Glacial, when the glacier level was lowered, a polish cavetto ({) has been developed in the rock face of the summit. This points to a longer-surviving height of the glacier margin at this level. The torn glacier ice in the fore- and middleground is part of the Urdokas glacier. This present-day hanging glacier marginally underpolishes the summit of the Urdokas satellite. Fresh snow had fallen during the previous two days. Photo M.Kuhle, 29.8.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 213 214 M. Kuhle

p Photo 26. This 180°-panorama was taken from the middle of the Mandu glacier ( half-right in the foreground), c. 1.2 km upwards (to the S) from its confluence with the Baltoro glacier (35°43′ 10″ N/76°17′ 55″ E, 4150 m asl), looking across the Baltoro glacier and its orographic right valley flank. The panorama’s left margin is in the W, the 6224 m-peak (No.18) is in the N and Concordia with the Gasherbrum IV-Peak (hidden by clouds), forming the valley exit, lies in the E. No.23 is the 6286 m- high Trango Cathedral, the main-summit of the Trango Group. No.24 is the Trango Tower (6239 m) built up of granite. The highest summit in the middle section of the right Baltoro valley flank is the Mount Biale (No.17, 6729 m); coming out of its SSE- flank, the Biale tributary stream reaches the Baltoro parent glacier from the N ( middleground on the left). ( in the middleground on the right) is the inflow of the ramifying Muztagh glacier, also from the N, into the parent glacier. () shows end moraine material in the forefield of the present-day Lhungka glacier flowing down from the Lhungka Peak (No.32, 6307 m asl) and Biange Peak (No.31, 6427 m asl). The orographic right, large-scale flank polishings of the Baltoro valley (j) have only been slightly geomorphologically modified by concordant crumblings. They start at the horizontal stratification surfaces (o). These are classic release joints as they are characteristic of granite. () marks still fresher, but different crumblings the form of which is controlled by a vertical, pillar-like structure of the granite bedrock. (è ) show wall gorges which become narrower in a downward direction. From time to time, i.e. during the Pleistocene periods, the embedment of a valley glacier has more and more put a stop to their development. (––) indicates the LGM glacier level. Despite its position about 1000 m below the present-day ELA (snow-line), the surface moraine of the Baltoro glacier wears a 30 cm-thick cover of freshly fallen snow ( foreground). Photo M.Kuhle, 31.8.1997.

m Photo 33. View from the orographic left, moraine-covered margin () of the Baltoro glacier in the area of the inflow of the western Urdokas- (35°43′ 20″ N/76°15′ E, 3990 m asl) into the Baltoro glacier, facing SE. The valley flank of granite bedrock is perfectly glacigenically rounded (j). Its large-scale vertical pattern of dark water stripes, indicating the areas of the down-flowing water, makes clear, that - with the exception of only one gully (above ▼) - up to the present no fluvial gully-system could develop. At many places the almost horizontal glacier striae and lunar-like fractures are overlain by water stripes parallel to the line of dip without having been reshaped or disintegrated. (▼) is a fresh small cone of coarse granite-debris which has been broken off from the young, steep and narrow erosion rill and eroded during the postglacial period. (––) shows the minimum altitude of the prehistoric glacier level derived from the flank which is polished round up to the culmination. Photo M.Kuhle, 8.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 215 216 M. Kuhle The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 217 218 M. Kuhle

p Photo 28. 180°-panorama from Urdokas, i.e. from the orographic left neoglacial lateral moraine of the Baltoro glacier (35°43′ 50″ N/76°16′ E) at 4120 m asl: on the very left the Paiju Peak (No.11, c. 6600 m-high) in the W; the Uli Biaho (No.26, 6417 m), the Trango Cathedral (No.24, 6286 m), next to it the Trango Tower (No.23, 6239 m) and Mt. Biale (No.17, 6729 m) in the NNW; the Biange Peak (No.31, 6427 m) in the NE and the Broad Peak (No.3, 8047 m) in the ENE. Correspondingly, the inflows of the following orographic right tributary glaciers into the Baltoro parent glacier are to be recorded as being from WNW via N up to NE: Trango glacier ( on the very left), Dunge glacier ( half left), Biale glacier ( middle) and Muztagh glacier ( right). Here, the Baltoro ice stream, completely covered by surface moraine, is exactly 2 km-wide (fore- to middleground). () is fresh end moraine debris of the Urdokas hanging glacier, which comes to an end with a steep tongue breaking c. 200 m above the Baltoro glacier. This glacier hangs in the N-flank of the c. 6000 m-high Urdokas Peak N-satellite. () is an example of a small flank valley running down steeply. Its debris bottom is dislocated by mudflows. In places several metres-thick ground moraine remnants occur under the debris cover. (è ) indicates an especially large wall gorge in the granite of the orographic right Baltoro valley flank, deepened today and also during the Pleistocene interglacials. In the High Glacial periods it was polished back by an almost 2 km thicker Baltoro ice stream. (j) are glacigenic flank abrasions preserved up to an altitude at 6050 m asl. They document an LGM-ice- thickness up to at least this height (––). Photo M.Kuhle, 22.8.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 219 220 M. Kuhle The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 221 222 M. Kuhle

n Photo 34. Viewpoint at 3990 m asl on the Baltoro glacier which is covered with a very coarse surface moraine of edged granite boulders (, for scale: porters with their loads crossing the boulders). We are in the confluence area of the western Urdokas glacier (35°43′ 20″ N/76°14′ 90″ E), looking SSE to the superstructure of the Urdokas Peak (No.27, altitude of the major summit: 5988 m). (––) is the highest demonstrable prehistoric glacier level; (j) mark glacigenic roundings of the bedrock granite from that time. (o) indicate glacier valley flanks undercut through lateral erosion by the present-day glacier, which has melted back to only minor dimensions. The rock slopes, shaped by the LGM-glaciation, are thus steepened from their lower slopes upwards. This forces rock crumblings, so that the present-day glaciation remoulds the prehistoric glacigenic forms. Photo M.Kuhle, 22.8.1997.

m Photo 36. Panorama taken from the orographic left lateral moraine () of the present-day Baltoro glacier, here completely covered by a decimetres- to metres-thick polymict surface moraine ( on the right side), seen from a viewpoint (35°43′ N/76°13′ 45″ E) at c. 3860 m asl at the locality Robutze: in the WSW a northern satellite of the 6251 m-high Liligo Peak (No.28); below are detritus cones () mainly consisting of displaced and remoulded morainic detritus; in front lies the Liligo glacier ( on the left) only just reaching the Baltoro glacier; in the W stand Paiju Peak (No.11, c. 6600 m-high) and the 6756 m-high Choricho (No.22); the c. 6600 m-high Kruksum (No.19) lies towards the NNE, on the right side of the glacigenically rounded granite walls of the Trango group (the two j on the right). (––) indicates the LGM-glacier level at 5900 and 6100 m asl. The highest flank polishings reach as far as this altitude (j). The lateral moraine () between the large, polymict, massive-crystalline boulders () and the sedimentary rocks shows noticeably more matrix and a finer one than the surface moraine ( right). Photo M.Kuhle, 22.8.1997.

n Photo 35. Taken at 3920 m asl from the Baltoro glacier in the confluence area of the western-most Urdokas Peak N-glacier (35°43′ 30″ N/76°13′ 50″ E) facing S, looking up this orographic left tributary glacier to the 6368 m-summit (No.29, Urdokas Group). (––) is the LGM glacier level of the prehistoric ice stream network. (j) mark rock roundings of the bedrock granite belonging to this stage of the maximum glaciation. Undercut by the present-day glacier, the rock flanks show numerous fresh crumblings (o), producing the surface moraine boulders (). Some of them form glacier tables on the sheer ice. In the foreground three porters for scale. Photo M.Kuhle, 22.8.1997.

m Photo 37. Panorama taken from the orographic left margin of the Baltoro glacier ( black) at the exit of the Liligo valley (35°42′ 45″ N/76°12′ 20″ E; 3850 m asl). The left side of the panorama shows the orographic left margin of the Baltoro glacier, looking upwards. It runs in an ENE-direction. In the centre of the photo, i.e. in the S, the heavily advancing tongue of the Liligo glacier ( white), blackened by the surface moraine, can be seen. Half-right it comes into contact with the Baltoro glacier margin ( large). No.28 is the summit superstructure of the 6251 m-high Liligo Peak. The right margin of the photo lies in a WSW-direction looking down the Baltoro valley. (j) are glacigenic flank smoothings. Depending on the rock they occur differently: the polishing on a thinly stratified rock (j on the left) is preserved more smoothly and that one on the coarsely stratified granite more roughly (j right). The postglacial fluvial rock gullies (⇓) provide the substratum for the youngest small debris bodies in the form of fans or cones (▼). () is the modern, i.e. only a few years old, gravel floor (sander) of the Liligo glacier, being in the process of build-up. ( on the left) marks a debris slope consisting of surface moraine (person on the right of the left for scale). Behind the debris slope is visible the dark-grey ramp of sheer ice on which surface moraine slides down (). ( large) are metres-thick fluvial sands lying on the glacier ice. Photo M.Kuhle, 9.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 223 224 M. Kuhle The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 225 226 M. Kuhle

n Photo 38. From the S-margin of the Baltoro glacier (orographic left margin) at 3870 m, looking up the Liligo tributary glacier. No. 28 is a fore-summit of the 6251 m-high Liligo Peak, which stands exactly in the S. () shows the orographic right ground- and lateral moraine, released from the Liligo glacier a few years before. ( large) is its tongue covered with surface moraine, which was advancing at the time when the photo was taken. () marks the present-day meltwater discharge of the Liligo glacier, accumulating a gravel floor (a small sander). ( small) is the surface moraine of the Baltoro glacier margin, rich in coarse boulders. (▼▼) indicate moraines with cone-like accumulations of debris on the orographic left side of the Liligo glacier. (j) are trough valley flanks of phyllitic gneiss bedrock (left) and granite (right) rounded by the glacigenic flank abrasion. (o) mark the lower slopes, undercut by glacigenic lateral erosion of the m Photo 40. Looking up the Trango glacier valley facing NNE. The postglacial Liligo glacier, which through the resulting fresh inflow of the Trango tributary glacier ( black) into the Baltoro parent crumblings were steepened. These young, still light, lower slopes glacier ( white) is at 3670 m asl (35°43′ 30″ N/76°11′ 20″ E). No.20 gradually waste away the glacigenic roundings of the dark-coloured are the glaciated, unnamed summits of an over 6000 m-high, upper slopes (j). Photo M.Kuhle, 18.9.1997. uninvestigated mountain group N of the Uli Biaho- and W of the Sarpo Laggo massif. No.21 marks a western, c. 6000 m-high satellite peak of the 6225 m-high Sarpo Laggo. (––) indicates the Ice Age (LGM) glacier level, reconstructed according to the glacigenic abrasions and roundings of the valley flanks (j). () are older historic to neoglacial lateral moraines (Younger Dhaulagiri Stage VIII and VII up to Nauri Stage V, i.e. c. 300-5,500 YBP after Kuhle 1982-1999) at the orographic left margin of the Trango glacier. Holocene to present-day debris cones are adjusted to them (). At the same time older, i.e. High- to Late Glacial deposits of ground moraine have been preserved under their cone-mantles up to approximately the roots of the debris cones. The light rock stripe above the orographic right glacier margin (è ) provides evidence of the latest drop of the glacier level since c. 1850 (since Stage X, ibid.). Photo M.Kuhle, 21.8.1997.

m Photo 39. Panorama from the orographic left flank of the Baltoro glacier valley at 3850 m asl, taken 150 m above the glacier surface () between the Liligo glacier and the Liligo locality (35°42′ 20″ N/76°11′ 55″ E) facing W via the tongue of the Baltoro glacier and the inflow of the Uli Biaho glacier below the Paiju Peak (No.11, c. 6600 m), via N with the inflow of the Trango glacier into the Baltoro glacier, up to NE, the Baltoro glacier diagonally upwards in the direction of the 7273 m-high Muztagh Tower Group (with hanging glaciers near to the summit). No.26 is the 6417 m-high glacial granite-horn of the Uli Biaho. It towered above the LGM-glacier surface (––) by c. 250-400 m. (j) mark the glacigenically rounded and abraded trough valley flanks, developed in the granitic rock on the opposite, northern side of the Baltoro glacier. () are ground moraine remnants preserved up to 150 m above the present-day glacier surface. () shows a glacier stream, flowing down in the orographic left ablation gorge of the Baltoro glacier. It undercuts the 30-60 m-high ice margin, so that the glacier ice continuously breaks down and falls into the ablation gorge (è ). Photo M.Kuhle, 21.8.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 227 228 M. Kuhle

o Photo 41. Panorama taken from the Liligo locality on the subrecent (= recent) orographic left lateral moraine ledge ( white) at 3650 m asl (35°42′ 20″ N/76°12′ E) across the Baltoro glacier () facing W to the Paiju Peak (No.11, c. 6600 m), NW to the Uli Biaho (No.26, 6417 m) and N to the Trango Cathedral (= Trango I, No.23, 6286 m). The right margin of the photo lies in an E-direction and shows the orographic left Baltoro flank with its large-scale glacigenic rock abrasions (k right). ( black) marks the up to 45 m-thick ground moraine layer, attached to the slope foot of this rock flank. ( black) is a exemplarily facetted large moraine boulder of granite with an extension of the longitudinal axis of 220 cm. ( white) are ice blocks the size up to a house, broken down (⇓) from the 30-50 m-high glacier edge () which have fallen into the ablation gorge between the subrecent (= recent) lateral moraine ( white) and the glacier body. The glacigenic rock abrasions and -roundings (j) document an LGM-glacier level (––) about 5800-6100 m. Photo M.Kuhle, 9.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 229 230 M. Kuhle

p Photo 42. This panorama was taken at 3600 m from the middle of the Baltoro glacier, 2.8 km away from (upwards of) its tongue end (35°41′ 35″ N/76°09′ 25″ E). At this viewpoint the Baltoro glacier is completely covered with surface moraine containing polymict boulders (). The photo section reaches from down-valley with the orographic left, glacigenically abraded valley flank (j on the very left) facing SW, via the orographic right valley flank with the Uli Biaho (No.26, 6417 m) in the NNW and the Trango Tower (No.24, 6239 m) right in the N, up to the ENE, the Baltoro glacier upwards with the glaciated 6000 m-summits of the Biange massif, situated 20 km away (near the right margin of the panorama). (j on the very right) is also the abraded, orographic left Baltoro flank (see above), but 15 km up-valley. No.30 marks the unnamed 5800 m-Peak E of the mouth of the Chingkang valley. () are undisturbed, i.e. primarily deposited ground moraine slopes ( on the orographic left) and ground moraine material broken away and slid down by fluvial undercutting of the Baltoro meltwater river ( on the orographic right). () is the broad, wild meltwater bed of the Baltoro glacier river; () show the ground moraine sheets in situ on the orographic right valley flank. (è ) indicates rock crumblings - due to lateral erosion by the Baltoro glacier margin - on the lower slope of the same valley flank. () is the orographic right influx of the not quite 10 km-long Uli Biaho glacier. (j) signify the glacigenic abrasions, smoothing and rounding the rocks of the valley flanks. They led to the characteristic phenomena of glacigenically triangular-shaped slopes on the back-polished mountain spurs between the inflows of the tributary glaciers. (––) is the LGM-ice level at 5800-6100 m asl, reconstructed according to these large-scale features. Photo M.Kuhle, 11.9.1997.

m Photo 43. View from the Uli Biaho glacier at c. 3600 m facing NW, looking steeply up into the valley head of the Uli Biaho valley. No.22 marks the over 6000 m-high unnamed cathedrals and towers of the NE-Choricho Group (for orientation cf. Photo 36 and 44). They are made up of coarse-bedded granite. This valley head lies above today’s orographic snow-line (ELA), i.e. at over 5000 m asl. Snow- and ice avalanches coming down out of the walls, accumulate on the still steep avalanche cones (). From here the regenerated and newly created ice moves down towards the true body of the valley glacier (o). These avalanche cones, above all, supply the Uli Biaho. The primary snow precipitation plays only a subordinate role for the feeding. (––) are minimum heights of the level of the Ice Age glacier filling in this tributary valley. They could be evidenced by glacigenic flank abrasions, i.e. roundings up to an altitude of 5900 m asl. Since the interglacial drop of the glacier level to its present-day altitude, the above-mentioned ice avalanches have eroded fresh, steep rock gullies and wall gorges (è ) into the granite, so that it has been roughened. Photo M.Kuhle, 11.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 231 232 M. Kuhle

o Photo 45. From the over 1 m-thick surface moraine () of the Baltoro glacier (35°41′ N/76°08′ 50″ E, 3530 m asl), c. 1.4 km away from the tongue end, seen towards the NNW (left margin of the panorama) via approx. N (No.24, Trango Tower, 6239 m) to the NE, upwards of the glacier (right margin). No.26 is the 6417 m-high Uli Biaho and No.23 the 6286 m-high Trango Cathedral (Trango I). The Uli Biaho SSW- face, visible here, falls steeply away (2700 m) from the summit (No.26) down to the surface of the Uli Biaho glacier (vertically below No.26). As far as c. 5800-5900 m glacigenic rock roundings (j) have been formed and preserved. Accordingly, the glacier level ran at c. 5900-6000 m asl during the LGM. At some places ground moraine can be met up to several 100 meters above the present-day glacier level () on the orographic right rock slopes of the Baltoro glacier valley. (o) mark Late-Late Glacial to present-day undercuttings and breakages in the bedrock granite of the valley flanks. Three phases must be distinguished: 1) glacigenic flank abrasion with the steepening of a 200-300 m-high lower rock slope during the Late Late Glacial (Sirkung Stage IV, older than 12,870 YBP after Kuhle 1997, Tab 1) (oo short, below j centre). 2) lower rock slope, 80-90 m-high, smoothed by lateral abrasion of the Uli Biaho glacier during the Neoglacial (c. 5,500-1,700 YBP: Nauri V- to Middle Dhaulagiri Stage ‘VII, ibid.) (olong, on the left below j centre). This rock polishing is younger than that of 1), because it forms against the latter a working edge which has been sharpened by the lateral erosion of the Uli Biaho glacier. 3) the remaining three arrows (o short, below ) and (o long, vertically below No.26 and diagonally to the right below No.23) are very fresh breakings. ( black) marks the light, granitic surface moraine. ( white) is surface moraine dark-coloured by the debris of sedimentary rock. Photo M.Kuhle, 21.8.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 233 234 M. Kuhle

n Photo 44. Looking from the debris-covered Baltoro glacier () at 3660 m asl (35°42′ N/76°11′ E) to the c. 6600 m-high Paiju Peak, nearly standing in the W, and to the 6756 m-high Choricho (No.22) in the WNW. The Uli Biaho glacier joins the Baltoro parent glacier from the NW. (––) is the c. 5900 m-high LGM glacier level, documented by glacigenic flank abrasions resulting in typical rock roundings (j). The glacigenic lateral erosion of the Holocene, historic and modern glaciers (since the Neoglacial Nauri Stage V up to the recent Stage XII about 1950-1980 with all - more or less pronounced - interglacial level positions of Stages VI to XI; Kuhle 1997, Tab 1) the surfaces of which have more and more melted down since the LGM, has undercut these Ice Age flank abrasions. Owing to this, the lower slopes of the valley flanks break away from below (o), developing a distinct working edge (above o on the right) against the glacigenic roundings (j white) preserved above. These breakages are orientated according to the steep- to vertically-layered structure of the bedrock granite (o on the right). The Paiju Peak, rising above the ice level by 600-800 m during the LGM (left of No.22) must have shown this vertical column-structure, characteristic of the crystalline compact rock, during the entire LGM. Photo M.Kuhle, 18.9.1997.

m Photo 46. At 3540 m asl, looking from the tongue of the Baltoro glacier (35°41′ 40″ N/76°10′ E) across the ice of the Uli Biaho glacier () which joins the parent glacier from the NW, seen towards the NNE to the Trango Cathedral (No.23: Trango I, behind: 6286 m and II, in front: 6237 m). Measured from today’s glacier surface its S-face is c. 2500 m- high. In front of the Trango Cathedral (behind l, on the left) the Trango glacier flows into the Baltoro parent glacier from the NW. (j) shows glacigenic flank abrasions in the bedrock granite, which in many places have been wasted by postglacial breakages (è ). Especially the 5753 m-satellite of the Trango Cathedral (below ––) has been roughened by typical processes of detraction. Due to the heavy resistance of the jagged crest of its summit, the glacier ice wrapping the whole mountain during the LGM, was able to attack on both sides. Owing to this, the ice has broken large monolithic granite scales out of the vertical structure of the bedrock and then pulled them along. The c. 4500 m-high transfluence pass (j black) situated between the Trango Cathedral and the 5753 m-satellite provides evidence of the Ice Age glacier flow between these two mountains. The pass leads from the present-day Trango glacier in a NE-direction to the Dunge glacier. Photo M.Kuhle, 10.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 235 236 M. Kuhle

p Photo 48. 330°-panorama from the first orographic right mudflow cone ( white) in the Biaho Lungpa (valley) (also Blaldo valley) down the tongue of the Baltoro glacier () at 3430 m asl (35°40′ 25″ N/76°07′ 20″ E). () is the recent and present-day gravel floor of the Biaho Lungpa and - genetically - the gravel floor of the Baltoro glacier. The glacier tongue () lies up-valley towards the ENE. There stands the Trango Cathedral (No.23, 6286 m). The 5800 m-Peak (No.30) is situated in a SW-direction down-valley. The orographic left valley flank has been smoothed and rounded by glacigenic flank abrasion up to the immediate summit-superstructure of the Liligo Peak (No.28, 6251 m) and - further down-valley - up to the 5800 m-Peak (No.30), i.e. as far as 5800-6000 m (j on the very left and right). At these altitudes the Ice Age (LGM) glacier level (––) has run. ( black) is a fresh mudflow cone which has been (and still is) accumulated from dislocated moraine material from the orographic left, currently glaciated side valley (è on the right) during the last decades. A steep side valley (è on the left) also leads down from the SSE-flank of the Paiju Peak (No.11, c. 6600 m), showing a present-day hanging glacier. Out of its notch (è on the left) the orographic right mudflow cone ( white), also consisting of moraine material (granite boulders in the foreground), has been deposited within the last 180 years (since Stage X after Kuhle 1982a Tabs. in Vol.I (text): pp 150-168 and 1998a Tab 1). () are High Glacial (LGM) to Late Glacial remnants of ground moraine on the glacigenically abraded (j) and polished (j second from the left) valley flanks. ( black) are ground moraine remnants of that type, the surfaces of which have been disintegrated into fine gullies and earth pyramids due to the down-flowing water. (▼ white) are thicker ground moraine remnants reshaped to steep cone forms since the deglaciation. (▼ black) is fresh debris of slope crumblings, formerly undercut glacigenically and today fluvially. Photo M.Kuhle, 20.8.1997.

n Photo 47. The Trango Tower (No.24, 6239 m) seen from its SSW- side. The mountain rises c. 1100 m above the present-day orographic snow-line (ELA). However, firn deposits with cores of ice covered with fresh snow can only be observed on the very narrow, flat-inclined rock ledges of this granite tower. The vertical (dominant) and the horizontal (subordinate) cleft-structures of its rocks determine the edged surface of the horn. Nevertheless, genetically it is a glacial horn, the slender form of which is due to the abrasion caused by the complete enclosure of its shaft by the High- to Late Glacial glacier. The LGM-ice-level lay c. 200-250 m below the summit whilst the Late Late Glacial ice level dropped to approx. the base level below the snow patch which is only just visible here. Photo M.Kuhle, 11.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 237 238 M. Kuhle

n Photo 49. From the orographic right flank of the Biaho Lungpa (35°39′ 30″ N/76°06′ E; 3350 m asl) up-valley to the Baltoro glacier end () facing ENE. The 8617 m-high K2 (Tschogori, No.1, in the background) towers above the granite pinnacles of the Trango Group. It stands 43 km away from the viewpoint. No.13 is the summit crest of the 1257 m lower Skilbrum (7360 m) - Savoia Kangri (7263 m) massif. (j) indicates the glacigenically abraded and polished valley flanks of the Biaho Lungpa trough. Especially (l left) marks a polish face on vertical layers of crystalline schist (phyllites), the smoothings of which weather very fast subaerially, i.e. these rock faces were still recently as well as subrecently covered. () is a metres-thick ground moraine sheet on parts of these polished rock faces. At the slope foot this ground moraine cover is undercut by the Biaho Lungpa-river, the meltwater river of the Baltoro glacier. () is the approx. 1 km-wide present-day gravel floor of the braided streamlet-bed of this river. It is an accumulation which, genetically speaking, is a glacier mouth gravel floor (sander). () are young mudflow cones being in the process of development, which are made up of the ground moraine material from the valley flanks and steep side valleys. Photo M.Kuhle, 19.9.1997.

o Photo 51. From the foot of the Paiju-S-flank, i.e. from the orographic right slope of the Biaho Lungpa (Blaldo valley) (35°39′ 10″ N/76°05′ 30″ E; 3330 m asl) facing S looking into the N- flank of the 5800 m-Peak (No.30). The point of view is on one of the two kilometres-wide mudflow fans of dislocated ground moraine rich in granite boulders (). () are ground moraine deposits on the rock faces of the opposite valley flank, abraded and polished by the prehistoric valley glacier body (j). The rock faces have been formed in edges of the banking and the stratum, so that a classic band polishing of outcropping edges of the stratum was created (j below). (j above) shows the remnants of this glacigenic abrasion damaged by crumblings. Naturally, the postglacial roughening of the rocks above took place earlier and, correspondingly, lasted longer than below, where the glacier polishing and -cover was more persistent. (––) is the minimum altitude of the prehistoric glacier level documented by these local glacigenic rock roundings. However, the real level lay higher. () is the braided network of water channels of the Biaho river with the meltwater of the Baltoro glacier which undercuts the prehistoric ground moraine ( white) exposing it as far as 150 m above the talweg. The exposure has been chiselled with microfluviatile gullies (fine, rill-like cuts created by the down-flowing water). ( black) marks steep accumulative parts of the slope where the ground moraine cover thins out in an upward direction and snuggles against the polished rock faces. Photo M.Kuhle, 19.9.1997.

n Photo 50. From the orographic right, recently accumulated mudflow cone below the Paiju-S-hanging glacier with large granite boulders ( black) (35°39′ 25″ N/76°05′ 40″ E; 3340 m asl) looking up the Biaho Lungpa, facing ENE. The K2 (No.1, 8617 m) with the upper section of its W- and SW-slopes can be seen 45 km away. The Skilbrum-Savoia Kangri- massif is situated in front of it on the right (No.13, 7360 m). ( white) is the Baltoro glacier end covered with metres-thick surface moraine. () indicates the continuing glacier mouth gravel floor which makes up the valley bottom on a several hundred metres-thick body of loose rocks (moraine and glacifluvial gravel). The valley ground of bedrock in the underlying area is to be imagined in the downward continuation of the abraded wall of the trough valley (k). The profile line of this valley slope (light-dark line at k) decribes the sinusoidal curve typical of a glacigenic flank abrasion: the upper slope is soft-convex (k), the middle slope forms the long, but nowhere stretched transition to a concave course mediating to the trough floor. () is ground moraine of the prehistoric main valley glacier, which today is gradually being washed down from the glacigenically polished rock faces (below ). Photo M.Kuhle, 19.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 239 240 M. Kuhle

p Photo 52. Panorama at 3375 m asl (35°37′ 50″ N/76°02′ 30″ E), taken from the foot of the orographic right flank up the Biaho Lungpa valley towards the NNE (left margin) via ENE directly up-valley (No.28, Liligo Peak, 6251 m) as far as SSE (right margin). () is the gravel floor of the Biaho Lungpa, i.e. the glacier mouth gravel floor of the Baltoro glacier. () mark ground moraine deposits on both valley flanks up to a relative height of 300-400 m, undercut by the gravel bed (). In many places the undisturbed ground moraine () has broken away and slid down, re-accumulated into debris cones- and slopes ( white) and, by way of mudflows, has been synchronically re-deposited into comparably flat mudflow cones ( black); a process, which still continues every year. (The two porters cross the surface of a mudflow cone which had come down a few days before). The ground moraine sheets are decametres- thick; dark and light layers of material occur alternately ( on the left). This is an indication of rock falls of different parent rocks which got under the prehistoric Baltoro ice stream and have been triturated into ground moraine. (j) are glacigenic flank abrasions which have rounded the metamorphic bedrock. (––) marks the LGM-glacier level lying at 5800 m asl, i.e. c. 2400 m above the gravel floor. Photo M.Kuhle, 19.8.1997.

m Photo 53. At 3350 m asl, upwards of the locality of Bardumal, looking down-valley into the orographic left flank of the Biaho Lungpa (35°37′ 40″ N/76°01′ 45″ E) facing WSW. No.35 is the 5810 m-high Bakhor Das. The maximum glacier level (––) has reached up to at least its summit. (j) indicates the glacigenic flank polishing. Below (j white) is a crumbling area with a rough surface, created by the fluvial erosion at the mouth of the Chingkang River. () is the ground moraine overlay, reaching as far as several hundred metres above the gravel floor ( = glacier mouth gravel floor) in many places. Photo M.Kuhle, 19.8.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 241 242 M. Kuhle

n Photo 54. Looking from the locality of Bardumal at 3330 m asl (35°37′ 30″ N/76°00′ 20″ E) facing SE, up the Chingkang valley towards the Double Peak I (No.34, c. 6700 m). Here, a glacigenic V-shaped valley is concerned, the glacial forming of which is evidenced by the orographic left flank abrasion (k). (––) marks a prehistoric glacier level, which can still be recognized by the orographic right glacigenic flank abrasions, naturally thinning out in an upward direction. Accordingly, the actual maximum prehistoric glacier level might have run c. 200-400 m higher during the LGM, namely at an altitude of 5800-6000 m. ( left) points to ground moraine on the orographic left flank of the Biaho Lungpa, i.e. the main valley; ( right) is a ground moraine complex of the side valley (Chingkang valley) situated close to the valley bottom. (è ) marks a ravine, cut into the valley ground by sub- to postglacial fluvial meltwater erosion of the Chinkang river, i.e. across the ground moraine (è on the right) as far down as into the bedrock (è on the left). The Chingkang river is adjusted to the gravel floor of the Biaho Lungpa (valley) (). Photo M.Kuhle, 19.8.1997.

o Photo 55. Panorama at 3230 m asl, c. 1 km down-valley of the locality of Bardumal (35°38′ N/75°59′ E) looking from the orographic right flank of the Biaho Lungpa (upper Braldo or Blaldo valley) facing SE (No.34, Double Peak, c. 6700 m) via S up the Hurlang Lungma (valley), as far as WNW down the main valley (Biaho Lungpa) with the Shinlep Brakk-mountain ridge (No.37, 5517 m). This was fringed by the LGM glacier ice (glacier level = ––on the very right) almost up to its culmination. (––middle and on the very left) indicates the simultaneous prehistoric glacier level above the ribs and crests of the orographic left valley flank, showing glacigenic flank abrasions (j). On vertical phyllites and banded gneisses, they currently break away (). (––below No.34) marks the LGM glacier level about 5800 m asl. Emerging from the ravine in the Hurlang Lungma mouth (è ), a Holocene to present-day mudflow cone () is accumulated. It presses the gravel floor () against the right valley flank and at the same time is fluvially undercut (▼). The mudflow cone consists of displaced moraine material from the Hurlang Lungma. () is a decametres-thick ground moraine on the glacigenic flank abrasion in the rock, extending up to at least 500 m above the valley bottom (). Photo M.Kuhle, 19.8.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 243 244 M. Kuhle

n Photo 56. Looking down from the orographic right valley side of the Biaho Lungpa (35°39′ N/75°07′ 30″ E, 3160 m asl) towards the NW. () is Ice Age ground moraine on the valley flanks as far as c. 600 m ( black, in the background) above the gravel floor (). (j) mark the glacigenic abrasions which can be evidenced on the Shinlep Brakk-mountain ridge (No.37, 5517 m) up to a height of 5500 m asl (––middle). (j on the right) is band polishing of edges of the strata on bedrock phyllites (see also Photo 58). On this SE-spur of the Bullah (No.36, 6294 m), small-scale remnants of the glacigenic abrasion reach as far as approx. 5800 m; with this an LGM-glacier level is proved up to this height (––). ( black, foreground) indicates ground moraine in situ, undercut by the high-water-bed of the Biaho Lungpa river (). Photo M.Kuhle, 19.8.1997.

n Photo 57. From the orographic right side of the Dumordo (or Panmah) valley between the localities of Laskam and Jora (Zora) at 3250 m asl (35°41′ 30″ N/75°58′ E) looking across the junction with the Biaho Lungpa. Taken from via SSE (left margin) up the Biaho Lungpa (main valley), via SSW to the 5810 m-high Bakhor Das (No.35) as far as SW (right margin) slightly down the main valley. The Bakhor Lungma leads down on the left of No.35. () is the 800 m-wide, braided streamlet-network of the Panmah glacier meltwater, 110 m below the viewpoint. (k) are the rock slopes of the main valley which have been abraded into perfect glacigenic trough valley flanks. During the LGM the glacier level (––) ran at least at 5700 m. () show the ground moraine overlays ( middle) on the valley flanks which occur up to at least 800 m above the gravel floor (). In other places they have been decomposed into classic earth pyramids ( on the right). Photo M.Kuhle, 18.8.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 245 246 M. Kuhle

m Photo 59. From the orographic left margin of the gravel floor () of the Dumordo river (Panmah valley) (35°41′ 50″ N/75°59′ E; 3140 m asl) looking across the confluence area of this valley into the Biaho Lungpa (also Braldo or Blaldo valley) towards the SW (left half of the photo). The valley flanks depicted here, have been completely glacigenically abraded. (k) marks a classic band polishing of outcropping edges of the strata. Since the last contact with the glacier ice during the Late Glacial Sirkung Stage (IV), the edges of the strata of the metamorphic sedimentary bedrocks are splintered off by weathering. () is a prehistoric ground moraine remnant which could accumulate decametres-thick in a concave niche-form on the glacier edge and persisted during the Holocene. (▼) shows a quartzite boulder the size of c. 4.5x3.1x1.8 m. This is one of several large boulders which, during the rain on the day when the picture was taken, fell out of the wall in the line of dip and then rolled, i.e. sprang across a 35°-steep debris cone. It has torn up the c. 2 m-deep bomb crater. In the crater stands a 170 cm-tall person. (The wall is depicted in Photo 58 and the debris cone is marked half-right below ()). Photo M.Kuhle, 22.9.1997.

p Photo 58. From the orographic right flank of the Dumordo (or Panmah) valley near the locality of Jora (or Zora) looking from c. 220 m above the Dumordo river () (3360 m asl, 35°41′ 50″ N/ 75°57′ 30″ E) up the main valley towards the S. This is the Biaho Lungpa, the orographic left valley flank of which, abraded by the prehistoric glacier ice up to the top, is clearly visible (k background). Also the rock flank in the foreground has been polished by the glacier (j foreground). The very resistant bedrock quartzite has only been slightly splintered and roughened by the postglacial weathering for c. 13,000 years (Sirkung Stage IV, older than 12,780 YBP after Kuhle 1982a, 1989, 1994b, 1997). Merely the fine polish is lacking, whilst the abrasive rounding has been preserved (j in the foreground; climber for scale). The corresponding valley flank, however, has already been weathered and broken away more heavily (left margin). The crumblings have built up an active debris cone () (see also Photo 59) which is undercut by the glacier gravel floor of the current Panmah glacier (). Photo M.Kuhle, 18.8.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 247 248 M. Kuhle

n Photo 61. From the orographic right flank of the Dumordo (or Panmah) valley near the locality Jora (or Zora), c. 220 m above the Dumordo river () (3360 m asl, 35°41′ 50″ N/75°57′ 30″ E), facing NNE, looking up the side valley. The glacigenic flank polishings (j) reach as far as 900 m above the valley bottom (j black, background). A local prehistoric glacier level about 4100 m asl (––) can be deduced from them. Since the Late Glacial (Sirkung Stage IV) deglaciation, crumblings in boulder-dimensions have collapsed and still break away () from the glacigenically abraded (l black and white on the left) vertical edges of the strata of the quartzite- bearing bedrock phyllites (metamorphic sedimentary rocks) over which two porters are climbing down. Ground moraine () has been preserved up to 450 m above the valley bottom (). Mudflow fans (), made up from dislocated ground moraine, occur on the lower slope. They are undercut by the high water bed (). (oo) mark a large cleavage fissure along which the material of the mudflow fan () slips down from the ground moraine preserved in situ ( black). Photo M.Kuhle, 18.8.1997.

p Photo 62. The Choricho-W-valley and the Choricho-W-glacier seen facing N up the Dumordo valley towards the 6756 m-high Choricho main summit (No.22). The striking subrecent terminal moraine () of the c. 7 km-long side valley glacier is situated at 35°42′ 50″ N/76°00′ 20″ E at c. 4200 m asl. Owing to the steepness of the fringing walls of the glacier (below No.22) and the resulting supremacy of avalanche-nourishment, its lowest tongue-section is covered with surface moraine (). () mark two orographic right side valleys in S-expositions, which are glaciated as well. Only the back one of the two tributary glaciers reaches the main glacier, i.e. tributary glacier of a higher order ( black). (j) are prehistoric (High- (LGM) to Late Glacial = Stage 0-IV) roundings and polishings of the glacigenic abrasion preserved on both sides, formed up to a minimum height at 5500 m asl (––). Photo M.Kuhle, 2.10.1997.

n Photo 60. Panorama of the Dumordo valley (Panmah valley), taken 3 km upwards from its inflow into the Biaho Lungpa (35°42′ 50″ N/ 75°57′ 10″ E; 3170 m), looking up-valley from facing N (left), via E into the W- slope of the 6756 m-high Choricho-massif (No.22) up to the S down-valley to the cross-running main valley (on the right). The coarseness of the polymict boulders building up the gravel floor of the Dumordo river () points to the proximity of the Panmah glacier end at a distance of only 10 km. For scale: porters with their loads and the pillar of the rope-bridge across the river. The meltwater river undercuts moraine deposits (e.g. ), the boulder fractions of which are already rounded at the edges or rounded ( on the right) over a distance of a few kilometres. The glacigenic flank abrasions (j), which are in a good state of preservation, can be observed as far as 800 m up the rock slopes (j white). The minimum height (––) about 5000 m asl of the Ice Age glacier level can be inferred from all abraded roundings, including those which are less intact. Cf. Photo 62 showing the higher level of the Choricho-W-slope with the Choricho-W-glacier and up to 5500 m-high flank abrasions which are not visible here. (è ) are two cuts into the gorge deriving from the meltwater erosion of the Choricho-S-glacier. () indicate deposits of ground moraines preserved on the slopes as far as 400 m ( on the right) above the valley bottom (). Photo M.Kuhle, 22.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 249 250 M. Kuhle

n Photo 63. From the orographic left (E) side of the Dumordo river (Panmah glacier meltwater river) (35°42′ 50″ N/75°57′ 11″ E; 3170 m) looking up-valley to the N across the subrecent 3.5 m-high gravel floor terrace (). () is a ground moraine deposit of High- (LGM) to Late Glacial genesis. (▼) shows a block debris cone which is still active. Its edged components prove a genesis by rock crumblings. The lower cone edge ( j) is syngenetically undercut by the river. The crumblings are a result of the glacigenic flank steepening. As this photo perspective shows, numerous valley cross-profiles have been formed into a trough-shape and preserved up to the present-day glacier terminal of the Panmah glacier situated c. 10 km up-valley. Within the altitude interval of the lower 100- 150 m, a small cross-profile is set into the trough ground which clearly contrasts with the trough profile (below ). It is set off against the concave bow of the trough ground (j) by convex profile lines (). (j) shows an upper edge of the trough rounded by glacier abrasion. Accordingly, the LGM ice level (––) has run higher. Photo M.Kuhle, 18.8.1997.

m Photo 64. C. 1.5 km up-valley from its inflow into the Biaho Lungpa main valley, the main branch of the Dumordo river develops an undercut slope (3140 m asl, 35°41′ 50″ N/75°57′ 30″ E). At 10 o’clock in the morning, the river is 70 cm-deep (see persons for scale). (è ) marks the high water line on the bedrock which is 4 m higher. At high water the gravel bank () is completely overflowed and its material becomes rearranged. (––) is the prehistoric glacier level at c. 4100 m asl, evidenced for this section of the valley flanks by way of the glacigenically abraded roundings (j). () indicates the secondarily redeposited ground moraine material laid down to form a mudflow fan () at the slope foot. Photo M.Kuhle, 22.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 251 252 M. Kuhle

m Photo 65. From the orographic right side of the Biafo glacier () facing up-valley towards the NW (left margin) up to the N (right margin) into the orographic left flank of the Biafo valley and onto the summits of or Ogre (7285 m; No.38), its W-satellite, the Uzun Brakk (6422 m; No.40) and the Latok II or Lukpilla Brakk (7108 m; No.39). ( white) marks glacier ice covered with surface moraine; ( black) is sheer ice. ( black) indicates the orographic left lateral moraine, which rises c. 50 m above the glacier surface and belongs to the subrecent Stage XI or XII 1950, i.e. 1950-1980. It provides evidence of a subrecent ELA- depression of only 10-20 m (Kuhle 1994b, p 260 Tab 3 ; also most recent Dhaulaghiri Stages XI or XII after Kuhle 1982a, pp 165-168; 1983a; 1986a; 1987a; 1997 Tab 3 p 114). ( white) are Late Glacial (Stages I to IV; ibid.) deposits of ground moraine up to approx. 650 m above the ice surface (). (ot) are ripped fissures along which this ground moraine is exposed in a metres- to decametres-thickness. (j) marks glacigenic flank abrasions developed on the valley wall up to at least 1200 m above the present-day Biafo glacier. They thus reach a minimum altitude of 5000 m asl. Here, the easily weathering and splintering-off edges of the strata of horizontally layered metamorphic sedimentary rocks and phyllites are concerned, interspersed by swarms of quartz dikes. (––) is the LGM glacier level which has run here about 6100-6300 m asl. It has glacigenically undercut the summits (No.38-40) built-up of monolithic granite, so that they have been steepened and shaped into glacial horns. The summit which corresponds the most with the form of a horn is the Lukpilla Brakk (Latok II). Photo M.Kuhle, 24.9.1997.

n Photo 67. The 360°-panorama was taken from the locality of Mango on the orographic right subrecent lateral moraine () of the Biafo glacier (Stage XI or XII: developed c. 1950-1980) (35°45′ 40″ N/75°49′ 20″ E; 3740 m). (––) indicates the prehistoric (LGM) glacier level, verifiable by the glacigenic flank abrasions and roundings of rock heads (j). It can be continuously evidenced up to approx. 5200-5400 m asl (––on the very left and right as well as below No.41), in some places even up to 6100-6300 m asl (––on the right of No.39 and below No.36). ( white; black on the very right) are High-(LGM) to Late Glacial deposits of ground moraine on both flanks of the Biafo valley. (▼) show rock fall- and mudflow cones. The latter consist of substrate of ground moraine which has been transported down-slopes (▼ on the very right). () are mudflow fans and alluvial soils heaped up in the subrecent lateral valleys, i.e. lateral depressions of the Biafo glacier against its subrecent lateral moraines ( on the very left). ( large) is a subrecent frontal moraine of the Mano glacier, of hardly over 30-40 years of age (Stage X ?, cf. Kuhle 1980 p 246, section 3; 1987a, Tab 2, p 205) (). At the time when the photo was taken (see Photo 68), the glacier advanced. No.37 is the 5517 m-high Shinlep Brakk. Photo M.Kuhle, 24.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 253 254 M. Kuhle

p Photo 66. At 3740 m asl, looking from the orographic right subrecent (; Stage XI or XII) lateral moraine near the locality Mango (35°45′ 40″ N/75°49′ 20″ E) across the middle course of the Biafo glacier (). Panorama from facing NNW up-glacier to the 6422 m-high Uzun Brakk (No.40; to the right of it the Baintha Brakk or Ogre, 7285 m, No.38, and Lukpilla Brakk or Latok II, 7108 m, No.39) via NNE to the 6282 m-high Dongbar (No.41) and towards the E to the 6294 m-high Bullah (No.36) up to SE (right margin) down-glacier. Here (below No.41), the Biafo glacier () is 2 km-wide; further upwards, at the cross- profile of the Baintha locality (below No.38) it is even just 4 km. ( black) indicates the orographic left subrecent lateral moraine, which the ice level has almost reached until c. 1950 - 1980 (as to the dating cf. Kuhle 1987a Tab 2 Stage “recent”, p 205). It belongs to the historic Stages XI or XII (Kuhle 1982a, pp 165-168). () shows the composition of the coarse boulders of this moraine generation with components that are edged and rounded at the edges. () are mudflow fans which mainly consist of dislocated prehistoric ground moraine material ( white). The debris cones and -slopes are made up from residual detritus, broken away from the glacigenically abraded rock walls (è ) during the post-Late Glacial. Debris cones (▼) and mudflow fans () are accumulated in the orographic left glacier lateral valley and heaped up against the outer slope of the lateral moraine (behind black). Thus, in glaciogemorphological-genetic terms, they develop kames. The Ice Age deposits of ground moraine ( white) are preserved as far as c. 650 m above the present-day glacier level (). (j) are well-preserved glacigenic flank abrasions on edges of the strata up to 1500 m (j below No.41) above the glacier level (). The highest verifiable and thus High Glacial (LGM) glacier level ran at 6100-6300 m asl at maximum (––below No.39 and somewhat right of it, as well as on the very left). However, by means of well-preserved rock roundings the level can only be evidenced as far as a height of 5200-5400 m (––below No.41). Photo M.Kuhle, 24.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 255 256 M. Kuhle

o Photo 69. 360°-panorama at c. 3630 m asl, 1 km down-valley of the locality Brangsa ( white) (35°45′ 20″ N/75°51′ 10″ E), from a large medial moraine string of the Biafo glacier (). This glacier is not only one of the most extended Karakorum-ice- streams, and thus one of the largest extra-arctic glaciers on earth at all. It is a classic, 60 km-long parent glacier as well, made up of numerous components with () and without a cover of surface moraine (string of sheer ice in the middle ground). The surface moraine () consists of edged boulders up to head- high (for scale: 14 expedition participants and porters with their loads). Right in the W stands the 6282 m-high Gama Sokha Lumbu (No.42); up-glacier in the NW, the unnamed 5989 m-Peak can be recognized, a 36 km-distant glacial horn (No.43); the 6282 m-high Dongbar (No.41) stands approximately in the N (at 12°). To the right of No.36 the Biafo glacier extends down to the SE, reaching there the Braldu main valley (also Blaldo valley or Biaho Lungpa). ( black on the left and white on the right) are the orographic left and right lateral moraine inner slopes of the historic Stages XI and XII, which had been covered with ice until 20-50 years ago (1950-1980). ( black) are mudflow cones and -fans filling up the lateral valleys; therefore, in glacio-genetic terms, they can be addressed as lateral kames. ( white) indicates the orographic right lateral moraine of the Shinlep Brakk NNE-tributary glacier, accumulated during Stages XI and XII. ( white on the left) are prehistoric remnants of ground moraine which occur on the glacigenically formed lower slopes up to c. 650 m above the Biafo glacier. (j) show glacigenic abrasions and roundings. (––) are the limits of Ice Age polishing, i.e. abrasion, verifiable as far as c. 6100 m asl. Photo M.Kuhle, 24.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 257 258 M. Kuhle

n Photo 68. Detail of Photo 67: the Mango hanging glacier in a NE-exposition. Its tongue comes to an end at 4200 m, the mean altitude of the catchment area (height of the crest in the background) is c. 5600 m, so that an orographic snow-line (ELA) about 4900 m can be estimated. The end of the glacier tongue is steep and heavily disrupted, thus indicating an advance. Especially the disruption of the ice points to a very brittle, i.e. cold glacier ice. Cold glacier ice at the tongue end suggests semi-arid climate conditions. For comparison: the glacier ice- and air temperature measurements on the K2-N-glacier during September/October, 1986, yielded mean annual temperatures between -10.1 and -12.3°C at an ELA-level at 5000 m asl, corresponding to ice temperatures of -9.1 to -11.3°C in a glacier depth of over 10 m at the snow-line-level (Kuhle 1988d, pp 413/414; 1990a, pp 320/321). At a gradient of 0.65°C per 100 m the ice has still a temperature of merely -4.55 to -6.75°C at the 700 m-lower glacier terminal (ELA=4900 m; glacier terminal 4200 m). ( in the foreground) is ground moraine, left behind by the penultimate glacier advance, which is dissected by a strikingly small meltwater thread. ( on the left) shows Late Glacial to historic ground moraine (Sirkung Stage IV to Stage IX: Kuhle 1980 p 246, section 3), undercut, i.e. laterally eroded by the orographic right margin of the advancing glacier. Photo M.Kuhle, 24.9.1997.

o Photo 70. 360°-panorama at 3400 m asl from the Biafo glacier (), 300 m away from its orographic left margin (35°42′ 30″ N/75°54′ E) and at a distance of 4 km from its lowest tongue end at the Korophon locality (No.35). Here the glacier is extensively covered with surface moraine. The 5810 m-high Bakhor Das (No.35) stands in the SSE, W of it the Stokpa Lungma trough valley leads upwards to the S to the 6288 m-high Mango Gusor (No.44); in the NNW, 38 km further up the Biafo glacier towards the Hispar pass, the 5989 m-Peak (No.43) is situated. The surface moraine () is significantly richer in matrix than 10 km up-glacier (Photo 69); besides polymict edged boulders ( small) boulders do also occur, which are rounded at the edges, i.e. facetted, most of them of granite ( large) (for scale: porters with their loads). ( black) is ground moraine of the subrecent Stages XI and XII, passing upwards into an orographic right lateral moraine crest. ( white) are older remnants of ground moraine in wall gorges and -gullies (on the left) as well as slope niches (centre) up to 950 m above the talweg of the main valley (Braldu valley). (j) mark glacigenic flank abrasions and glacier polishings (j black large) which to a great extent are continuously preserved in the massive-crystalline rock (j left and right), but in the metamorphic sedimentary rock they are only little extended (j half right). (▼) are Late Glacial ground moraine deposits on which rock debris has been piled up. (––) indicate the High (LGM)- to Late Glacial glacier levels (Stages I,II,III,IV after Kuhle 1980 p 246) which can be evidenced on the spot by the highest occurrence of glacigenic flank abrasions. These traces reach up to a height of 5650 m at No.35 (––), in the area of the Stokpa Lungma (No.44) c. 6000 m (––) and on the Shinlep Brakk (––between No.43 and 44) c. 5500 m asl; (––to the right of No.43) also attains 6000 m. () marks a spillway between a bar mountain (“riegel”) and a valley flank through which the meltwater discharge of the Biafo glacier has still recently taken place (see Photo 71). Photo M.Kuhle, 23.9.97. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 259 260 M. Kuhle

n Photo 71. From c. 3120 m asl looking N into a notch (è ) through which an insignificant discharge of the Biafo glacier has taken place until a few decades ago, so that a spillway has been developed (locality: Photo 70 )(35°41′ N/75°53′ E). Between the Bullah (No.36) and the notch the lower part of the Biafo glacier is situated. Beyond the notch (è ) the glacier tongue still clings to the rock. During Stages XI or XII, when the level of the glacier tongue has towered above the level of the notch by several metres to decametres, material of ground- and end moraines has been washed out by the overflowing meltwater and partly removed, so that the steep mudfow- and alluvial fan () was piled up with it. Before, at a still higher ice level, a specific glacier tongue flowed through the notch and has widened it into a trough-shape (between the two j). (j) are 110-130 m-high glacigenically abraded rocks of banded metamorphites (phyllites, banded gneisses). The outcropping edges of the strata (j on the right) have already been roughened by splintering and breaking away. Photo M.Kuhle, 26.9.1997.

p Photo 72. Taken facing W, locality (35°41′ N/75°53′ E; 3110 m asl), looking to the back of the round-polished barrier mountain (“riegel”) in Photo 70 on the left of (). From near the present-day Biafo glacier mouth view down through a ravine (è ). The rocks of the barrier mountain (“riegel”) of vertical, banded metamorphites (phyllites) have been steeply dissected by the subglacial meltwater of the Biafo glacier (è ). This happened during the neoglacial up to early historical stages (c. 5,500-400 YBP) during Stages V to VII (more precisely: Nauri Stage V to younger Dhaulagiri Stage VII after the nomenclature Kuhle 1980; 1998a Tab 1 p 82) and suggests an ELA-depression of 60-80 m at minimum. From the next younger Stage VIII, the ELA-depression amounted to only just 50 m and the Biafo glacier margin could no longer overthrust the area on the lee side of this rock-barrier (“riegel”). On the rock face in the proximity of (è ), small concave half-caves and bowl-shaped remnants of potholes are preserved, thus providing evidence of the subglacial cavitation corrasion. Under the control of the clefts a partial reworking of the wall has already taken place by breakages leaving behind edged, roughened areas (). () are younger glaciofluvial gravels as remainders of the subaerial glacier meltwater of the last centuries to decades. (j) indicate rock roundings as traces of an Ice Age abrasion on the orographic right, 600-800 m above the bottom of the Braldu valley. Photo M.Kuhle, 27.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 261 262 M. Kuhle

n Photo 73. N above the locality of Korophon, on the orographic right side of the Braldu river (), looking from the E margin of the Biafo glacier terminal ( black) at 3200 m (35°41′ 20″ N/ 75°55′ 30″ E) facing SSW to the valley exit of the Stokpa Lungma. () is a large, edged moraine block the size of 6.1x4.2x3.5 m (porter for scale) which has been dislocated in a clayey lateral- and end moraine matrix on to a mudflow fan situated on the orographic left side of the Biafo glacier tongue. () marks a very shallow mudflow fan accumulated from the very short and steep side valley on the orographic left (between the shady und sunny rock in the left half of the picture) on to the gravel floor of the Braldu valley bottom (). (l) are horizontal glacigenic abrasions and polishings preserved between 700 m (l on the left) and 1700 m (l right) above the valley bottom on comparatively easily splintering, i.e. weathering, clay schists. Even later, during the Late Glacial Stage IV, (l on the right) has still been polished by a hanging glacier parallel to the line of dip. ( white) are remnants of ground moraine in more ( white on the left) or less ( white on the right) exposed slope positions up to 950 m above the Braldu valley bottom. (––) indicates the Ice Age glacier surface which can be evidenced by the remnants of an abrasion line at 5650 m asl. Photo M.Kuhle, 26.9.1997.

o Photo 74. 360°-panorama at 4300 m asl from a rock head on the ESE-spur of the 5517 m-high Shinlep Brakk (No.37, main peak is not visible), 1200 m to the W above the Biafo glacier tongue ( on the very left and right), i.e. 1300 m above the gravel floor of the Braldu valley () (35°42′ 10″ N/75°52′ 10″ E): the mountain ridge No. 37 lies in the WNW, the 6282 m-high Dongbar (No.41) in the N, the 6294 m-high Bullah (No.36) in the NE, the 6756 m-high Choricho (No.22) in the E, the 5810 m high Bakhor Das (No.35) in the SSE and the 6288 m-high Mango Gusor (No.44) in the S. On the very left and very right one also looks up the Braldu trough (Blaldu valley or Biaho Lungpa) towards the ESE. To the right (below No.35) a steep valley leads down from the Bakhor Das (cf. left half of Photo 73). Below No.35 up to 44 the Stokpa Lungma joins the Braldu valley. ( white) marks the debris cone shape of its prehistoric ground moraine remnants. () are ground moraine remnants on the valley flanks. The ground moraine ( on the very left) is shown in Photo 75 () in detail. () are erratic granite boulders the size of several metres (person for scale in the middleground; in the foreground rucksack and mountain stick); partly they are integrated into the ground moraine matrix ( on the slope below No.37). The metamorphic sedimentary bedrocks in the underlying bed have been abraded to roches moutonnées (j white on the left). (––) are the locally verifiable highest Ice Age glacier levels reaching altitudes of 5650 m (––below No.35) up to approx. 6000 m asl at maximum (––left of No.35 in the background; below No.44 and 41). (j) show glacigenic rock abrasions which from above to below are of High-(LGM) to Late Glacial age. (t) is a well-preserved lateral moraine ramp of the Late Glacial Stage I to III (Kuhle 1998a Tab 1 p 82). At that time mountain ridge No.37 was already free of ice and the Biafo ice stream net component, joining a Braldu parent glacier, was 1300 m thicker than at present. Photo M.Kuhle, 28.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 263 264 M. Kuhle

n Photo 75. From the lowest ice margin of the Biafo glacier at the Korophon locality facing NE into the orographic right flank of the Braldu valley (35°41′ 30″ N/75°57′ E) looking towards the Choricho massif (No.22, 6756 m). () is a metres- to decametres-thick ground moraine cover which continuously extends between 3200 and 4000 m asl (cf. Photo 74 () on the

very left). It is exposed along a c. 300 m-long rock crumbling ( )è and can be diagnosed as an erratic ground moraine rich in matrix with separate coarse boulders. The rock pedestal below consists of metamorphic sedimentary rock. As outer bank of the Braldu river it has been - and still is - undercut. () marks a debris cone of bedrock that has broken away and hanging ground moraine. (––) indicates the Ice Age glacier level in the Choricho W-valley with glacigenic rock abrasions (k) reaching up to 5500 m asl at minimum. Photo M.Kuhle, 19.8.1997.

m Photo 76. Taken at 4270 m asl looking across the ground moraine cover () of the mountain ridge ESE of the Shinlep Brakk (35°42′ 10″ N/75°52′ 10″ E) up-slope towards the NE to the Bullah (No.36). The moraine surface shows a periglacial patterned ground structure (Kuhle 1985a). In the clayey moraine matrix () numerous erratic granite boulders are embedded, several metres in length (person for scale); (), for example, indicates a facetted granite boulder the size of 2.8x1.6x1.1 m. (j) is a classic roche moutonnée with “whale- back”-form, the abrasion surface of which has been roughened by frost weathering. Its longitudinal axis runs from E (right) to W (left). Photo M.Kuhle, 28.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 265 266 M. Kuhle

n Photo 77. At 4000 m asl, on the orographic right flank of the Braldu valley (35°41′ 10″ N/75°53′ E), c. 1000 m above its present- day valley bottom (), a Late Glacial lateral moraine ( black) is shown with a classic small lateral valley in which alluvial soils are developed (). A hardly older lateral moraine remnant is on the right ( right). This lateral moraine belongs to the Last (youngest) Late Glacial glacier position, the Sirkung Stage IV. It is c. 13,500 to 13,000 years of age and underwent an ELA-depression of c. 700 m against the current course of the snow line (after Kuhle 1980; 1998a Tab 1 p 82). ( white) is ground moraine at the same level up- valley (cf. Photo 75). From Askole the area is intensively grazed and trodden on, so that cattle tracks have been developed between the dwarf scrub. No.22 is the Choricho massif (6756 m) with its W-glacier situated in the ENE, No.35 the Bakhor Das (5810 m). Here, the glacigenic abrasion forms (j) enable the Ice Age glacier levels (––) to be reconstructed between 5600 and 6000 m asl. Photo M.Kuhle, 28.9.1997.

n Photo 78. At 3090 m asl (35°39′ 55″ N/75°52′ 50″ E) between the Braldu- and Biafo river from the bottom of the Braldu valley, consisting of loose rock - here, a glaciofluvial glacier mouth gravel floor () -, facing NNW seen towards the Shinlep Brakk mountain ridge (No.37, main summit is not visible). ( white) is a post-Late Glacial (post-Sirkung Stage IV) mudflow fan, which for an important part has been - and still is - built-up from dislocated glacial ground moraine material, as is evidenced by the fresh mudflow paths. Only after the deglaciation of this valley cross section and the corresponding flank could it be built-up. The mudflow fan is distally undercut by the meltwater river of the Biafo glacier, so that a 45 m-high exposure has been developed (above black). ( black) are specific debris cones which break through the wall of the exposure and are adjusted to the river. () is the undisturbed High- (LGM) to Late Glacial ground moraine at the level of the lateral moraine preserved somewhat further to the right (E) (see Photo 77), i.e. 1000 m above the valley bottom. m Photo 79. At 4300 m asl, from the orographic left flank of The rills (below ) have undercut the ground moraine and, at the same time, supply the Teste valley in the proximity of its exit (35°38′ N/75°49′ the mudflow cone ( white) with debris of the weathered and eroded sedimentary 30″ E; viewpoint in Photo 84 è ), 500 altitude metres above bedrock. Though the bedrock phyllites have already been roughened postglacially as the pasture of Thal Brok looking towards the NE to the far as the culmination about 5000 m asl, the glacigenic abrasion is still recognizable. bottom of the Braldu valley () at c. 3000 m asl with the (––) indicates the LGM glacier level. Photo M.Kuhle, 26.9.1997. fields of the Ste Ste settlement. No. 37 is the Shinlep Brakk (5517 m), No.36 the Bullah (6294 m). () indicates the Biafo glacier tongue covered with surface moraine; (j black on the left) is the polish band with ground moraine overlay and Late Glacial lateral moraines () at the Shinlep Brakk ESE-ridge (cf. Photo 74 and 77); (j black on the left) is at the same time the viewpoint of Photo 84. () mark postglacial rock crumblings and () the corresponding debris cones. (j white) is the gneiss pillar rounded by glacigenic abrasion on the orographic right side of the junction threshold at the exit of the Teste valley. () is local moraine and residual detritus in a mudflow- and avalanche ravine. (––) is the LGM glacier level about 5600 (––black) up to 6100 m asl (––white). Photo M. Kuhle, 3.10.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 267 268 M. Kuhle

p Photo 80. At the head of the Teste valley between the Darso Brok pasture and the Skoro La (pass) at 4550 m asl, looking from the orographic left (35°35′ 30″ N/75°49′ 10″ E) over the Alpine valley- and hanging glacier system () of the Skoro La Gans (or Teste glacier): from facing NNE down the Teste valley (j left margin) via its right flank up to the highest summit (nameless) of the Skoro massif (No.46, c. 6000 m) in the uppermost catchment area of the Skoro La glacier, via the c. 5500 m-high summits at the head of the Teste valley (half- right), as far as the abraded rock ribs (j on the very right) in the area of the Skoro La (5070 m). (––) marks the glaciogeomorphologically verifiable, i.e. the minimum level of the LGM-ice infilling of the valley. (è ) indicates exemplarily the numerous fresh and Holocene rock crumblings which, under the control of the clefts (orientated according to ac- and bc-clefts), have remoulded the Ice Age flank abrasions. () are the corresponding debris cones- and slopes underlain by High- to Late Glacial ground moraine (cf. Tab 1: Stage 0 = LGM and Stage I to IV). ( white) is the historical orographic right lateral moraine of Stage X or XI (for dating see Tab 1). ( black) shows a lateral- or end moraine inset, laid down by two adjacent hanging glacier tongues on to an older neoglacial (Holocene) to historical (Stages V to IX; Tab 1) pedestal moraine (below and on the left below of black). This has also taken place during Stages X or XI. () indicates edged quartzite moraine boulders between different dark components the size of blocks. This polymict historical lateral moraine on the orographic left is still poor in vegetation and belongs to Stage IX or X (Tab 1). Here, lateral moraine ramps are concerned which are attached to each other (see person on one of the moraine ledges for scale). The hanging glacier tongues of Stages V to VII with ELA-depressions of 150-60 m against the present- day real glacial snow-line limit about 4900 (4800-5000) m asl had merged to a joint tongue reaching the main glacier ( = its surface moraines). Photo M.Kuhle, 2.10.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 269 270 M. Kuhle

n Photo 81. Taken at c. 4300 m asl, 500 m above the Thal Brok pasture, from the orographic left flank of the Teste valley near the valley exit (35°38′ N/75°49′ 30″ E; viewpoint in Photo 84è ), i.e. the inflow of the valley over a c. 800 m-high confluence step (Photo 84 on the left below è ) into the Braldu valley () from facing NNE (left) up to E (right) looking into the right flank of the Teste valley (è ). The mountains in the background are the Bullah (No.36, 6294 m) and the Choricho (No.22, 6756 m). () is the glacier mouth gravel floor of the Biafo glacier which covers the valley bottom of the glacigenic Braldu trough and serves as farmland and fields of the settlement of Ste Ste (2950 m). Slopes of active debris crumblings () are adjusted to the main valley bottom () and the side valley bottom (). ( white large on the right) marks late Late Glacial ground moraine (Stage IV; Tab 1) mantling a glacigenically abraded rock hill; ( white small on the left) is the ground moraine in Photo 82. () indicates a present-day avalanche ravine with temporary mudflow activities. ( black) are ground moraine sheets with erratic boulders on the orographic right side, 1000- 1200 m above the valley bottom of the Braldu trough. (j) show LGM- to Late Glacial glacigenic flank abrasions and -polishings, the upper margins and polish lines of which document the prehistoric glacier level (––). (–– white below No.36) runs at c. 6100 m asl, i.e. approx. 3000 m above the bottom of the Braldu trough valley. (è ) points to postglacial wall gorges in the talwegs of which the debris of crumblings is transported; their development is dependent on ac- and bc-clefts. Photo M.Kuhle, 3.10.1997.

n Photo 82. From 3680 m asl, looking into the orographic right flank of the Teste valley (35°39′ N/75°50′ 20″ E) in the area of its confluence step leading down to the Braldu valley bottom. In Photo 81 the position of the ground moraine, dispersed into rills and earth pyramids (), is located in a greater topographic connection ( white small on the left). During the Sirkung Stage (IV: ELA- depression against today c. 700 m; see Tab 1) the ground moraine, fluvially furrowed since the deglaciation in the post-Late Glacial, has been stuck onto the glacially abraded rock wall (j) by the Teste glacier tributary stream. From the lighter rock faces of the lower half of the wall (from j on downwards) the ground moraine overlay has only relatively recently slipped down and been flushed out (during the last centuries), so that the dark coloration of the rock face deriving from water-stripes with the development of algae and lichens has still not reached the degree and climax which above (at j) has already been attained. The sharp line of the rock coloration (at j) provides evidence of the upper margin of the prehistoric ground moraine cover. The bedrock consists of strongly metamorphic, anatectic rock with light aplite-pegmatite- and quartz veins which break diagonally through the horizontal banking structure. The glacigenically rounded pillar forms of the gneiss-like rock immediately remind one of a Norwegian trough-valley- or fjord flank. Photo M.Kuhle, 3.10.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 271 272 M. Kuhle

p Photo 83. Panorama taken at 3350 m asl from the orographic right flank of the Braldu valley and the root of the mudflow fan (the two white in the middle) N above the settlement of Askoli (35°41′ 20″ N/75°49′ E); from facing SSE with the exit of the hanging Teste trough (background above j black), via the Cherichor (6030 m; No.45) and via SW with the c. 6400 m-high Koser Gunge (No.47) behind the valley head of the Cherichor trough ( ), upwards of the settlement of Sino and then down the Braldu valley as far as into its orographic right flank (j white on the right) and side valley flank (j black on the very right). The mudflow fans ( white) consist of redeposited Ice Age ground moraine material ( white) which in some places is also covered with dislocated moraine material (second black from the left). Apart from these mudflow fans ( white) the glacial ground moraine material is also removed by debris cones and -slopes ( black) and covered by them at other places ( on the very left is the settlement of Kurpe). Several ground moraine sheets on the slopes of the Braldu valley () have been preserved on a large scale at 750-850 m above the valley bottom (the three on the left); further down-valley even at an altitude of 1000 (the second white from the right) up to 1400 m ( white on the very right) above the valley bottom. The highest verifiable prehistoric ice level (––) is substantiated by partially very well (i.e. genetically unambiguous) preserved glacigenic abrasion forms (j) on the bedrocks of the trough flanks. The LGM glacier level (––) runs about 5600 m asl in this valley chamber. Photo M.Kuhle, 4.10.1997.

n Photo 84. Taken at 4240 m asl from the pasture settlement of Askole (summer-settlement) in the orographic right flank of the Braldu trough (35°41′ N/75°51′ E) from facing SSE (left margin) via S with the Skoro massif (No.46, c. 6000 m-high) and SSW to the 6030 m-high Cherichor (No.45) up to WSW to the c. 6400 m-high Koser Gunge (No.47). The 1400 m lower bottom of the Braldu valley, which is not visible here, is shown in Photo 83. (è ) is the viewpoint of Photo 81. ( white) marks the glacigenic trough of the Teste valley, a hanging side valley, situated c. 800 m above the main valley bottom on the orographic left side. () are postglacial debris- i.e. mudflow fans and -cones of dislocated and buried ground moraine. The present-day Skoro Gans (glacier) lies in the catchment area of the Teste valley (below ). () are Late Glacial cirques with bottoms between 4600 ( on the right) and 5400 m asl ( on the left). ( black) indicates a trough-shaped saddle polished out by the Ice Age (LGM to Late Glacial; Stage 0 to III) Braldu main glacier between a roche moutonnée (j white large) and the valley flank which continues towards the Shinlep Brakk. (j small) show the highest preserved abrasions and rock roundings shaped by this main valley glacier and the connected LGM-ice stream network. (––) is the highest LGM level evidenced by these abrasions up to c. 5600 m. () marks the lateral depression at the back of an orographic right lateral moraine ramp ( black below) of the Late Glacial Stage III or II (II); (o) are metres-high erratic granite boulders contained in this lateral moraine. ( white and black above) indicate High- (LGM) to Late Glacial ground moraines. (▼) are meltwater gullies cut into the Ice Age ground moraine; here they attain the dimensions of steep small valleys. ( ) is the transfluence of the LGM-ice stream network over the 5070 m-high Skoro La (pass) into the Skoro Lungma which beyond leads down to the Shigar valley. Photo M.Kuhle, 28.9.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 273 274 M. Kuhle

p Photo 85. At 2800 m asl, 4 km down-valley from Askole near the settlement of Tonga, from the orographic right historic glacier mouth gravel floor terrace () of the Braldu river (35°41′10″ N/ 75°55′ 50″ E) from facing ENE to the Shinlep Brakk (5517 m, on the left margin; Figure 2/1 No.37) and E looking up-valley to the Bakhor Das (No.35, 5810 m). In the centre of the photo the Cherichor-N-valley (cf. Photo 83 ) with its glacier creek joins the Braldu main valley ( black, centre) from the S. (▼) are six glaciofluvial gravel floor terraces of the main- and side valley (period of origin: neoglacial Stage V to historic Stage XI, i.e. 5500-80 or 50 YBP; see Tab 1) which have been preserved on the inner bank of the Braldu river. Today they are the farmland of the settlement of Sino. ( black on the left) is the mudflow fan of the settlement of Surungo. () mark exposures of mudflow fans which consist of dislocated ground moraine material and are coarsely stratified. () show High- (LGM) to Late Glacial remnants of ground moraine cover on the valley flanks. ( white) is a mudflow cone which - in the same way as the mudflow fan ( black on the left) - contains a moraine core overlain by the cone form. (j) are the glacigenic flank abrasions which are proof of the prehistoric ice level (––) and the verifiable Ice Age (LGM (= Stage 0) to Stage I; Tab 1) glacier thickness. Photo M.Kuhle, 16.8.1997.

n Photo 86. From the fields 1.5 km down-valley of the settlement of Tonga, which lies on the most extended gravel floor terrace on the bottom of the Braldu valley (35°40′ 50″ N/75°45′ 10″ E), 2820 m asl, looking in an NE direction onto the S-flank of the Shinlep Brakk (No.37; 5517 m). This is the orographic right flank of the Braldu valley, which during the LGM has been completely glacigenically shaped as far as the then level of the glacier surface (––). (j) are glacigenic abrasion forms. Here their characteristic roundings are difficult to preserve, so that they have only remained on the vertical bedrock phyllites in some places. In part large-scale remnants of ground moraine () overlie the prehistoric glacier polishings as far as a height of 4200 m. (è ) is a ravine which has already been created subglacially and cuts the round-polished rock heads (j black). Today it is flowed through by a glacier creek of a hanging glacier in the S flank of the Gama Sokha Lumbu (6282 m; Photo 69 No.42). Its development has taken place during Stages II to IV (Tab 1) when the ELA had already increased to an ELA depression of just 1000 to 700 m (against an ELA-depression of 1300 m during the LGM = Stage 0). During the development of the ravine the ELA ran about 3800 to 4100 m asl. () are terraces in the mudflow fan which has been built up of the detritus transported through the ravine (è ). Photo M.Kuhle, 16.8.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 275 276 M. Kuhle

q Photo 87. Taken at 2700 m asl, 2 km down-valley of the settlement of Hoto (or Pakore), from the talweg of the Braldu (or Blaldu) valley (4 m above the Braldu river) (35°42′ 20″ N/75°42′ 50″ E) facing NNE looking into the SSW-flank of the Gama Sokha Lumbu (6282 m; Photo 69 and 91, No.42). (––) indicates the LGM- glacier level (Stage 0), i.e. the maximum prehistoric ice level which can be evidenced empirically. () are the Ice Age (Stages 0 to IV) ground- and lateral moraine accumulations on the orographic right slopes of the Braldu valley. This slope, being at the extreme 3500 m and in the average 2500 m-high, is undercut by the very intensive erosion of the Braldu river (). The undercutting destabilizes the moraine slope () and causes staggered segment slides of the moraine covers (“Staffelrutschungen”; cf. Kuhle 1982a p 107; 1983a p 305 f). This down-slope movement is accelerated by spring erosion on the middle- and lower slope and the soaking of the clay-containing material, resulting in saturation flows (). The snow-meltwater which infiltrates on the upper slope (background on the left) contributes to this. But in consequence of snow melting and heavy summer rains (as e.g. monsoon incidences on August 25th and 28th, 1997) mudflows also take part in the dislocation and denudation of the moraine covers (). Photo M.Kuhle, 16.8.1997.

n Photo 88. Glacier striae and glacigenic rock polishings at 2900- 3000 m asl on the orographic left flank of the Braldu valley (35°42′ 20″ N/75°41′ 55″ E) c. 5.5 km up-valley of the valley chamber with the settlements of Gomboro and Tosha. Between c. 200 and 300 m above the talweg the vertical bedrock gneiss has been rounded, polished and scratched (j) by the High- to Late Glacial Braldu parent glacier (LGM = Stage 0 to Stage IV). The last polishing took place during Stage IV (Tab 1). Ground moraine () which rests on the rock shoulders and -ledges is up to decametres-thick ( large). In places where the moraine has been flushed out only a few decades or years ago and has slid down or been blown away, the rock polishing has not yet been weathered and roughened by splintering (below small). Further down, where the rock surface falls away more steeply and, owing to this, has been left without any cover of ground moraine for a long time, the vertical banding of the rock penetrates the roughening of the surface (at j). Frost weatherings lasting a few centuries can be sufficient for a roughening of the glacier polishing like this. Photo M.Kuhle, 5.10.1997.

r Photo 89. Late Glacial rock polishings with glacier striae at 2950-3020 m asl between 250 and 320 m above the talweg on the orographic left flank of the Braldu valley (35°42′ 20″ N/ 75°41′ 50″ E) c. 5 km up-valley of the valley chamber with the settlements of Gomboro and Tosha. For the last time they have been treated by the Braldu glacier of Stage IV (Sirkung Stage) (see also Photo 88). (oand j) mark well-preserved glacigenic rock polishings on bedrock gneiss with an approximately horizontal rock lineation showing almost parallel glacier striae. () are remnants of ground moraine which remained on flattened areas. The pelitic ground mass of these moraine remnants, i.e. the clay, silt and fine sand, have been flushed out of the moraine matrix and have developed overlays (“wallpapers”) up to several mm in thickness dried onto the glacigenically polished rock faces. They show a vertically-striped texture with which they are also attached to the vertical to slightly overhanging rock areas. This can clearly be seen in the shadow below (j). Photo M.Kuhle, 5.10.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 277 278 M. Kuhle

p Photo 90. At 2830 m asl from the Braldu valley cross-profile between Gama Sokha Lumbu (Photo 91 No.42) in the NNE and Koser Gunge (Photo 84 No.47) in the SSW (35°42′ 30″ N/75°41′ 45″ E) looking to the WNW down the Braldu trough. Both the flanks are mantled by ground moraine from the valley ground up to a great height (); this is also true of the slopes below the Hoh Lungma ( below ––on the left) which joins from the orographic right side (from the N). Above the settlement of Gomboro, in the area where the ground moraine attains a greatest height of 4300 m, i.e. 1600 m above the talweg ( white), it is exposed in the form of huge, decametres-high classic earth pyramids. The corresponding exposure walls are over 100 m-high (below white). On the classically preserved glacigenic triangle-slope ( below ––on the left) on the mountain ridge named Shana Sir (below ––on the left; c. 4700 m-high) the ground moraine covers reach similar high up. (j) are sporadically preserved glacigenic abrasion roundings, which are proof of the LGM-ice level (––) covering the entire relief visible here. Only in places where the mountain cupolas tower above 4700-4900 m, have cirques, which still contained small glaciers () during the neoglacial period and the historical glacier stages (during Stage V to Stage VII; for the corresponding ELA-depressions see Tab 1), sharpened the mountain ridge, roughening and fraying it into a crest of rock pillars and -precipices. On the SE fore-summit of the 5199 m- high Zarn Peak a perennial snow ledge is still attached to the back of the cirque (above on the right), thus providing evidence of a present-day orographic ELA in an ESE-exposition about 4900 m asl. This corresponds quite well to the snow line value about 4800 m suggested by v. Wissmann (1959 Abb.14, p 144-145). ( black) are fresh mudflow cones and -fans consisting of ground moraine transported down-slope. Every year, i.e. after every intensive rainfall, they are getting more and more heaped up. () is a covering layer - close to the surface - of the 50 to 70 m-thick ground moraine on the valley bottom ( on the left below ). It ought to be addressed as an ablation moraine being comparatively poor in clay. Processes of flushing, too, have slightly remoulded the ablation moraine since deglaciation. ( white) are post-Late Glacial rock crumblings on rock ribs which have been glacially abraded before. Photo M.Kuhle, 5.10.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 279 280 M. Kuhle m Photo 91. Panorama from 2700 m asl, c. 40 m above the Braldu river on the orographic left side, taken up-valley (35°42′ 40″ N/75°41′ E) of the valley chamber of the settlements of Tosha (visible on the left margin of the photo) and Gomboro, from facing NW diagonally down-valley via N to the 5499 m- summit (No.48) up to NE into the S-flank of the 6282 m-high Gama Sokha Lumbu (No.42) looking diagonally up the Braldu valley. Ground moraines (the three white on top) are verifiable up to c. 4300 m asl, i.e. 1600 m above the present-day talweg (Braldu river). ( black and white on the right below) mark deposits of ground moraine in lower slope- to valley bottom positions. The 50-70 m-thick ground moraine complex on the valley bottom ( black and white below) was a ground moraine pedestal of the Late Glacial Braldu glacier, which for the last time was glacier-covered during Sirkung Stage (IV) (cf. Tab 1). Since the post-Late Glacial deglaciation it has been dissected by the Braldu river. () are still active areas of crumblings ( on the right) and dislocations of moraines ( on the left). () shows a present-day mudflow fan supplying the Braldu river with substrate of moraine. (j) is a glacigenic rock rounding 600- 700 m above the talweg. (––) indicates the reconstructed LGM-glacier level about 5000 m. Photo M.Kuhle, 16.8.1997.

s Photo 92. Panorama from 2530 m asl on the level of the Braldu river in the 90°-bend between the settlements Biano and Gohe (35°41′ 50″ N/75°35′ 30″ E) in the valley chamber of the settlement of Goyungo below the Koser Gunge NW-flank, looking from facing NNE Braldu up-valley as far as into the orographic right side valley Hoh Lungma with the 5584 m-Peak (No.49), up to E to the debris-covered avalanche snow which is hard like concrete (×) in the middleground. The avalanche snow which reaches far down here and persists long into the summer (×) comes from the mountain flank of the Koser Gunge rising up to c. 6400 m, which is approximately 4000 m-high and in the average 27°-steep. The steep, c. 4 km-long Koser Gunge NW-glacier hangs below this summit. () marks a fresh mudflow fan over which the debris of the melting avalanche cone reaches the river in the form of a viscous saturation flow. () are High-(LGM=Stage 0) to Late Glacial (Stage I to IV) ground moraines on both valley sides (for black see Photo 93); (o) is exposed ground moraine material, dispersed into earth pyramids. ( white) is a secondary cone form moulded out of the ground moraine by fluvial flushing as well as modified by the crumbling material which has been piled up on it (cf. Iturrizaga 1999). (j) show glacigenic abrasions reaching up to 4650 m ( on the right below No.49). (è ) is a rock crumbling of the type which resolves the prehistoric flank abrasions on steep slopes. The highest geomorphologically verifiable ice level (––) ran at c. 5000 m asl. Photo M.Kuhle, 16.8.1997. n Photo 93. Taken at 2540 m asl from the bottom of the Braldu valley at the locality of Biano (35°42′ 20″ N/75°35′ 40″ E) up-valley to the NNE and beyond the sharp E-bend of the main valley (below on the top) looking up the inflowing Hoh Lungma side valley. There the 5585 m-Peak (No.49) stands. () are coarse boulders of phyllite and granite deriving from the ground moraine on the valley bottom ( below) between which the Braldu river has washed out the moraine matrix. The hut-sized boulder behind () originates from a rock fall caused by crumblings from the orographic right valley flank. ( below) is a 50- 75 m-thick ground moraine remnant in situ. Beneath the glacier ground a ground moraine pedestal of this type ( below) has been built-up in the entire valley course of this trough valley section. First it has been partly cleared out along a subglacial meltwater tunnel during the late Late Glacial (Stage IV at ELA-depression 700 m; Tab 1) and then subaerially by the Braldu river in postglacial times. ( above) is a ground moraine sheet covering the glacially abraded valley flanks (j) over large parts. Its metres- to decametres-thickness is documented by over 10 m-deep rills (t) which eat backward into this cover of loose material up the slope. (––) indicates the 5500 m-high LGM-glacier level in the cross-profile of the Hoh Lungma at the tongue end of the present- day Sosbun glacier. Photo M.Kuhle, 5.10.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 281 282 M. Kuhle

m Photo 95. Viewpoint at 2530 m asl; here, the Braldu bend turns from a SSW to a WNW valley course (35°41′ 50″ N/75°35′ 30″ E) and the bedrock granite falls steeply away (50°) to the river. The rocks in the foreground (j) have been glacigenically abraded. Owing to the construction of the jeep-road, the rocks have been blasted off in the area of the lower 4-6 m above the level of the Braldu river (for scale: jeep and three persons in the foreground on the right). (j in the background) are remnants of flank abrasions on the orographic left side, isolated from each other by multifarious crumblings. These were orientated by the approximately slope-parallel banking structure and have produced rock overhangs (shady areas between j black and white in the background). ( above) is a Holocene wall gorge developed since deglaciation, i.e. after Stage IV, which bundles the rock fall and releases mudflows. ( below) indicates the corresponding accumulation feature, i.e. the mudflow fan, lying on a Late Glacial ground moraine core (). Photo M.Kuhle, 16.8.1997.

p Photo 94. At 2535 m looking into the orographic right flank of the Braldu valley immediately above its bend from a SSW to a WNW course (35°41′ 50″ N/75°35′ 30″ E). () are bowls and half-caves of subglacial pothole walls in the granite, situated 25-60 m above the present-day level of the Braldu river. Further up the bedrock is overlain by ground moraine which has been washed in some places (). () is a debris cone of collapsed moraine which is in the process of being built-up at the wall foot. Photo M.Kuhle, 16.8.1997.

m Photo 96. At 2540 m asl, 1 km up the Braldu valley from the wasteland of Gohe (35°41′ 50″ N/75°35′ 20″ E) looking down facing W from a ground moraine ridge (foreground) on the valley bottom c. 10 m above the river. The ‘Dasso-Peak’ (No.50) is an at least 5500 m-high, glaciated summit. (j white) are glacigenic abrasion forms of the orographic left Braldu valley flank, (j black) are those of the right flank. (j white, large) shows the steep lee-flank of a roche moutonnée-like granite ridge. This steepening of the lee-side has been developed by extraction of the rock frozen to the glacier bottom and, owing to this, is the result of regelation. The glacier abrasion can be verified by the rounding of the edges of rock crumblings (p). ( white) is moraine material with coarse, round-edged boulders on the granite ridge. ( black) mark High- (LGM) to Late Glacial ground moraines on both valley flanks, which on the right side above the settlement of Niyel reach up to at least 900 m above the valley bottom ( on the left below No.50). (j below ––) is a classic, glacigenically abraded triangle- shaped slope, the upper crest of which rises 1300 m above the valley bottom. (––) indicates the glaciogemorphologically documented prehistoric surface level of the ice stream network about 4900 m asl. Photo M.Kuhle, 5.10.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 283 284 M. Kuhle m Photo 97. Looking from the valley chamber of Dasso at 2510 m asl (35°42′ 40″ N/75°31′ 20″ E) upwards across the gravel floor ( black) with the Braldu river, facing ESE. The settlement on the ground moraine terrace ( black on the left) is Niyel; No.47 is the c. 6400 m-high Koser Gunge massif, the highest one of the Mango Range, with the middle Koser Gunge NW-glacier () above the avalanche gully shown in Photo 92. ( white) is a short trough, i.e. an over 4000 m-high hanging side valley on the orographic left which then breaks off, with the present-day front moraine of the easternmost Koser Gunge NW-glacier. () are High-(LGM) to Late Glacial ground moraine remains of this Braldu trough section; the ground moraine pedestal ( white on the right) has been subrecently undercut by the Braldu river. In the meantime, the ground moraine pedestal ( white on the right) has come in the position of an inner bank so that towards the river a mudflow fan () could be built-up from the material of its rills. ( white on the left) marks a ground moraine remnant at c. 3150 m asl, 600 m above the gravel floor. (j) are rock roundings as a result of glacigenic abrasion. (––) is the prehistoric ice level (LGM to Late Glacial, i.e. Stage 0 to IV; Tab 1), verifiable by the abrasion features. Photo M.Kuhle, 5.10.1997.

o Photo 99. Panorama taken at 2380 m asl (aneroid measurement: 2430 m) from the bridge-settlement named Haidarbad “Bollah” near the settlement of Mungo, from the bottom of the Shigar valley at the point, where the Braldu valley (right half of the panorama) and the Basna valley (left half) flow together creating by this confluence the Shigar valley (35°39′ 30″ N/ 75°29′ 30″ E): from facing SW to the 5552 or 5610 m-high Munbluk massif (No.51) via NW with the exit of the Basna valley (middle of the panorama) leading down from the Chogolungma glacier out of the northern Haramosh Range N-side, up to N with the 5046-5778 m-high southern fore-summits (No.50) of the Ganchen massif N of the lower Braldu valley. Both the massifs (No.50 and 51) show a current high valley- and compound cirque- glaciation of the Alpine type (). ( black) are the ground moraines on the valley flanks deposited as far as c. 3800 m, i.e. 1300 m above the Basna valley bottom ( black somewhat left of the middle of the panorama); ( white) are the over 100 m-thick ground moraine layers in the foot bend of the slopes. They are reshaped by mudflow fans. Here are the irrigation oases of the settlements of Tisar and Molto. () is the valley bottom plain, built-up of edged boulders of rock avalanches ( megaclasts of tonalite the size of a hut (Zanettin 1964)) (see Ghoro Choh rock avalanche according to Hewitt 1999:230-233) and glacier mouth gravel floors accumulated upon it. On its surface are meadow loams heaped up by historical high waters and - in some places in the middleground above - only metres-thick covers of current wind-blown sands. () are the meadow loams used as fields; they contain morainic clays and the minerally still fresher (completely unweathered) clays and silts of the historical glacier meltwaters of the Braldu- and Basna river (glacier milk). They are therefore extremely fertile. As one can conclude from the plunging of the ground moraine covers under the surficially sediments of the valley bottom ( and ) on both valley flanks ( on the very left and right), High (LGM)- to Late Glacial (Stage 0 to IV; Tab 1) ground moraines basally also exist below the rock avalanche and above the rock bottom. (j) mark the classically formed and in many places well-preserved glacigenic abrasions. They reach as far as a good 4600 m asl. The present-day hanging glaciers () destroy the flank abrasions of the LGM- glaciation (Stage 0) by their small-scale down-slope erosion transversely to the horizontal direction of the down-flowing prehistoric ice stream network (from No.50 from the right to the left). Photo M.Kuhle, 16.8.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 285 286 M. Kuhle

m Photo 100. At 3900 m asl (35°58′ 35″ N/76°06′ 20″ E) from the orographic left lateral moraine (historical Stage X; cf. Tab 1) towards the W up the Chogolungma glacier looking at the Malubiting (No.52; 7458 m). The summit at the back is the main summit. It is the highest and easternmost mountain of the Puparash Group. The summits in front are the 7260 m-high eastern Malubiting fore-summit (on the right of No.52) and the 6970 m-high Malubiting E-peak (left of No.52). Here, the Chogolungma parent glacier branches into three 2 to 7 km-long source arms supplying it with ice masses of the Malubiting NE-slope from above the snow-line (ELA) (on both sides of the two è ). Behind the glacigenically rounded rock spur (k), i.e. the extended middle Spantik SW-crest, the parent glacier continues as far as the 5840 m-high Polan La, where it has its source (cf. in Photo 123 the glacier pass between No.52 and 54). At c. 4700-4800 m the grey glacier ice beneath the old snow becomes exposed. At this altitude the highest-lying boulders of the surface moraine set in, indicating the orographic ELA (present-day glacial snow-line). () marks a 20 m-high glacier ice ridge covered by a string of medial moraine. Protected against ablation, it was capable of rising so high over the surrounding area of sheer ice. Despite the vertical strata series of the bedrock, the rock ridge of the Spantik crest shows a glacial rounding (k), whilst, due to the undercutting lateral erosion of the present-day glacier margin, the glacigenically triangular-shaped faces (è ) are broken away very craggily in the form of sharp-edged wall gorges (è ). (––) is the verifiable LGM glacier surface about 5900 m, indicated by the abrasion and rounding of rock heads and -ridges (––below No.52) as well as remnants of wall pedestals preserved in the shape of pillar-heads (––on the right). Photo M.Kuhle, 23.7.2000.

p Photo 98. At 2460 m asl from the orographic left side of the Braldu valley opposite the settlement of Tigstun, from a mudflow fan with a current cover of wind-blown sand ( foreground) held by bushes of myricariae and junipers, looking across the present-day river gravel floor ( middleground) (35°42′ N/ 75°29′ 10″ E) facing W diagonally down-valley on to the right valley slopes. (j) are strikingly fresh-preserved glacigenic flank polishings on granite bedrocks. The rock ridge above has also been polished round and divided into separate roche moutonnée-like ‘glacial knobs’. () are ground moraine remnants overlying the glacier polishings; these sloping ground moraine areas are patterned by the present-day flushing rills developed by the down- flowing rain water. () show fresh crumblings on the fluvially undercut outer bank of the Braldu river. (No.51) is the c. 5550 m-high Munbluk massif in the SE Haramosh Range with its hanging glaciation and the autumnnal cover of freshly fallen snow. Photo M.Kuhle, 5.10.1997. m Photo 102. No.55 is the 6986 m-high Laila Peak. () indicates a central surface moraine string on the Chogolungma glacier at 3920 m (35°58′ 40″ N/75°04′ 20″ E), flanked by flat strings of sheer ice which melt down more heavily; in the background (below the two on the right) the Chogolungma parent glacier (its main component), flowing down from the Polan La. () are glacigenically triangular-shaped faces, undercut so intensively through lateral erosion of the present-day glacier, that, owing to the resulting breakages, they have been strongly roughened. This is especially true from the ELA up the glacier. Below the snow-line the valley flanks with their triangular-shaped faces are protected against the current lateral erosion by lateral moraines and small lateral valleys, so that the trough flanks have preserved their prehistoric glacigenic abrasion forms (j black). In places they even show remnants of ground moraines (). Perennial snow sticks on side valley flanks rising up to over 5000 m asl (⇓). It forces the frost weathering by water supply and the effect of increasing freezing and thawing on the snow- and rock margins, i.e. on the black/white limit (cf. Ampferer 1928). From this result roughening breakages. The vertical structure of the crystalline and metamorphic bedrocks preforms the dip-orientated development of wall cuttings, -rills and -gorges (e.g. on both sides of in the middle). (k white) is the polishing of edges of the strata on phyllites with light quartzite banks on the orographic left side. (––) indicates the LGM glacier level about 5900 m asl, running on the avalanche-sprayed mountain flanks of this NE-exposed Chogolungma valley flank c. 1000 m above the current snow- line. Photo M.Kuhle, 18.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 287 288 M. Kuhle

n Photo 101. Taken in the E-flank of the 6986 m-high Laila Peak (No.55). () marks the Haramosh glacier covered by a thin “veil” of surface moraine (35°58′15″ N/75°01′ 50″ E), 1 km upwards of its junction with the Chogolungma glacier. The Ice Age glacier level (––) ran about 5900 m asl sloping opposite to the current surface of the Haramosh glacier (), namely towards the SW, up the Haramosh valley. There, the 4800 m-high Haramosh La is situated, over which the LGM glacier was connected to the Indus valley with its parent glacier (via the Mani- and Phuparash Gah) running at a height of only just 1500 m. () are ground moraine overlays on the very steep (32-45°) valley flanks, the glacigenic rock roundings of which (j) are preserved only sporadically. (è ) are Late (Stage IV, Tab 1) to post-Late Glacial breakages on the rock pinnacles (here of granite), which have been polished during the LGM (Stage 0) and undercut through glacigenic lateral erosion during the Late Glacial (Stages III and IV). As today, so too the Laila E-glacier (below No.55) existed in the form of a hanging glacier in a comparable thickness of 100 m at maximum during the Ice Age. However, already at the level of its ice-fall it was adjusted to the Ice Age level of the Haramosh glacier (––directly below No.55). This High- and interglacial hanging glacier was able to scour an extended cirque, i.e. a “Wannen-Kar” (after Maull 1958, p 383, Photo 40). Photo M.Kuhle, 23.7.2000.

m Photo 103. Taken from the middle of the Chogolungma glacier (35°58′ N/75°05′ 30″ E, 3810 m asl) from the central, completely surface-moraine-free string of sheer ice ( large), facing NW up the parent glacier towards a steep valley glacier ( white), which, parallel to the Basin glacier, flows down from the Spantik massif (No.54, 7027 m) in a SE direction, joining the Moraine glacier behind the spur (). The sheer ice becomes exposed about 5000 m asl. The Moraine glacier is the most extended orographic left tributary stream of the Chogolungma glacier. () are separate deposits of ground moraine on the orographic left valley flank. They are superimposed upon large-scale edges of the strata of metamorphic sedimentary rocks. ( black, small) shows a mudflow fan below the exit of a gully; here, dislocated material of ground moraine is accumulated. It contains far-travelled erratic coarse- crystalline boulders. (j) are highest glacigenic features of abrasion and rounding deriving from the High Glacial ice stream network. They can be observed on the granite rocks of the Spantik (No.54) up to approximately 6100 m and provide evidence of an LGM ice level somewhat above this height (––). Photo M.Kuhle, 25.7.2000.

m Photo 104. Panorama at 3840 m (35°58′ 25″ N/75°05′ 35″ E) from the NNE margin of the most extended string of sheer ice of the Chogolungma glacier from facing S (left margin) - where the 5787 m (or 5610 m)-high spur peak with its short side glacier ( white is its surface moraine) flanks the inflow of the Second East Haramosh glacier on the orographic left side, via the First East Haramosh glacier ( black) in the SW, up the main glacier in a W-direction ( white) with the junction of the Haramosh glacier from the SW (from the left), as far as the SE spur of the Spantik massif (No.54). ( black) marks the present-day surface moraine of the orographic right medial moraine string of the Chogolungma glacier. The sheer ice in the fore- and middleground is free of crevasses and provides a surface for supraglacial meltwater creeks (è ). (j) shows glacigenic abrasion roundings in the massif-crystalline rock (here granite: j black) as well as on the edges of the strata of metamorphic sedimentary rocks (here phyllites as e.g. quartzites: j white). (––) is the minimum height of the LGM ice surface, geomorphologically verifiable between 5900 and 6100 m asl (the clouds are lower). ( white) indicates a small glacial horn, which has no longer been overflowed by the ice only since the late Late Glacial and Neoglacial (Stage IV and V; see Tab 1). From then on it has been sharpened by flank polishing on both sides in the confluence area of the Haramosh glacier and Chogolungma parent glacier. Photo M.Kuhle, 23.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 289 290 M. Kuhle

p Photo 105. 360°-panorama at 3810 m asl from the middle of the Chogolungma glacier (35°58′ N/75°05′ 30″ E) - here 2.4 to 2.6 km-wide - and the central, completely surface-moraine-free string of sheer ice (fore- to middle-ground). The left and right margin of the panorama are exactly in a S-direction. Here, two short hanging valley glaciers join the Chogolungma glacier ( black) from the NE flank of the 5787 m (or 5610 m)-high spur peak (in the clouds) of the 8 km-long Mani Peak NNE-crest. This takes place over two confluence steps (in the area of ). The ESE hanging glacier is about to develop a moraine pedestal, i.e. a dam moraine (), on which its tongue flows down at an increasing height over the rock bottom of the hanging valley. Towards the tongue terminus, which reaches the main glacier (Chogolungma glacier black), this ground moraine pedestal becomes thicker and thicker. The middle of the panorama in the NE shows the orographic left flank of the Chogolungma valley with the 5328 m-high spur peak (in the clouds) between the Sgari Byen Gang valley (half right) and the Boluche valley (below No.71). This is a large, glacigenically triangular-shaped slope (j black on the left below No.71) with a nearly 3 km-wide basis, which has been abraded by the Ice Age Chogolungma parent glacier. Concomitant with the lowering of the glacier level from the Late Glacial (17 Ka) up to the present, this large triangular-shaped face - which during the High Glacial was connected - has been cut and dissected by rills and avalanche gullies () through backward erosion of the edges of the strata of the sedimentary bedrocks. ( white on the left) is a ground moraine remnant with metres-high erratic boulders, which is still superimposed upon the valley flank 400 m above the present-day glacier level. ( white on the right) marks also ground moraine, overlying the orographic left main valley flank as far as at least 4400 m, i.e. 700 m above the present-day Chogolungma glacier level. Below No.71 there is a 5571 (or 5405)m-high glaciated mountain named Aren Cho; below No.59 the 6005 m (or 5937)m-high unnamed main peak of the Bukpun massif and on the orographic right side of the Chogolungma valley, below No.61, there is the Kapaltang Kun (c. 6220 m). Between No.59 and 61 the Chogolungma glacier flows down to the ESE; up the main glacier (between the two black j on the left) one looks toward the WNW. () are strings of surface moraine. ( white) are those of the Second East Haramosh glacier, joining from the ororogaphic right, from SSW. Its inflow is S of the viewpoint. ( black) are the areas of the Chogolungma main glacier, where the surface-moraine-covered ice has been raised up to over 10 m-high above the surrounding ice level. (X) shows the orographic left lateral moraine with a 80 m-high inner slope. It has been built-up as far as its crest for the final time during the last historic glacier maximum in Stage X (Tab 1). (j) are clearly verifiable glacigenic abrasion forms reaching a height of 5100 m (second j from the left on the top of a huge glacigenically triangle-shaped face) which by the ground moraine deposits on the valley flanks ( white) provide evidence of an LGM glacier level between 6100 and 5900 m asl. Photo M.Kuhle, 25.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 291 292 M. Kuhle

o Photo 106. Looking from the tongue of the Sgari Byen Gang glacier at 4400 m asl (36°00′ 18″ N/75°06′ 40″ N) up-glacier (left third of the panorama large) toward the NNE (No.69) over the orographic left valley flank (centre) facing WSW up to SSW down-valley (No.56) to the Chogolungma main glacier ( white). No.56 is the clouded 6253 m-summit in the NNE crest of the Haramosh II with the First East Haramosh glacier; ( white) marks its surface-moraine-covered inflow into the Chogolungma main glacier. No.69 is the c. 5500 m- high ESE-crest of the 6193 m-massif S of the Gandes Chhish (6445 m). The surface moraine of the Sgari Byen Gang glacier (black, large ) consists of an up to over 100 cm-thick layer of coarse debris with a 90%- predominance of edged boulders (foreground) of sedimentary rocks and a clay-, silt-, sand- and pebble-bearing matrix. () shows the entrance of a meltwater tunnel beneath the hanging solid glacier ice. (black small) are remnants of avalanche snow of the winter and spring. On their edges occur fresh mudflows of the last weeks and days, which can be diagnosed by their still humid, laminar accumulations (on the right of small on the left). The avalanche- and mudflow tracks follow the permanently flowed-through meltwater rills in the valley slopes (left of on the right). They are cut into Late Glacial ground moraine ( black, centre) and neoglacial to historic lateral moraine (X). Owing to this, the meltwater creeks as well as the summertime mudflow- and wintertime avalanche discharges dislocate this prehistoric moraine material, removing it into the surface moraine of the Sgari Byen Gang glacier ( black). (X) is the slightly layered lateral moraine generation of Stage X from c. 180-80 years before present (cf. Tab 1). Its accumulation was dependent on a snow-line depression of 30-40 m against the present-day ELA. () is the glacier creek. In this position (4150 m asl) the lowest remains of dead ice are situated marginally (recognizable by the humid slope debris on the left of ), 500 m down-valley of the current glacier terminus at 4200 m. (o) is the locality of the erratic quartzite boulder shown in Photo 108. ( left) marks a debris cone with ground moraine core; ( on the right) is a fluvially re- worked ground moraine, on which a hanging glacier tongue still lay in the neoglacial period (Stage V-’VII). ( white) are the highest Late Glacial ground moraine remnants preserved here; (j) shows the highest verifiable glacigenic abrasion roundings; (––) is the geomorphologically verifiable Ice Age glacier level (Stage 0=LGM) about 5900 m asl. Photo M.Kuhle, 22.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 293 294 M. Kuhle

p Photo 107. 360°-panorama from the junction area of the Sgari Byen Gang side-valley (No.69) into the Chogolungma valley ( white) (35°59′17″ N/75°05′35″ E; 3920 m asl) from the moraine- () and gravel accumulations of the historic glacier stages from the Younger Dhaulagiri-Stage VII up to Stage IX with the corresponding gravel fields or sanders (outwash) No.-4 to No. -7 (see Tab.1): the left and right margins are situated in a SE direction looking down the Chogolungma valley; No.56 is the 6253 m-Peak in the SW, covered by clouds, from the NE-flank of which the First East Haramosh glacier joins the Chogolungma glacier ( white). On the right of No.56 the Chogolungma glacier flows down out of the W-flank of the Malubiting massif, which at 7453 m is the highest catchment area. In the NW lies No.69, the catchment area of the Sgari Byen Gang glacier ( black), which reaches the 6193 m-Peak. The moraine-covered current glacier surface has been lowered about 150 m against its lateral moraines (X), which belong to Stage X (Tab 1) (cf. Photo 106). (è ) marks the ruins (remnants of stone-huts and wind-shields) of a temporary settlement of mineral prospectors, abandoned several years ago. Somewhat above, at 4120 m asl, there lies the front moraine of Stage X of the Sgari Byen Gang glacier. ( black and VII-IX) indicate the lateral moraines upthrust by the glacier ice during the historical Stages VII-IX, i.e. c. 1700-180 years ago (Tab 1). At that time there was the last ice contact between this orographic left side-glacier ( black) and the main glacier ( white). Meanwhile sporadic flowers have settled (in the area of ). The moraine debris contains polymict boulders of sedimentary- ( large) and massif-crystalline ( small) rock the size of several metres. They are edged, partly rounded at the edges ( large) and rounded at the edges ( small), i.e. facetted. () mark debris cones and -slopes as well as -surfaces which have been developed by the down-slope transport of their material on Late Glacial cores of ground moraine and historic lateral moraine ledges. () is the basis of the pedestal moraine of an orographic right hanging glacier upwards of the inflow of the Second East Haramosh glacier, which is in the process of being built-up. ( white) mark ground moraine remnants on the outcropping edges of the strata at 4600-4700 m asl; (j) are glacigenic abrasions and flank polishings on glacigenically triangle-shaped faces and “truncated spurs”. In parts the work of mineral prospectors has abraded and roughened the outcropping edges of the strata (j on the left and right below No.69). (––) is the glaciogeomorphologically verifiable minimum height of the LGM glacier surface. The classic trough form all over the valley below No.69 has been polished out during the LGM. Photo M.Kuhle, 20.7.2000.

m Photo 108. Taken in situ, a longish, rounded erratic quartzite boulder of 1.39 m in length with glacier striations, embedded into a clayey, loamy ground moraine matrix () next to edged fragments of phyllites. The striations are up to 40 cm-long; they are inset in the form of sharp, thin to medium-wide scratches up to furrows, as wide as a finger (for scale: the head of the moraine pickaxe is 19 cm-long). They are rectilinear and run at an acute angle to each other in five main directions. The boulder consists of the altogether best rock material for the development and preservation of striations and glacier scratches: fine-grained, highly metamorphic quartzite on the base of coarse silt up to fine sand (grain-sizes about 0.05-0.08 mm). Rock of this type is a glaciogeomorphological rarity. Locality: Photo 106 o; 35°59′ 35″ N/76°05′ 40″ E, 4135 m asl. Photo M.Kuhle, 22.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 295 296 M. Kuhle

o Photo 109. From the outer slope of the orographic left recent (Stage X, Tab 1) lateral moraine of the Chogolungma glacier ( white on the very right) (35°58′ 25″ N/75°06′ 20″ E; 3810 m asl) looking down towards the SSE into the left valley flank (è ) and the lateral valley of the glacier (). The left margin of the panorama with the large mudflow cone ( large) is in a N-direction. No.57 is the Kupulting Kung-massif (6321 m), situated in the SSW beyond the Chogolungma glacier. The lateral valley is at most of neoglacial age, i.e. it has come into being between the Nauri Stage (V) and the middle Dhaulagiri Stage (‘VII) and - since c. 1,700 years ago - has been furnished further by the development of lakes with lake sediments (), fillings of alluvial debris () and mudflow fans () during the historical stages. The mudflow- (), as well as the alluvial material ( ) has been and is still heaped up against the outer slope of the lateral moraine ( large), building-up a kames in the shape of a paraglacial bank formation with a lateral sander. The left mudflow cone ( large) pours out of a valley flank gorge (è on the left) which sets in 1300 m further up. This cuts as an obsequent talweg into the metamorphic sediment series (32/10) dipping with 32° to the N (cf. Photo 105 on the left). (è on the right) is a subordinated erosion rill. In the catchment area of the larger gorge, at the 5126 m-peak, snowfall also occurs in summer (see Photo 111 below ––). Perennial avalanche snow () lies on top of and clings to the cone at the exit of the gorge ( large). In the proximal section of the cone mantle it is covered by debris which has thawed-out and has then been dragged away ( large). The melting snow produces the creeks of this lateral valley section (left of the person). In winter the discharge of avalanches takes place, in summer that of mudflows. A corresponding polygenesis applies to the much smaller avalanche- and mudflow cone ( on the right) (see also Photo 105 centre). Before an overspill over, i.e. through the lateral moraine ( white on the very left; the lateral moraine break-through is above in the background), has taken place, a lateral valley lake has been developed, into which 8 m-thick lake sediments () were deposited: thinly-layered silts, sands and pebbles. (j) are High- to Late Glacial (Stage 0 = LGM to IV) abrasions of bands of edges of the strata preserved in remnants. ( white, middle) marks Ice Age remains of ground moraine. The larger part of them has already been removed from this mountain flank, which has developed an extended, glacigenically triangle-shaped face. Photo M.Kuhle, 20.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 297 298 M. Kuhle

m Photo 112. Panorama taken at 4150 m asl from an orographic left subrecent lateral moraine slope ( on the right) of the Bolocho glacier () (35°59′ 10″ N/75°09′ 20″ E) from facing SSW (left margin) down-valley, via WNW (centre) into the orographic right valley flank of the Bolocho valley, via NNE (No.70) up-valley, as far as NE into the orographic left slope (right margin). No.56 is the 6253 m-peak at the northern end of the crest. The Chogolungma glacier, to which the pedestal moraine ( black) of one of the two hanging glaciers is adjusted, crosses below. No.70 is the “Bolocho crest” culminating at 5755 m asl, over which the Bolocho La (5450 m) leads into the Kero Lungma valley with the Kero Lungma glacier, situated towards the ENE. The glacier is covered by a surface moraine, which in the tongue area is over 1 m-thick ( black). ( white) shows a dead ice body, already separated from the thrusting Bolocho glacier, which is still connected to the catchment area. (▼ white) marks the outlet of a meltwater tunnel with ice in the meltwater creek, which has freshly broken away. However, this does not concern the actual glacier mouth, because some decametres down-valley the meltwater vanishes again beneath the glacier. The current glacier terminus (with the glacier mouth) is situated at 4040 m asl (on the right behind white). ( black) is the Bolocho glacier creek, flowing sub-aerially over c. 3 km and then draining in or under the Chogolungma glacier, i.e. interglacially or subglacially. (X) is the orographic right lateral moraine of Stage X (see Tab 1); ( on the right) marks the corresponding orographic left lateral moraine; ( white) is a 1.5 m-long moraine boulder of dark crystalline schist, rounded at the edges; the adjacent light boulders, similar in size, consist of white granite. Since Stage X, the glacier surface ( black) has melted down at a maximum by 80 m (below X). Syngenetically the development of sand pipes and earth pyramids has set in (on the right and left of X). () are polygenetic debris bodies deposited in the lateral valley. ( centre of the panorama) shows a glacigenically triangle-shaped face with a Late Glacial (Stage I-IV) ground moraine overlay. (j) are glacigenic abrasion features, which mediate to the High Glacial (LGM = Stage 0) glacier level (––and –– 0). (–– 0) runs about 5500 m, (–– middle) about 5300 m and (–– on the left) is evidenced by the local geomorphology as running at 5600-5800 m. Naturally, there was at the same time only one connected glacier level, which, accordingly, lay about 5600-5800 m at minimum. Photo M.Kuhle, 19.7.2000.

p Photo 110. At 3730 m asl from the Chogolungma glacier surface or, more exactly, from the orographic left surface moraine string () (35°57′ 40″ N/75°06′ 30″ E) towards the NE into the Bolocho valley with the debris-covered Bolocho glacier (cf. Photo 112 ) looking onto the mountains at the valley head rising up to 5755 m, in the area of the Bolocho La (5450 m). No.71 is the Aren Cho (5402 m Photo 113. Panorama taken from the orographic left flank of the Chogolungma valley c. ′ ″ ′ ″ or 5577 m), covered by hanging glaciers. Here, the orographic left surface 200 m above the glacier surface (35°57 10 N/75°08 25 E; 3850 m) down-valley of the moraine string () is 0.8 km-wide and covered by polymict boulders of phyllites locality of Aren Cho (Arinchu) (a yak pasture) from facing S (No.58) via WSW (No.56) and (dark) and white granite (), which are edged or rounded. The boulders attain a WNW (No.52) as far as NE (No.54). No.58 is the 5770 m-peak (in the clouds) with its length of up to 4.5 m (for scale: the three persons in the middleground on the northern fore-summits from which the western Marpho glacier - as an orographic right right). (IX) shows a 60-70 m-high lateral moraine ledge of the historical Stage IX tributary stream - flows into the Chogolungma parent glacier. No.56 is the 6253 m-peak, the (see Tab 1) which has been sedimented at a time when the Bolocho glacier was two eastern hanging glaciers of which (left below No.56) join the Second East Haramosh ▼ still a tributary stream of the Chogolungma glacier, i.e. when it joined the main glacier, which flows into the Chogolungma glacier ( ). ( ) are the pedestal and lateral valley and lay down with its tongue parallel to the main glacier. () are High- to moraines of two relatively small hanging glaciers running down to the NE. No.52 marks the Late Glacial remnants of ground moraine (Stage 0 to IV, Tab 1); ( on the right) 7453 m-high Malubiting massif with the highest catchment area of the entire dendritic is a typical spur position, where the ground moraine has been left behind in the Chogolungma glacier system. Its 6843 m-high N-summit (on the right below No.52) is confluence of the side- and main glacier on a glacially triangular-shaped slope, cloudless; its N-crest falls away to the right towards the 5840 m-high Polan La. This pass is here at 4380 m asl, i.e. 500 m above the present-day glacier surface. (j) the a High Glacial (LGM = Stage 0) transfluence pass; (––on the right below No.52) shows the preserved flank abrasions document an LGM glacier level at a minimum height corresponding glacier level of the LGM ice stream network with its culmination and decline of 5300 m (––). Photo M.Kuhle, 25.7.2000. in altitude beyond the ice divide toward the NW to the Barphu-, Hispar- and finally Hunza- glacier-system. There, and further to the N in the area of the Spantik-massif (No.54, 7027 m), the LGM-glacier surface (––between No.52 and 54) reached an altitude of 6200-6400 m. () marks exemplarily one of the numerous medial moraines, which below the glacier confluences are put together by two lateral moraines each, building-up the surface moraine cover which increases down-valley. () are rock fall- and mudflow cones, made up of crumblings (è black) as well as dislocated Late Glacial ground moraine (). They are distally cut by the glacier ( white) and integrated into the lateral moraines. (X) is a lateral moraine of Stage X (see Tab 1). The highest prehistoric deposits of ground moraine visible here (), are preserved 400 m above the present-day glacier surface ( white). ( on the very right) are decametres-thick ground moraine covers with erratic rounded quartzite- and facetted granite boulders; bedrock schist is in the underground. In many places glacigenic abrasion features (j) are preserved on metamorphic sedimentary rocks as well as on massif- crystalline rocks; the highest ones can be observed at c. 700 m above the glacier (k on the very right). (è ) mark postglacial rock crumblings, which in dependence on the rock have been shaped differently. Photo M.Kuhle, 25.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 299 300 M. Kuhle The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 301 302 M. Kuhle

n Photo 111. View from the central sheer ice string of the Chogolungma glacier at 3810 m asl (35°58′ N/75°05′ 30″ E) into the orographic left valley flank facing NNE to the 5126 (left) and 5328 m (right) double-peak. Due to the protection against ablation by a complete cover of surface moraine, the glacier ice () has thawed-out residually up to 10 m beyond the level of the sheer ice (foreground). (X) is the left inner slope of the lateral moraine which the glacier has last formed by the accumulation and attachment of moraine up to its highest point during Stage X (see Tab.1). The valley flank consists of crystalline schist series dipping to the N (see also Photo 109). It is overlain by ground moraine, which covers the glacigenically abraded edges of the strata (j) in the form of large residual surfaces up to an altitude about 4450 m (). In between, wall gorges ( white) have been cut by linear erosion of the meltwater, widened by avalanches, or cleft-controlled crumblings (è ) have taken place (along the ac- and bc-clefts). In their areas the wintry scouring effect of the snow and rock fall is especially active. All these postglacial mass movements, which in the first place have transported away the Ice Age hanging ground moraine, led - and still lead - to the build-up of debris bodies in the neoglacial to historic lateral valley ( black). The LGM glacier level (––) is confirmed by very high abrasion features (outside this photo-perspective). On this summit, overflowed by the LGM-ice stream, the crumblings resulting from cleft-controlled frost weathering within c. 20 Ka, have created a form which was dictated by the rock structure (stratification). Photo M.Kuhle, 25.7.2000.

o Photo 114. At 3855 m asl from approximately the same viewpoint as in Photo 113, taken from a rock spur of bedrock schist (left margin of the panorama) facing ESE toward the 6005 m-Peak (or 5937 m; No.59) above the locality of Shing Kuru, looking down the Chogolungma glacier. In the middleground the pasture Aren Cho () is situated in the orographic left lateral valley. The 6246 m-high Karaltang Kun (No.61) lies directly in the S. No.57 is the 6321 m-high Kupultung Kung massif in a SW direction (the summit is in the clouds). Toward the WSW lies the 6253 m-Peak (No.56, in the clouds), the two eastern hanging glaciers of which join the Second East Haramosh glacier. Up-valley, toward the WNW, the Chogolungma glacier can be seen; the right margin of the panorama shows the northern main valley flank. No.60 is the 5861 m-high (or 5846 or 5820 m) Berginsho Church (or Sensho); No.58 indicates the 5770 m-Peak with its northern fore-summits from which the E-components of

the West Marpho glacier flow down. The West Marpho glacier itself joins the Chogolungma parent glacier () as an orographic right tributary stream. (X) is the striking subrecent (Tab.1) lateralè moraine of the Chogolungma glacier. It contains an older neoglacial to historic (Stage V to IX) lateral moraine core. The pseudomorphotic moraine tongue ( ) provides evidence of a local break-through of the ice through this lateral moraine during Stage IX. () are debris bodies of interglacial, dislocated moraine material, building-up the surfaces of up to very large ( centre) mudflow fans; ( on the left) is a current mudflow track. () marks sandy alluvial debris sedimentated by the creek in the lateral valley. () are High- to Late Glacial ground moraine deposits in situ, preserved up to an altitude of 600 m ( on the very left and right) above the present-day glacier surface (). On the mountain ridge below No.60 the ground moraine even attains 800 m (); (pp) are erratic granite boulders of this ground moraine, the size of up to 1.5 m. They lie on bedrock schists. The clayey matrix of this ground moraine is visible in the right corner at the bottom. (j) are glacigenic flank abrasions indicating a highest prehistoric ice level (LGM = Stage 0) at altitudes between 5800 (––half-right and centre) and 5600 m (half-left). Photo M.Kuhle, 18.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 303 304 M. Kuhle

p Photo 116. At 3550 m asl, looking down the orographic left lateral valley (▼) of the Chogolungma glacier (35°56′ 10″ N/ 75°10′ 05″ E) facing ESE toward the 6005 m-Peak (No.59; or 5937 m). The left margin of the panorama points N into the left valley flank showing a ground moraine cover, being several metres - over 10 m at maximum - in thickness ( left) with up to 4 m-long boulders; there are also erratic quartzite boulders. The bedrock in the underlying is granite. Following the valley receptacle, the glacier, running down from the left to the right (m), has horizontally scratched these granite rocks (j white and m left). However, the rock with its glacigenic flank polishing, set free of the ground moraine, has only been preserved in the form of relatively narrow rock bridges. On the right and left postglacial crumblings have occurred; () shows one of the broken-out granite boulders. (j black) is a mountain spur, glacigenically abraded up to an altitude of at least 4650 m, at the confluence of the Kilwari Nala (valley) into the main valley. (––) are the glacier surfaces between c. 5000 (––left and centre) and 5600 m asl (––right), reconstructed by means of the local glacigenic roundings and polish cavettos (––on the right below No.59). The highest one belongs to the LGM. ( on the right) is the subrecent outer slope of the lateral moraine (Stage X; Tab 1) with () granite boulders of 1 to 3 m in length, rounded at the edges and facetted; in front two seated persons with their loads. Photo M.Kuhle, 26.7.2000.

n Photo 115. At 3500 m asl from the orographic left side of the Chogolungma valley (35°55′ 40″ N/75°11′ E), from the western margin of the pasture of Khurumal facing WSW, looking on to the 7409 m-high Haramosh (No.53), which bears a thick overlay of firn ice up to its summit. () is the surface moraine string of the West Marpho glacier in the junction area with the Chogolungma glacier, the central sheer ice string of which is divided into ice pyramid forms (foreground). () are Late Glacial ground moraine remnants on the orographic right flank of the Chogolungma valley; their relatively great resistance and superficial durability is to be diagnosed by its Alpine grass cover, which benefits from the grazing of ibex herds. () is a representative mudflow cone, in the centre of which runs a snow-meltwater creek (left of ). The debris cone has been - and continues to be - built-up by displaced ground moraine ( on the left) and the rock fall debris. The latter derives from crumblings (è ) and is delivered through ravines. This rock flank, strongly preformed by the structure of the metamorphic bedrock, the layers of which dip steeply to the N (38/05), shows only verifiable glacigenic roundings of abrasion on the edges of the strata (j). During the LGM the jagged structure of the flat rock crest was overflowed by a glacier ice overlay which was many hundreds of metres thick (––). Photo M.Kuhle, 26.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 305 306 M. Kuhle The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 307 308 M. Kuhle

n Photo 117. 330°-panorama from the confluence of the Kilwari Nala (side-valley) (35°56′03″N/75°10′ 50″E, 3650 m asl) into the Chogolungma main valley, 175 m above the Chogolungma glacier ( white). Toward the ENE the front of the glacier tongue of the Kilwari Gans (glacier) ( black) is situated and one looks up the side valley (left margin); down the side valley one views the main valley in a SW direction, looking on to the 6246 m-high Kapaltang Kun (No.61; in the clouds). No.59 is the position of the 6005 (or 5937) m-Peak, No.60 is the Berginsho Church massif (or Sencho; 5820 or 5846 or 5861 m). (X) marks the orographic right ground moraine of the Kilwari Gans (glacier) of the historical Stage X (Tab 1). From that time until c. 1920, the tributary glacier has permanently reached the main glacier (Chogolungma glacier) - for a short time perhaps even during Stage XI, i.e. 1920-1950. The sharp, narrow glacier tongue end (below black) testifies to a further glacier retreat. () is one of the rounded polymict boulders on the corresponding orographic right lateral moraine crest of Stage X. ( on the right) can be approached as the next older lateral moraine, sedimentated into the triangular section formed by the side- and main glacier, and belonging to the historic Stages VII to IX. ( on the right) is the sampling locality 16.7.2000/1 (Figure 6 No.2; Figure 8). Its heavy trituration classifies the material as being ground moraine, developed under a very thick ice. ( white) is the corresponding ground moraine beyond this side valley incision. (j) are glacigenic p Photo 119. At 3470 m asl, in the orographic left flank of the Chogolungma valley (35°53′ 10″ roundings of abrasion on bedrock of varying N/75°13′ 17″ E), from 200 m above the current glacier surface, looking up-slope in a N-direction. resistance and intensity of reshaping since the The following 100 altitude-metres consist of late Late Glacial ground- and lateral moraine ( black) deglaciation. (––) are the prehistoric (Late to High of the Sirkung Stage IV (see Tab 1). Here, erratic boulders of gneiss and quartzite can be found, fist- Glacial: Stages 0 to IV; Tab 1) glacier levels recon- sized up to the size of 1.5 m and even 2.2 m at maximum (longitudinal axis) ( person for scale), structed according to the abrasion forms between facetted and also relatively well-rounded, embedded in a pelitic matrix with a high content of clay 5000 m (––left half of the panorama) and 5300- (see also Figure 6, sample No.1; Figure 7). Metamorphic sedimentary bedrocks outcrop in the 5600 m (––right half). Photo M.Kuhle, 16.7.2000. underlying bed. They also form the rocks which have been abraded by the prehistoric glacier ice (j) above the noticeably over 10 m-thick ground moraine cover ( black). As far as an altitude of 3700 m asl, a somewhat older, late Late Glacial ground moraine (but still Sirkung Stage IV) ( white) lies on these rocks at a thickness of 1 to 3 m. (––) is the highest verifiable glacier level about 5600 m asl, probably belonging to the LGM (Stage 0). Photo M.Kuhle, 14.7.2000.

n Photo 118. From the subrecent orographic left lateral moraine (X) of the Chogolungma glacier ( below) at 3550 m asl in the area of the pasture of Khurumal, west below the 6005 (or 5937) m-Peak (No.59) (35°55′ 10″ N/75°11′ 30″ E), panorama taken facing NW (left margin), looking up the orographic left lateral valley, toward the E (No.59) into the W-flank of the 6005 m-Peak, toward the SE down the glacier, seen on to the Berginsho Church massif (i.e. Sencho: 5820 or 5846 or 5861 m, No.60) up to the SE into the right main valley flank with the 6246 m-high Kapaltang Kun (No.61) and its 5770 m-high SW satellite peak (No.58). Due to thawing-down, the current glacier surface ( below) has been lowered by 50 m against the subrecent moraine crest (X). ( white, left margin) shows the gullying and development of sand pipes on the 50 to 60°-steep inner slope of the moraine within a maximum of 80 years, which is the pre-stage of earth pyramids. ( above) is the central Marpho glacier covered by surface moraine, running down from the Kapaltang Kun and reaching the Chogolungma glacier. () marks a debris cone, made up of sharp-edged rock fragments, transported by avalanches, up to 3 m- long boulder fractions; it is situated in the track of the small and steep flank valley above which functions every winter as an avalanche ravine. () are current mudflow cones with down-flowing snow meltwater, adjusted to the lateral valley. At the time of day (16 to 17°°) when this photo was taken, a series of mudflows of older moraine material from higher slope positions (see below) came down on

to the right mudflow cone ( on the right), raising the spill-over of the lake. (oo) is the front of the water which, due to this fact, has been dammed-up. Two hours later, the three tents on the sandy gravel floor () have been reached by the water of this rapidly growing but only 1.5 m-deep lake. ( )è is a moraine remnant, undercut by the creek of the lateral valley. According to the geomorphological chronology, this is ground moraine which has been sedimented in the course of the Late Glacial to neoglacial Stages IV (Sirkung Stage) to ‘VII (middle Dhaulagiri Stage) (cf.Tab 1). ( black and white above) mark ground moraine covers in higher slope positions which, accordingly, are of the older Late Glacial Stages III (Dhampu Stage), II (Taglung Stage) and I (Ghasa Stage), with material portions of a reshaped High Glacial ground moraine, i.e. of Stage 0 (LGM). (j) are glacigenic flank abrasions in the shape of classic glacigenic triangular faces, developed from the back-polished mountain spurs (j from below No.60 up to below 58), as well as unambiguous glacier polishings with smooth rock flanks (l on the left of No.60). (––) show the highest prehistoric glacier levels, which can be evidenced glaciogeomorphologically between 5000 (––on the left of No.59) and 5500-5700 m asl (on the very left and right of No.59). Photo M.Kuhle, 15.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 309 310 M. Kuhle

n Photo 120. Up-valley of the pasture of Chohob Langsa at 3185 m asl, from the outer slope of the subrecent moraine of the Chogolungma glacier (35°52′ 10″ N/75°14′ 35″ E), looking into the orographic left valley flank toward the NNW. () mark ground- and lateral moraine accumulations of the Sirkung Stage IV (cf. Tab 1), over 100 m-thick at maximum, left behind by the late Late Glacial glacier, which has “smeared” it along and pressed it against the valley flank. Meanwhile, reshapings through incisions of the downflow of water due to sheet floods etc., have occurred on its surface. (▼) is a fresh, still active fault over a distance of 420 m, along which this moraine complex () has slid down und continues to do so. It is a downthrow running exactly along the upper edge of this moraine accumulation at c. 690 m above the viewpoint, i.e. at about 3900 m. This process can regularly be observed at places, where - due to the thawing-off of a valley glacier - the abutment of the ice is lacking, so that the moraine material is not supported. Glacigenic abrasions above this fault (above ▼) provide evidence of a minimum prehistoric ice level at 5200 m asl (––). Photo M.Kuhle, 26.7.2000.

o Photo 121. Panorama at 3175 m asl from the subrecent (historical Stage X, see Tab.1) orographic left lateral moraine (X) of the Chogolungma glacier, down-valley of the pasture settlement of Chohob Langsa (on the right above X) (35°52′ 05″ N/75°14′ 55″ E). ( ) is the trough-shaped, right tributary valley Niamul (or Niamur) Nala, situated in the SSE (left margin), which at present is no longer glaciated as far down as the Chogolungma glacier. No.61 is the position of the 6246 (or 6222) m-high Kapaltang Kun massif, situated in the W; the orographic left valley flank of the Chogolungma is in the NW (right margin of the panorama). () marks the undulating surface of the Chogolungma glacier, nearly completely covered by surface moraine and locally ( right) torn up by glacier crevasses. (è ) indicates a marginal ice spalling into the ablation gorge, which has been developed in a radiation- and thermally-intensive SW-exposition between the outer slope of the glacier and the subrecent inner slope of the moraine (X), according to Visser (1935; 1938), discharging meltwater. During Stage X, 180 to 80 years ago, the glacier margin (X) lay c. 20 m below the pasture settlement of Chohob Langsa. Debris cones and alluvial fans () have been accumulated in the lateral valleys behind the lateral moraines of this striking historic glacier position. The core of the lateral moraine of Stage X has been made up of the material of older, also Holocene, glacier stages. This concerned neoglacial advances, connected to ELA-depressions of c. 100 m against today (older Dhaulagiri Stage VI; Tab 1). () are obviously older, i.e. Late Glacial deposits of ground moraine on the slopes, in places preserved in a thickness of decametres (e.g. on the very left and the second and third from the right). The highest moraine deposits of this type ( white) are situated 450-1000 m above the current glacier (). (▼) is a present-day end moraine, sedimented at the same altitude at the exit of a still-glaciated hanging side valley. There, the almost 3 km-long Palchas-N-glacier is situated. (j) are glacigenic abrasion features. (––) indicates the LGM ice level at at least 5100-5500 m asl, extracted locally and differentiated by the glaciogemorphological arrangement of the positions. Photo M.Kuhle, 26.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 311 312 M. Kuhle

n Photo 122. At 3120 m asl, view from the orographic left side of the Chogolungma valley (35°51′ 53″ N/75°16′ 15″ E) toward the SSE into the Sencho Nala (valley) with the Sencho Gans (glacier) ( on top) and on to the Berginsho massif (No.60) with its 5681 m-high fore-summit, the Sencho. ( below) marks the Chogolungma glacier with its complete cover of surface moraine - here almost 2000 m below the present-day ELA. The meltwater creek of the Sencho Gans runs in a V-shaped narrow passage (between above and middle), left behind by the steeply hanging, and thus narrow, tongue of the subrecent tributary glacier ( above). (è ) is a wall gorge in the process of being built-up, dug out by the avalanches, which break away from the ice balcony (above è ). ( above) is a kame heaped up against the subrecent Sencho Gans glacier body, which was thicker at that time. ( centre) is an active debris cone of dislocated moraine material, which has been transported here through the ravine (diagonally on the right above middle). ( below) is a further kame, originally accumulated against the lateral moraine (×) and thus against the Chogolungma glacier of Stage X, which for several decades has become dissected. Today, the dissecting glacier creek of the Sencho Gans is adjusted to the lowered surface of the present-day Chogolungma glacier ( below). () are High- to Late Glacial ground moraine covers on glacigenic abrasion faces in the bedrock. (––) is a prehistoric glacier level (Late Glacial Stage I) about 5000 m asl, extracted from the completely abraded 4841 m-high mountain, constructed by edges of the strata of sedimentary rock. Photo M.Kuhle, 26.7.2000.

o Photo 123. Panorama at 4050 m asl from the orographic right flank of the Basna valley in the valley chamber of Arandu (35°50′ 40″ N/75°18′ 40″ E) above the Chogolungma glacier (), looking up-glacier. No.61 is the 6246 m-high Kapaltang Kun, situated in the W; No.57 the 6321 m-high Kupultung (or Kupulting) Kung, just visible behind it; No.43 is the 7409 m-high Haramosh; No.55 the 6986 m-high Laila Peak and No.52 marks the Malubiting, which, with 7453 m, is the highest summit of the entire mountain group in the WNW; No.54 is the 7027 m-high Spantik in the NW. In the left corner at the bottom of the panorama, sedimentary bedrocks occur in the form of very steeply dipping layers of quartzite. In the section of the lower third of the Chogolungma glacier depicted here, the ice is completely covered with surface moraine. (X) are the subrecent inner slopes of the lateral moraine of Stage X (cf. Tab 1), undercut by the current ice margins. ( white between X and X) is a series of lateral moraine ramparts, belonging to the historical Stage X. It proves, that c. 180-80 years ago, the orographic right side valley glacier, the Remendok (Rong Kushun or Rong Shun Gans) glacier, which at present has melted back from the confluence c. 1 km, still joined the Chogolungma glacier. () are remnants of High (LGM)- to Late Glacial (Stage I-IV) ground moraine overlays, which despite wide-spread crumblings with ravines and channels of rock fall (è ) as well as very steep slopes (28-40°) have still been preserved since 14-20 Ka. (j) are glacigenic abrasion roundings of the same prehistoric glaciation period. They provide evidence of a glacier ice, filling the relief up to 6400 m (––right third) and down-valley up to still 5200 m (––left third). Photo M.Kuhle, 28.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 313 314 M. Kuhle

n Photo 124. At 3730 m asl from the orographic right flank of the Basna valley above the pasture of Guma (next to below) in the valley chamber of Arandu (35°51′ N/75°18′ 20″ E) facing N across the Chogolungma glacier (), looking into the orographic left side valley, the Shu u Chen (or Kero) Lungma ( ). Near to its end, the glacier tongue, covered with thick surface moraine (), has dropped the most - namely up to 100 metres in altitude - against the subrecent upper edge of the lateral moraine (X). ( large) are the Late Glacial ground- and lateral moraine remnants of Stage IV (Sirkung-Stage, Tab 1), lying 730 m above the glacier surface on both sides of the glacier (); thus, the buildings and cattle kraals of the pasture of Guma are situated in the corresponding remains of an orographic right, small lateral valley of Stage IV ( below). The analyses of sample 27.7.00/1 (cf. Figure 6 No.10; Figure 16) and the Photos 125-127 (foreground) describe the moraine material of this locality in detail. In higher slope positions remnants of ground moraines () in decreasing thicknesses reach localities at 4500 m asl ( on the very right), i.e. 1620 m above the valley bottom. They belong to the Stages III to 0 (=LGM). At some places the surface of these remains of ground moraine covers is patterned by flat drainage gullies ( on the very right). The analyses of sample 28.7.00/1 (Figure 6 No.11; Figure 17) describe the older Late Glacial to High Glacial moraine material (Stage III-0; Tab 1) of the orographic right flank in detail (foreground on the right). The selective rinsing of the ground moraine cover through rills and mudflows since the deglaciation is characteristic and results in iron-forms as typical relic- and alteration debris bodies ( on top on the left). (è ) marks the origin of branching gullies of this type, which start at over 5000 m and bundle the meltwaters of fresh snow throughout the summer. ( black) is a typical mudflow fan at the exit of such a gully, consisting of re-arranged, re-sedimented moraine material. A corresponding erosion rill (o) has dissected the moraine material of the orographic right valley flank. ( white) is a mudflow- and alluvial fan at the exit of the Kero Lungma, which has been - and still is - deposited against the tongue end of the Chogolungma glacier. Down to the valley bottom the trough valley flanks of this side valley ( ) are increasingly filled with ground moraine ( above ). (j) are the preserved remnants of glacigenic abrasion, testifying here to a minimum LGM-ice level (––) at 5200 m asl. Photo M.Kuhle, 28.7.2000.

m Photo 125. From the orographic right flank of the Basna valley at 3630 m asl, from the lateral moraine ledge (IV ) with the pasture of Guma (35°51′ 05″ N/75°18′ 30″ E) toward the WNW, looking up the lower Chogolungma glacier ( white). No.61 is the 6222 m-high Kapaltang Kun. () are erratic boulders of crystalline schist and granite, the rounded edges of which point to a glacigenic long-distance transport (for scale: the climbing stick is 143 cm- long). Autochthonous, edged gneiss boulders ( black) of the local slope debris (cf. Photo 123 bedrock on the left, foreground) are mixed into this polymict moraine from the Late Glacial Stage IV. () indicate present-day mudflow cones, heaped up in the form of a kames behind the subrecent lateral moraine (x) of Stage X in the orographic left lateral valley of the Chogolungma glacier. They consist of dislocated ground moraine material from the valley flanks (the two on the right). ( white, on the left) are Late to High Glacial (Stage IV to 0; cf.Tab 1) ground moraine covers of the right valley flank. The preserved glacigenic abrasion roundings and -smoothings (k) mediate to the highest verifiable glacier levels at 5600 m (––on the left) and 5300 m asl (––on the right). (è ) is a representative wall gorge, which, owing to earlier deglaciation of the valley flank further above, becomes narrower lower down, taking the shape of a funnel and even tapering off in the continuous wall, c. 600-700 m above the present-day glacier. Photo M.Kuhle, 27.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 315 316 M. Kuhle

m Photo 127. From the pasture of Guma (35°51′ 05″ N/75°18′ 30″ E) from the orographic right flank of the Chogolungma- or Basna valley at 3630 m asl, facing down-valley towards the ENE to the 5563 m-peak (No.64) and E to the c. 6300 m-high massif of the Hikmul Peak (No.63). () is the gravel floor of the Basna valley at 2800 m asl in the valley chamber of Gon, up-valley of the mudflow fan ( white) with the settlement of Bisil. It has been discharged from the hanging Aralter- or Arater trough valley ( ). The Aralter river is fed by the Aralter Gans (glacier between No.64 and ). ( black) is an active mudflow cone with an older ground moraine core, buried by the debris of crumblings and dislocated ground moraine material from higher slope positions. (j) marks a mountain spur, polished back glacigenically, between the side valley inflows of the Aralter- ( ) and Dungus valley (with the tongue end of the Dungus Gans on the right of j) into the Basna main valley. () are High- (LGM) to Late Glacial ground- and lateral moraine remnants reaching 4500-4600 m asl at maximum on the valley flanks of this photo segment ( white). (––) is the level of the LGM ice stream network at c. 5500 m. ( IV) indicates the orographic right lateral moraine ledge of the youngest Late Glacial Stage, the Sirkung Stage (see Tab 1), c. 730 m above the main valley bottom. () is an erratic granite boulder of 130 cm in length. Photo M.Kuhle, 27.7.2000.

n Photo 126. 360°-panorama from the pasture of Guma (35°51′ 05″ N/ 75°18′ 30″ E) from the orographic right flank of the Chogolungma- and Basna valley respectively, at 3630 m asl: from facing W (No.61) with the 6222 m-high Kapaltang Kun, looking up the Chogolungma glacier valley, via ENE down-valley on to the 5563 m- summit (No.64) and E to the c. 6300 m-high massif of the Hikmul Peak (No.63) and in the orographic right flank of the Basna valley in the valley chamber of Arandu with the pasture of Guma (right half of the panorama in the middleground) from ESE via S up to WSW (right margin). ( IV) and ( white) is a late Late Glacial lateral moraine series about 730 m above the present-day surface of the Chogolungma glacier (), which is to be classified as belonging to the Sirkung Stage (IV; cf.Tab 1). ( black, on the very left and right respectively) marks a further remnant of this lateral moraine generation, the core of which is over 50 m-thick. Polymictic, metres-thick boulders occur at ( IV), among them are erratic boulders of crystalline schist and granite, rounded at the edges. The walls of the pasture (behind IV in the middleground) are constructed of boulders of this type. ( white on the right) is the locality of sample 27.7.2000/1 (Figure 6 No.10; Figure 16); halfway between this locality and the bedrocks above(j), is that of sample 28.7.2000/1 (Figure 6 No.11; Figure 17). The narrow ground moraine ramp there, mediates to the only partly preserved roundings (j above, white on the right) on the bedrock quartzite (Photo 123, left corner at the bottom), which, concordant with its steep bedding, breaks away over large parts (è on the right). (▼) is a steep but small side valley with an avalanche- and mudflow track, which in prehistoric times accumulated a kame against the main glacier and its right lateral moraine and today cuts the latter ( on the very right). Above the present-day surface moraine (), the orographic left lateral moraine rampart (x) of Stage X (see Tab 1) is situated; mudflow cones- and fans (), active every summer, are adjusted to it. They emerge from wall gorges (è left) and consist of re-arranged ground moraine ( diagonally above ). The ground moraine overlays on the valley slopes () and the glacigenic abrasion roundings, partly reaching 5600 m asl (j), provide evidence of early Late Glacial (Stages I and II) glacier levels up to a High Glacial (LGM = Stage 0; Tab 1) glacier level (––) between 5600 (––on the left) and 5200 m. () is the gravel floor of the Basna valley at 2800 m asl. Photo M.Kuhle, 27.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 317 318 M. Kuhle

n Photo 128. At 4050 m asl from the orographic right flank of the Basna valley in the valley chamber of Arandu (35°50′ 40″ N/ 75°18′ 40″ E) above the Chogolungma glacier, looking towards the N up the Kero Lungma ( ) to the 6041 m-peak (No.62) of the Balchish group. It makes up the southern catchment area of the and also feeds the Kero Lungma- and the Hucho Aichori glacier. () are ground moraines on the slopes and on the valley bottom ( below ). Their increasing thickness towards the valley bottom resulted in the development of a 120 m-thick moraine pedestal ( below ), the trough-like surface of which has been shaped by the glacier ground. The moraine pedestal has been cut by the Holocene fluvial talweg and excavated over large parts. Slope ravines (▼), adjusted to the main talweg, also took part in this process. Finely furrowed erosion exposures show the beginnings of earth pyramids ( below ). The V-shaped river erosion deep into the ground moraine basement, creates the general geomorphological impression of a V-shaped valley, which, due to the moraine pedestal, subglacially was a real trough valley. Accordingly, the ground moraines on the slopes (the three below) are also only debris cone- or talus-shaped relic features, modelled out of the thick ground moraine by meltwater gullies (▼) with mudflows. () is a kame-like alluvial- and mudflow fan, accumulated against the tongue of the Chogolungma glacier. The glacier tongue of the main valley still presses the joining Kero river against the orographic left main valley flank. (j) are glacigenic abrasions, which are well-preserved up to levels at 4800 m (j on the right) or even at 5300 m asl (j middle) and mediate to an LGM level of the ice stream network of at least 4800 m (––on the left) via 5400 m (––on the right) up to 5600 m (––background). Photo M.Kuhle, 28.7.2000.

o Photo 129. Taken from the surface moraine-covered glacier tongue end of the Chogolungma glacier ( white and black on the left) at 2940 m asl (35°52′ 06″ N/75°19′ E) facing N into the exit of the Kero Lungma (left third of the panorama) via E down the Basna valley with the Hikmul massif (No.63) up to SE into the orographic right main valley flank with the junction of the Tippur Gans (glacier) ( black on the right). () marks several of the largely edged, and here up to 4 m-long polymict boulders (granite, gneiss, phyllite, i.e. crystalline schist and quartzite) of the 1 to 2 m-thick surface moraine (porters for scale), which have been transported over a maximum distance of 50 to 55 km. ( white) is the dirty ice, interspersed with internal moraine, in the underlying bed of the surface moraine. () marks the summertime meltwater river of the Chogolungma glacier at 8.20 a.m. : c. 150 m3/sec.. ( black on the right) is the advancing Tippur glacier, the fresh sander apron of which reaches as far as the Arandu settlement and marginally buries the irrigation fields () (cf. Photo 130). () are deposits of ground moraines on the slopes; (V) is a lateral kame accumulated against the orographic left neoglacial margin of the Chogolungma glacier. The remaining () are Late Glacial ground moraine remnants. (j) indicate glacigenic abrasion features and (––) is the minimum Ice Age glacier level derived from them. Photo M.Kuhle, 13.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 319 320 M. Kuhle

p Photo 130. At 2890 m asl from the fields of the Arandu settlement (35°51′ 55″ N/75°20′ 30″ E) looking into the orographic right flank of the Basna valley. The c. 6300 m-high Hikmul Peak (No.63) is situated in an E-direction seen down the main valley; the 5846 (or 5820) m-high summit of the Berginsho Church (No.60) lies in a SSW-direction. Below this mountain, covered with flank ice with large ice balconies and glacier break-offs, the steep-flanked Tippur trough valley is connected (below No.60). Its bottom is occupied by the Tippur Gans (glacier), a good 8 km-long, the tongue end of which () reaches the main valley (Chogolungma- and Basna valley respectively). The Tippur glacier is advancing very fast, so that its front moraine is overthrust by ice (above ) and its outer slope, too, is buried by fresh moraine (). () shows an older, not yet buried section of the outer slope, overgrown with grass and bushes. The fresh debris of the moraine and sander (outwash) apron () on the right and left of this overgrown section of the outer slope of the end moraine () has already reached the slope foot and at present is being pushed into and deposited on the artificially terraced grain fields () of Arandu. () are neoglacial and Late Glacial ( white on the left) ground moraine remnants. In places, glacigenic flank polishings and abrasion roundings are preserved (j); however, on a large scale the valley flanks have been roughened by the break-offs (è ); they took place along the stratification- i.e. banking- joints of the bedrock metamorphites (phyllites), which dip steeply to the N and are very resistant here. (––) signifies the prehistoric minimum thickness of the ice documented by the glacigenic erosion traces in this valley flank section. Photo M.Kuhle, 29.7.2000. m Photo 132. From the Basna valley at 4050 m asl towards the ENE up the Aralter valley across the Aralter Gans (glacier) () looking on to the 5563 m-peak (No.64) and its catchment area. The surface moraine-covered glacier tongue () terminates at 3940 m and proves an orographic snow-line in a W-exposition about 4620 m (5300 m mean altitude of the catchment area minus 3940 m lowest ice margin position = 1360 : 2 = 680 + 3940 = 4620). (3 above) are present-day debris cones, accumulated against the orographic left glacier margin, i.e. lateral kames are concerned; ( right below) is a prehistoric (neoglacial to historic) kame, which today lacks the abutment by a glacier. (⇓) shows a subglacial meltwater run-off rill, marginally cut into the rock threshold and -step far above the valley ground, which currently - after the thawing of the ice - no longer receives any glacier water, i.e. it has fallen dry. () are ground moraine covers on the valley slopes as far as 600 m above the present-day glacier terminal () at 4550 m ( white); this position of the ground moraine at the valley exit, i.e. in the area of the confluence step down to the main valley bottom at 2800 m asl (Photo 127 ) provides evidence of an ice thickness of 1750 m. (j) are glacigenic flank abrasions on outcropping edges of the strata, which are still preserved 200-300 m higher up. Their concave slope profile lines prove that the glacigenic flank polishing has widened the valley to a trough. (è ) is a steep wall area, which has been roughened by postglacial crumblings as a result of Holocene to historic undercutting by the glacier. The crumblings are controlled by the bc-clefts of the very steeply inclined metamorphic sedimentary rocks. (––) indicates the LGM glacier level at 5400 m, which has polished the peak No.64 and its satellites into glacial horns. Photo M.Kuhle, 28.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 321 322 M. Kuhle

n Photo 133. At 4050 m from the Basna (Chogolungma) valley facing NE up to ENE, looking on to the Sokha massif, with the 5979 m-peak (No.67) and the 6066 m-peak (No.68). These mountains belong to the catchment area of the Kushusum Lungpa (Photo 134), the orographic left flank abrasions of which are marked by the three (j black below). (––white) is the readily verifiable minimum ice level of the LGM up to the Late Glacial (Stage 0 to I or II; cf. Tab 1), which runs about 5300 m asl in the Kushusum Lungpa. (j above) is a glacigenic flank abrasion form in the orographic right trough wall of the Sokha Nala (valley flank above the current Sokha glacier) reaching up to 5700 m asl. (––black) is the LGM- level of the ice stream network at c. 5900 m beyond the flank of the 6066 m-peak in the area of the upper Biafo glacier (cf. Photo 65-69), with which the local Chogolungma ice stream network has linked up at a continuous level over the Sokha La. Behind the 5979 m-peak (No.67) lies the 5151 m- high glacier pass, the Hispar La, between Hispar- and Biafo glacier, the Ice Age surface of which has also linked up with the local Chogolungma ice stream centre. (j white) are glacigenic flank abrasions at 4200 m asl in the orographic left flank of the Basna valley; (è ) shows a fresh funnel-shaped crumbling, induced by a backward rill-development. ( large) are remnants of ground moraine covers with active mudflows in this valley flank between 3850 and 4000 m altitude; ( small between the two j black on the right at the bottom) is a ground moraine remnant characteristic of a steep relief of this type, in the left trough wall of the Kushusum Lungpa at c. 4900 m. Photo M.Kuhle, 28.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 323 324 M. Kuhle n Photo 131. Panorama at 2860 m asl from the recent glacier mouth gravel floor () of the m Photo 134. Taken at 2790 m asl from the gravel floor () Tippur glacier () on the main valley bottom of the Basna valley (35°52′ N/75°21′ 37″ E) of the Basna valley (35°52′05″N/75°23′30″ E), 1.2 km down- from facing ENE down-valley into the orographic left valley flank (left margin) via S into the valley of the settlement of Gon in a NNE direction, looking up right valley flank (centre) as far as W up the main valley and on to the tongue end of the the Kushusum Lungpa (or Berelter valley). No.65 is the 6102 joining Tippur glacier (). At present, the debris-covered glacier tongue is advancing and its m-peak of the Balchish group. An alluvial fan (upon which the braided meltwater creek is building up the cone sander ( also fan-shaped gravel floor). ( settlement of Sulphur Spring is situated (above ) has been black on the right) is prehistoric ground moraine, which the Chogolungma-Tippur glacier has discharged from this side valley, distally undercut by the last reshaped during the historical stages (Stages VII-X; see Tab 1). (⇓) is an erosion feature, Chogolungma meltwater river of the main valley (). The side inset by avalanches and meltwater since the retreat of the glacier. ( white) are Late Glacial valley shows a two-part cross-profile: above, a trough-shaped ground moraines in higher slope positions, which can be classified as belonging to the gorge-profile ( ), developed by the participation of glacige- Sirkung Stage (Tab 1, IV). ( V) show kames, accumulated against the valley glacier edge nic flank abrasion (j) (according to Kuhle 1982a; 1983a) and of the neoglacial Nauri Stage (Tab 1,V). They consist of dislocated ground moraine material below a gorge-like meltwater ravine, cut into the rock ground from those slope positions ( white, on the left) and have been dissected since the (è ); it has been created by subglacial meltwater erosion deglaciation. () are debris cones which are sporadically still active. They begin below beneath the Late Glacial Kushusum glacier and presently is ravines, which have been developed subglacially, and are made-up of displaced glacial still in the process of development - as is confirmed by the ground moraine material from the higher orographic right slope positions ( white centre). fresh crumblings (è ). () are ground moraine deposits of the (j) mark glacigenic abrasion forms, which, due to its smooth roundings, are to be dated as Late Glacial. (––) only roughly suggests the Ice Age glacier Late Glacial flank polishings. (––) is the local minimum glacier level, reconstructed level, because it ran far higher than is visible in this photo, glaciogemorphologically at an altitude of 5200 (––on the left) and 4700 m (––on the i.e., at least 2500 m above the main valley bottom (). Photo right). Photo M.Kuhle, 12.7.2000. M.Kuhle, 29.7.2000. o Photo 136. 270°-panorama at 3230 m asl from the orographic right flank of the Basna valley (35°47′ 20″ N/75°22′ 55″ E) above the settlement of Tisa Birri: from facing N up-valley via NE to the Hikmul (No.63, c. 6300 m) and Ganchen (No.66, 6462 m) and via E to SE with the 5046-5778 m-high southern fore-summits (No.50) of the Ganchen massif, via S down-valley with the 5552 or 5610 m-high Munbluk massif (No.51), up to WSW to the 4687 m-high rock ribs of the right valley flank (marginal segment on the right). () is the present-day gravel floor with the braided arms of the Basna river at 2560 m asl. ( black) shows a fresh debris cone, fed by crumblings, on the undercut rock slope of this river. ( white) is the Holocene to historic mudflow- and alluvial debris fan on which the settlement of Bien is situated and which consists of displaced Ice Age ground moraine. () are debris cones and -tali, also of dislocated ground moraine, with moraine cores created in situ. (j) marks glacigenic abrasion forms in the bedrock of the main valley flanks, mediating as far as to the LGM (Stage 0; Tab 1)-glacier level at 4800-5100 m (0 ––). ( white) are the highest ground moraine deposits about 4100 m asl; ( white on the right) has been reshaped to a Late Glacial cirque glacier moraine (4000 m asl) and proves a Late Glacial (Stage IV) ELA in E-exposition about 4300 m. ( IV) are the ground moraines of the simultaneous main valley glacier (Sirkung Stage IV; cf.Tab 1) (cf. Figure 6 No.12, 30.7.2000/1, Figure 18) preserved up to an altitude of c. 3600-3700 m on both valley slopes. () mark erratic granite boulders up to 3 m in length. (o black and white) are fractures and downthrows of two typical rotation slides in this several decametres-thick Late Glacial ground moraine material, resulting from the absence of an abutment on both valley flanks (cf. Photo 120). ( I ) are either striped scouring traces, left behind by the valley glacier on the ground moraine surface, or lateral-moraine-like ledges caused by the gradually thawing-off out of the glacier margin. Photo M. Kuhle, 30.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 325 326 M. Kuhle

n Photo 135. At 2630 m asl, from the orographic right valley slope of the Basna valley (35°48′ 40″ N/75°24′ 27″ E), looking over the settlement of Sesko () toward the ENE to the 6462 m-high Ganchen (No.66) and into the orographic left valley flank. No.63 is the c. 6300 m-high Hikmul. ( white) marks the highest ground moraine deposit, preserved above Sesko at c. 3900 m, which was still glacier-covered during the Late Glacial Stage III (Dhampu Stage III, Tab 1). IV is the youngest Late Glacial ground moraine position of the Sirkung Stage. It reaches up to 3600 m asl, a good 1000 m above the talweg. (è ) indicates the cutting of the meltwater of the Ganchen SW-glacier (not visible), which exposes the ground moraine ( black) over a thickness of several hundred metres and, owing to this, is the cause of the development of earth pyramids, as this is usual on steep slopes. The fields of the Sesko settlement (), too, are situated on an at least 60 m-thick ground moraine complex. Their irrigation is provided by the tapping of the glacier creek. (j) are the glacigenic flank abrasions of the High- to Late Glacial (LGM = Stage 0-III), which are clearly preserved here up to a height of 4800 m. (––) is the LGM minimum ice level at c. 5100 m. Currently, the Ganchen W-hanging glacier flows down to c. 4150 m asl, thus providing evidence of an orographic ELA at 5300 m. Photo M.Kuhle, 29.7.2000.

m Photo 137. Taken at 2540 m asl from the confluence of the Mutuntoro Klas (valley), a right side valley, into the Basna valley (35°45′ 50″ N/75°23′ 35″ E) next to the settlement of Niesolo, up the Mutuntoro Klas toward the W. () is the present-day gravel bottom of this side valley, which here, in the confluence area, has been spread out to an alluvial fan and adjusted to the gravel floor of the Basna valley. The lateral erosion of the glacier creek, coming down from the Mutuntoro Gans, undercuts active breakage cones as well (). The orographic left flank of the side valley, reaching up to the 4687 m-rock rib (see Photo 136 and 139 background, left margin), is covered with ground moraine as far as c. 4000 m ( white). The valley ground shows a characteristic ground moraine pedestal ( black). The dark, approximately horizontal stripes of vegetation on the slope (between black and white) run along irrigation channels, which lead to the fields of Niesolo. (j) is a roche moutonnée, mantled by moraine. (––) indicates the minimum height of the Ice glacier level, reconstructed local-geomorphologically. Photo M.Kuhle, 31.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 327 328 M. Kuhle

p Photo 139. From the valley bottom at the beginning of the Shigar valley, i.e. at the junction of the Basna- (on the p Photo 140. From the surface of a mudflow fan ( ) accumulated through the Shigar river on the orographic left left) and Braldu (on the right) valley (35°39′ 45″ N/75°28′ 40″ E; 2390 m asl) facing N, looking on to the 5046-5778 of the Shigar valley bottom, facing NE looking into the left flank of this extended, here over 4 km-wide main ′ m-high southern fore-summits (No.50) of the Ganchen massif. A high-lying valley, filled with an existing glacier a valley as far as the 6251 m (6400 m)-high Koser Gunge (No.47). The viewpoint is at a height of 2425 m at 35°35 ″ ′ ″ good 4 km in length, leads down from this massif ( ) into the Braldu valley. From these fore-summits, the mountain 45 N/75°34 07 E. (j) is a mountain spur, the High- to Late Glacial rock polishings of which are devoid of the ridge stretches down to the S between the two joining valleys as an intermediate mountain ridge. It has been ground moraine cover which, diagonally above at the flatter upper slope, has still been preserved ( on the right). glacigenically polished and rounded (j) - as well as the flanks of the two valleys - and is partly covered with ground The facette of the valley flank concerned shows the characteristics of a classic, glacially triangular-shaped slope. moraine (). The mountain ridge consists of granite; its surface shows separate, several decametres-high forms of The steep side valley is also mantled with ground moraine up to its upper reaches ( on the left); the ground ▼ roches moutonnées (j on the left below No.50). Especially the lower Braldu valley presents a typically glacigenic moraine cover is undercut by the talweg and accordingly slips down ( ). At the head of the side valley ground trough cross-profile (on the right of ). Its orographic right, concavely polished abrasion flank is cut by a gorge (on moraine can even be observed up to a height of 4400-4600 m ( centre). It has been - and still is - re-deposited the right below ). () are boulders of up to several metres in length, which, due to its edged forms and kilometres- by Late Glacial and Holocene periglacial and nival morphodynamics (solifluction). Below the steep rock walls it è distance from the valley flanks, could be classified as Late Glacial rock avalanche moraine; according to Hewitt is overlain by crumblings ( ). The polymictic composition of the boulders of the ground moraine can be (1999:230-233) they might be classified as belonging to the north-westernmost of the Ghoro Choh I-III rock recognized with the help of the mudflow fan ( ) made up of ground moraine displaced from this side valley. The avalanches. In parts these boulders are covered by a several decimetres-thick overlay of wind-blown quartz sand (with metres-sized boulders, which are rounded at the edges and partly facetted, consist of metamorphic sedimentary wind ripple marks: foreground). (––) are the LGM-levels of the ice stream network up to 4700 m (––on the left; cf. rock ( white) as well as far-travelled erratic granites ( black). Because of its tixotrophic characteristics, the Photo 136) and 4900 m (––on the right; cf. Figure 3) established by the abrasion forms. Photo M.Kuhle, 31.7.2000. clayey fine matrix especially supports the forward movement of the mudflow. (––) is the upper limit of the glacigenic flank abrasion verifying the LGM-glacier level. Photo M.Kuhle, 16.8.1997.

n Photo 138. Panorama from the orographic right side of the lower Basna valley (35°41′ 30″ N/75°25′ 40″ E) taken at 2380 m asl from facing NW up-valley (left margin) via NE into the left valley flank with the settlement of Thurgu ( middle of the panorama) up to SW down-valley (right margin). The Basna river carries summer high-water; only some gravel banks still become dry in the morning (). () are ground moraine deposits on the slopes, partly reaching as far as the mountain ridges; ( black) are decametres-thick moraine deposits in a removal-exposed slope position, so that backward erosion of the slope rills opens-up the moraine and prepares the development of earth pyramids. The valley flanks and mountain ridges have been rounded glacigenically up to their culminations (j). Accordingly, the High- (LGM = Stage 0) to Late Glacial (probably Stages I to II or even III; Tab 1) levels of the ice stream network are bound to have towered above the relief (––). (––on the right) runs at c. 4350 m, c. 2000 m above the valley floor. The Photos 99 and 139 (on both pictures ––on the left of No.50) show the same mountain ridge and the same ice level reconstruction from a different perspective. ( white on the left) is an active mudflow cone of dislocated moraine material, ( black) is an active detrital talus with a moraine core and a mantling of broken-off rock as well as moraine material, which has been removed down-slope. ( white on the right) marks a complex of ground- and lateral moraine, on the surface of which a mudflow fan has been piled up, deriving from dislocated ground moraine material from higher slope positions. Photo M.Kuhle, 12.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 329 330 M. Kuhle

m Photo 142. From the bottom of the Shigar valley in the area of the Shigar settlement (2300 m asl; 35°25′ 13″ N/75°44′ 25″ E) facing ENE looking up the Baumaharet Lungpa (valley). This orographic left side valley leads down from the 6288 m-high Mango Gusor-massif (No.44; see Fig.2/1) - the c. 5500 m-high E-satellites of which are visible here - towards the WSW into the Shigar valley. The ice areas (below No.44) belong to the tongue of a c. 3 km- long hanging glacier, a SE parallel-glacier of the Bonla Lung glacier, which also discharges through the Baumaharet Lungpa. () are remnants of ground moraine which have only partly remained on the very steep valley flanks in the shape of a “gorge-like trough” (cf. Kuhle 1982a; 1983a). Due to the stability of the ground moraine on the one hand and its specific susceptibility to snow melting and rain on the other hand, earth pyramids have been developed here ( on the right). Part of them is marked by a large boulder on the top, which has the effect of a protection against flushing. The valley flanks are developed in outcropping edges of more or less metamorphic sedimentary rocks (phyllites to gneisses); at many places, along wall gorges (è ), they have crumbled away since deglaciation. The glacigenic flank abrasions (k) reach up to a relatively clearly preserved Ice Age polish line at c. 3900 m (––). This orographic left flank of the Baumaharet Lungpa is at the same time the NNW-face of the 5609 m-high Shinkar (No.73, see Fig.2/1), so that the upper 1700 m of this extended steep flank have been extremely roughened by the denudation of ice- (mainly in the LGM to Late Glacial) and snow avalanches as well as rock fall, but also by the discharge of meltwater. The present- day gravel floor of the mudflow fan shows polymictic, rounded boulders of sedimentary rocks (); but quartzite- and granite boulders ( white) are also contained. () is the surface of the mudflow fan which has not yet been washed by the creek of the side valley. There are fields, apricot trees and poplars on it. Photo M.Kuhle, 5.10.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 331 332 M. Kuhle

n Photo 141. 300°-panorama taken from the orographic left side of the Shigar valley (2350 m asl; 35°32′ 12″ N/75°07′ 10″ E) from the mudflow fan ( large) W of the Alchori settlement: from facing SE (left margin of the panorama) looking down-valley towards the Skardu Basin, via SW into the orographic right Shigar valley flank with the irrigation oases (settlements) Chundupon and Chanchupa ( white), the 5691 (or 5770)m-massif (No.72) and the c. 5610 (5552) m-high Mundbluk (No.51) as well as up the Basna valley to the 5820 m-high Berginsho Church (No.60). No.50 marks the southern pre-summits of the Ganchen massif about 5046-5778 m, seen looking up the Shigar valley along the orographic left flank which runs towards the NW. No.72 marks the 5242 m-peak. ( black) are granite boulders and ( white) boulders of sedimentary rock, which derive from re-deposited ground moraine material ( on the very right) from the orographic left flank and have been re-sedimentated in the mudflow fan ( large). () indicates the present- day, up to 2.4 km-broad gravel bed of the Shigar river, which the glacier meltwater has accumulated in the form of a glacigenic gravel floor. () are alluvial- and mudflow fans from the steep tributary valleys, heaped up on the flat bottom of the main valley and undercut by the Shigar river on the outer banks. () marks a mudflow fan with a large part of dislocated ground moraine. (è ) are sub- to postglacial V-shaped stretches incised by linear erosion of the meltwater below the trough-shaped high valley sections ( ). () show High- (LGM) to Late Glacial (Stages I-IV; Tab.1) ground moraine deposits reaching up to 3000-3800 m on the orographic right flank of the Shigar valley, i.e. they lie 600-1500 m above the valley bottom ( white between below No.74 and the right margin of the panorama). The highest ground moraine deposit is situated on a hanging valley bottom at 4600 m asl ( on the right of ). ( black between No.74 and 51) are three remnants of a pedestal moraine which correspond with each other as to their levels at 180-200 m above the valley bottom. (j) are glacigenic abrasion forms, which at an upper polish line break off locally and verify a prehistoric level of the glacier surface (––) at c. 4800 m (––on the left of No.50), 4700 m (––on the right of No.51) and between c. 3200 and 3500 m asl (––on the left of No.74). (o) indicates the substantial linear erosion in the form of gullies and wall gorges on the glacially smoothed slopes of the orographic right main valley flank since the Late Glacial deglaciation. Photo M.Kuhle, 16.8.1997.

n Photo 143. Panorama taken from the orographic left side of the Shigar valley, 9 km above its inflow into the Skardu Basin, i.e. Indus valley, on the outer bank 40 m above the Shigar river (2240 m asl, 35°22′ 15″ N/75°44′ 20″ E): from facing WSW (left margin; in the background the Skardu Basin with the cirque glaciers of the NW- satellites of the 5343 m-peak: Fig.2/1 No.76) via NW to the bend of the right flank of the Shigar valley (centre) and via NNW up-valley to the c. 6400 (or 6251) m-high Koser Gunge (No.47; see Fig.2/1) as far as NE (right margin). The summertime snow-melt has exceeded its climax, so that the gravel banks of the glaciofluvial gravel floor already fall dry (). () mark mudflow cones containing large portions of re-deposited ground moraine, but also fresh debris of postglacial crumblings (▼). () are ground moraine remnants reaching up to an altitude of 3400 m on the right flank of the Shigar valley ( on the right of ▼); they are situated at the exits of the tributary valleys Baumaharet Lungpa (first from the right) and Skoro Lungpa (second from the right) up to heights of 3700-3800 m. In some places the ground moraines () are recognizable by soft rill forms. (j) are glacigenic abrasions and rock polishings partly roughened or interrupted by crumblings (▼). They demonstrate the prehistoric, i.e. LGM- to Late Glacial glacier levels between 4600-4700 m (––on the right below No.47) and about 3500 m asl (the rest of the ––and 0 ––). (l white, middle) is a polished rock spur with ground moraine at a height between 3040 and 3160 m ( above l white, middle). Photo 141 shows the same spur seen looking up-valley (Photo 141 third k from the left). Photo M.Kuhle, 16.8.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 333 334 M. Kuhle

p Photo 144. Looking across the small, i.e. relatively only 110 m-high saddle between the left Shigar valley flank and the Indus valley (Skardu Basin) (2310 m asl; 35°21′ 20″ N/75°45′ E) from facing NW (left margin) as far as NNE into the left flank of the Shigar valley (right margin). No.47 marks the outline of the c. 6400 (or 6251) m-high Koser Gunge (see Fig.2/1) seen looking up the Shigar valley. The saddle is at least in part filled up with loose rocks (), i.e. gravels of washed moraine with a centimetres-thick, loess-like eolian cover. At the base of the aligned roches moutonnées in phyllite bedrocks (j white), ground moraine has been preserved on the surface ( centre); the polymictic, partly ( black) erratic boulders () are part of it. The dark phyllite boulders ( white) are local moraine boulders which are less far-travelled. The bedrock of which they consist is not far away. The especially large, 3-5 m-long erratic granite boulders (e.g. black) may still be recognized as rounded, but they show already tafoni-like cavities and traces of weathering. ( I-IV) are decametres-thick ground- to orographic left lateral moraines at 2600 m asl, c. 400 m above the Shigar river, which also contain light, erratic granite boulders. The surfaces of these rounded or facetted boulders are not weathered, because they are devoid of moraine matrix and relatively short. () indicates the outer slope of the lateral moraine which dips toward the lateral depression. (j on the right of ) marks glacigenic flank abrasions situated above, classifying this lateral moraine ( I-IV) as belonging to the Late Glacial (Stage I-IV). ( on the left) are moraine accumulations on a glacigenically polished (l on the very left) rock pillar on the orographic right side of the Shigar valley (cf. Photo 143 on the left below No.47). The overflow of the glacier - which for the last time was effective abrading the three roche-moutonnée-like rock hills (j white and black, centre) - took place out of the Shigar valley. This is verifiable by the steep luff- and flat lee sides of the roches moutonnées (on the right of j white and black middle). (––) is the prehistoric minimum ice level at c. 3400 m asl evidenced by a polish line. Photo M.Kuhle, 5.10.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 335 336 M. Kuhle

p Photo 146. Panorama from the NE-margin of the Basin of Skardu, i.e. from the orographic right flank of the Indus valley, on the SSE-slope of the prehistoric transfluence pass, forming a link between the orographic left flank of the Shigar valley and the Indus valley (2260 m asl; 35°20′ N/75°45′ 10″ E), looking across the bottom () of the Indus valley: from facing SSW (left margin) via W, with the glaciated summits of the 5322 m- n Photo 145. Taken in the area of the same Ice Age transfluence pass as in Photo peak (No.75) and the 5343 m-peak (No.76) as far as WNW (right margin) with a polished 144, but 1.5 km further south (2320 m asl; 35°20′ 30″ N/75°45′ 10″ E), from facing rock ridge of the transfluence pass (j on the very right) consisting of phyllites. As far as SW (left margin) via SSW (No.76 = 5343 m-peak on the SW edge of the Skardu into the foreground - interrupted by islands of outcropping rock - lies ground moraine on Basin, Indus valley) and W (middle) as far as NW (right margin). Sedimentary the rocks of the transfluence pass, the strata edges of which have been abraded ( on the rocks outcrop in the foreground, which have been glacigenically abraded into the right below). Erratic granite boulders up to several metres-long, are embedded ( black) in Late Glacial and in the meantime roughened by postglacial frost weathering on its this ground moraine cover. Here, the Indus (below ) is cut only several metres-deep into surface. () is the route of a mule track laid out in the rock. (j) are glacigenically the valley bottom, accumulated in a width of c. 2 km (). The c. 260 m-high rock cone abraded mountain ridges and “riegels” (barrier mountains) in sedimentary bedrocks situated in the confluence area, has been sharpened like a dorsal fin by the merging Shigar- with mountain polishings (second to fourth j from the left) or even a roche- and Indus glacier ice (second j from the right). Photo 145 (l white on the left below moutonnée-like glacigenic rounding of the total form (j on the very left and right). No.76) shows this rock cone seen from the SE (from the Shigar valley). ( black on the () are deposits of ground moraines overlying the abraded rock ridges as only right) is a ground moraine remnant preserved at the base of the rock cone. (j black) is the sporadic “veils” or in a thickness of metres to decametres. (o) are exemplarily eastern central, 730 m-high “riegel” (barrier mountain) of the Skardu Basin; ( black below marked, large erratic granite boulders up to the size of a hut, which are rounded at No.76) is ground moraine on the western central “riegel” of the Skardu Basin; ( black on the edges, facetted and partly even more strongly rounded. ( black above o) is a the right below No.75) are thick moraine covers on the orographic left flank of the Indus ground moraine tail on the lee-side of the large roche moutonnée (j on the very valley in the area of the Skardu Basin. ( white on the left) shows a ground moraine right), towering up to 2925 m asl, i.e. relatively about 630 m above the bottom of remnant in the left flank of the Indus valley which has been heavily roughened by this small valley (). (––) is the Ice Age level of the glacier surface interpolated crumblings since deglaciation; (è ) is a rock wall in the granite bedrock, broken away as far from the arrangement of the positions of the polish lines on the flanks of the as high up. () mark debris cones and -fans containing redeposited moraine but also coarse junction area of the Shigar- and Indus valley; it has run here about 3400 m asl. () detritus deriving from those crumblings; ( black) probably contains a primarily deposited are flat, small special alluvial fans of outwashed moraine material. () marks a moraine core. ( white) are High- to Late Glacial cirques of the Stages 0 (= LGM) to IV; postglacial to historic gravel floor built up of outwashed moraine material and the cirque bottoms lie at 3400-4000 m asl in a N-exposition. (––black) is the LGM- covered by a “veil” of wind-blown sand. (j and below No.76) is the “riegel” glacier level about 3400 m reconstructed by means of the polish lines. Photo M.Kuhle, (barrier mountain), situated further E in the centre of the Skardu basin, NE of the 16.8.1997. settlement of Skardu, which attains a height of c. 730 m above the Indus level. It has been abraded and covered by ground moraine. Photo M.Kuhle, 31.7.2000. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 337 338 M. Kuhle m Photo 147. Panorama from the orographic left bank of the Indus, here formed as an outer slope (2180 m asl; 35°17′10″ N/75°40′01″ E) taken from the margin of the Skardu settlement looking across the upper section of the Skardu Basin: from facing N (left margin) into the right flank of the Indus valley, via NE to the 5609 (or 5660) m-high Shinkar (No.73) up to E (left margin) with the orographic left flank of the Indus valley. () is the gravel bed of the Indus which during high water, i.e. during the snow melting period in spring, is flooded. This gravel body is still regularly thoroughly mixed. The already fixed high water bed can be diagnosed by the trees and sparse woodland population (e.g. on the left of the left ). () are 20 m-thick limnic sediments, deposited into a prehistoric dammed lake in the Skardu Basin. (j white, left) is a ″ riegel″ (barrier mountain) rising c. 730 m above the gravel floor of the Indus, which is absolutely 2882 m-high (cf. Photo 145 and 146). It consists of crystalline schists (phyllites) and has been overflowed by the Ice Age Indus glacier (––bold on the left = local LGM to Late Glacial minimum ice level) . This is evidenced by its locally preserved glacial roundings (j white on the left). (è ) is a postglacial wall gorge, developed by crumblings since the deglaciation. Its continuing process of development is shown by the fresh debris cone () on the valley bottom, accumulated a few metres above the current Indus level () during the Holocene as long as into historic time. The “riegel” is covered by a ground moraine overlay reaching a maximum thickness of decametres (first and second from the left) which contains erratic granite boulders (see Photo 148). (j white, on the right) is a c. 260 m-high (absolutely 2470 m) “riegel”, overridden by the Ice Age glacier, situated in the area of the inflow of the Shigar valley (cf. Photo 145 and 146, second white j from the right). (j black) shows the highest, strikingly well-preserved glacigenic flank polishings, reaching over small expanses a height of 2900 m. Separate ground moraine remnants can be observed at 3300 m (e.g. p). (The third from the left to on the very right) are further exemplary deposits of ground moraine. The maximum ice level reconstructed with the help of ground moraine remnants, triangular-shaped glacigenic abrasion slopes and rounded rock heads and -ridges ran between 3700 and 3400 m asl (––fine from the left to the right below No.73). (0 ––) indicates the LGM ice level of a small local ice cap which simultaneously lay on this 4200-4600 m-high old plateau remnant (small plateau-like flattening). ( white) is a mudflow- and alluvial fan and ( black) a debris cone of dislocated moraine material and crumblings. () marks a cirque floor at 4500 m in a SW- exposition, which in the shape of a tube- cirque (Maull 1958) reaches down to 3400 m asl (not visible here). The couloirs of the back wall of the cirque filled with firn ice extend from () up to a height of 5100 m. Photo M.Kuhle, 15.8.1997.

n Photo 148. Looking from the Indus valley bottom in the Skardu Basin m Photo 149. From the 2280 m-high SE-spur of Karpochi, the western 2698 m- (2180 m asl; 35°17′12″ N/75°39′59″ E) towards the NNE to the W-face of the high riegel (barrier mountain) of the two central riegels of the Skardu Basin from eastern-most of the two central “riegels” (barrier mountains) (cf. Photo 147 above the small fortress (in the foreground on the right) (35°18′ 10″ N/75°38′ 30″ and 149). (è ) are the metamorphic sedimentary bedrocks (phyllites) which E) looking from facing NW (left margin) to the ESE flank of the riegel, via N to break away under the control of the clefts, i.e. along ac- and bc-joints, and the 5242 m-peak (No.74) via the orographic right Indus valley flank and via ENE develop a talus () with coarse boulders on the surface. In their basal positions to the 5609 (or 5660) m-high Shinkar (No.73) up to E, upwards of the Indus into remnants of a ground moraine cover are probable. () is wind-blown sand, its orographic left flank (right margin). () is the high water bed of the Indus drifted up to the coarse-blocky debris which has slid and rolled down from the situated 120 m below the viewpoint. (j) are relatively well-preserved glacigenic slope. The sand () has been blown out from the gravel floor of the high water rock abrasions splintered-off by weathering since the deglaciation c. 15,000 YBP bed of the Indus (). () are accumulations of ground moraine deposited as ago. (The two j in the foreground on the left) are glacier polishings in very far as a height of 3300 m on the orographic right flank of the Indus valley ( resistent metamorphic sedimentary rock (phyllite), which despite a heavy on the left) and in a decametres-thickness at heights between 2640 and 2850 m jointing and - owing to black ferromanganese incrustation - an especially asl on the “riegel” ( on the right). (o) mark erratic granite boulders up to the intensive destruction by insolation are unambiguously preserved. There are size of a hut, embedded in this ground moraine. The moraines are situated ground moraines with erratic granite boulders (see Photo 146 below No.76; 1140 m ( on the left) and c. 480-690 m ( on the right) above the present- Photo 150) on the left side of the polished rock shoulder (l white). ( black) is day valley bottom (). (––) is the LGM glacier surface at c. 3500 m asl, a ground moraine core, the surface of which has been buried by moraine material reconstructed according to the arrangement of the position to adjacent flushed-out secondarily from the riegel. ( white) are ground moraine overlays indicators of glacier levels. Photo M.Kuhle, 15.8.1997. in a metres- to decametres thickness; the two on the right ( white) contain erratic granite boulders superimposed upon the phyllite bedrocks of the central eastern “riegel” (barrier mountain) in the Skardu Basin (see Photo 148). () marks a fresh talus of rock crumblings of the phyllites outcropping under the ground moraine. (––) is the LGM-glacier surface at 3450 m (––on the very left), at 3500 m (––fine, on the left and bold, centre) and at 3700 m asl (––fine, on the right) reconstructed according to ground moraines and glacigenic abrasion lines. It lay 1290 m, 1280 m and 1470 m above today’s level of the Indus valley bottom. Photo M.Kuhle, 15.8.1997. The maximum Ice Age (LGM) glaciation of the Central- and South Karakorum 339 340 M. Kuhle

m Photo 150. Viewpoint situated only 500 m further E than that of Photo 149 (35°18′ 10″ N/75°38′ 30″ E, 2230 m asl) facing WNW looking to the Karpochi, the western “riegel” (barrier mountain) in the Skardu Basin; on the left the wall of the small fortress (cf. Photo 149 on the right). (j) are glacigenic polishings, preserved as unambiguously identifiable prehistorically abraded rock parts. () is the metres- to decametres-thick ground moraine (cf. Photo 146 below No.76 seen from afar) with erratic granite boulders up to the size of a hut (o) which overlies the outcropping phyllite rocks at c. 2400-2600 m asl, i.e. 240-440 m above the Indus valley bottom. Photo M.Kuhle, 31.7.2000.