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summer 2011 Rare Earth Elements for Emerging Technologies Before 2010 most Americans had never Where Are Rare Earth Elements heard of rare earth elements, except maybe Found? in high school chemistry class when studying the of elements. Commercial deposits of valuable rare earth However, in April 2010 China announced elements are not evenly distributed around that it would impose export quotas on the world. They tend to be concentrated in rare earth elements immediately, in order specific localities based on favorable geo- to address internal environmental issues logic conditions. Currently more than 95 at their mines, regulate illegal mining percent of the rare earth elements required operations, and provide for a sustainable for emerging technologies is obtained rare earth element production and supply from mines in China. Rare earth elements for China. This announcement triggered an are not found naturally as pure metallic increase in price and some panic buying. elements. Instead, they are incorporated In late September 2010 China halted in hundreds of minerals, but only a few exports of rare earth elements to Japan, (in red), a rare earth . From a minerals are economically important. Bast- following an international dispute over pegmatite in the Petaca mining district in northern nasite, a carbonate mineral, and monazite, New Mexico. Photo by Leo Gabaldon. territorial fishing rights. Japan uses rare a phosphate mineral, are the most eco- earth elements in their highly profitable nomically important rare earth minerals in are commonly divided into two chemical electric/hybrid automobiles and many the world at this time. Most of the world’s groups: the more abundant light rare earth electronic consumer products. Although largest concentrations of bastnasite are in elements ( through ) China reinstated exports to Japan in early , igneous rocks that contain and the lesser abundant heavy rare earth November 2010, this incident placed rare more than 50 percent carbonate minerals. elements ( through , earth elements in headlines and on the lips Carbonatites are found as dikes, sills, plugs, and and ). They are of resource planners, politicians, investors, lava flows, and large stocks. Rare earth important because of their uniquely and journalists throughout the world. elements also may be concentrated in peg- efficient electronic properties, including matites and granitic intrusions or as placer What Are Rare Earth Elements the ability to readily give up or accept elec- deposits. Each ore deposit is different, and trons, a property useful for , optics, a detailed understanding of the mineralogy and How Are They Used? electronics, and other applications. and chemistry, as well as an understanding Rare earth elements are some of the Rare earth elements are lithophile ele- of the lithology, structure, and alteration more important commodities required ments (or elements enriched in the crust) of the deposit are required to determine to manufacture products associated with that have similar physical and chemical economic potential. emerging green technologies, including properties, and, therefore, occur together Between 1950 and 1964 monazite placer wind turbines and hybrid/electric cars. in nature. The name is misleading; their deposits in South Africa and elsewhere sup- They are essential in most of our electronic content in the earth’s crust ranges from plied the small amounts of rare earth ele- devices, including cell phones, laptops, 60 ppm (parts per million) for ments needed. From 1965 to 1998, most iPods, computer chips, etc. Other tech- to approximately 0.5 ppm for of the rare earth elements were produced nologies are being developed that require and lutetium, which is greater than the from the large in Cal- rare earth elements in their manufacture, crustal abundance of silver. Four of them ifornia, from carbonatites similar to those technologies used in water purification, (yttrium, lanthanum, cerium, and neo- now being mined in China. Rare earth desalination, magnetic refrigeration, and dymium) have larger crustal abundances elements also are produced from igneous more energy-efficient light bulbs. The than . However, they are not always rocks on the Kola Peninsula in Russia, clay so-called rare earth elements include the concentrated in easily mined economic deposits in China, heavy mineral sands 15 elements (atomic numbers deposits, and only a few deposits in the (placer deposits) in India and Brazil, and as 57–71), yttrium, and scandium. They world account for current production. a byproduct of tin production from mines

Published by the New Mexico Bureau of and Mineral Resources • A Division of New Mexico Tech 1 2 ATOMIC ATOMIC H He ELEMENT SYMBOL 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 NUMBER WEIGHT Li Be B C N O F Ne Lanthanum La 57 138.9 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar Cerium Ce 58 140.1 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Pr 59 140.9 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Nd 60 144.2 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Pm 61 145 55 56 57 * 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 Sm 62 150.4 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn 87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 Europium Eu 63 152.0 Fr Ra Ac Unq Unp Unh Uns Uno Une Unn Gadolinium Gd 64 157.3 * 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 Terbium Tb 65 158.9 Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Dy 66 162.5 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Ho 67 164.9 Er 68 167.3 The periodic table of the elements, with the 15 lanthanide elements shown in Tm 69 168.9 gray. Two related elements, scandium and yttrium are shown in green. Together these comprise the so-called rare earth elements. Atomic numbers and atomic Yb 70 173.0 weights for each of these 17 elements are shown in the table on the right. Lutetium Lu 71 175.0 RELATED ELEMENTS Scandium Sc 21 45.0 Yttrium Y 39 88.9

in Malaysia. Smaller deposits in Indonesia, found in the Peas Ridge iron mine in are found in vein deposits. Bastnasite was the Commonwealth of Independent States Missouri, and production from the tailings produced from the Gallinas Mountains (12 countries, including Russia, formerly there could provide a source in the near in the 1950s as a byproduct of fluorite part of the Soviet Union), Nigeria, North future. Rare earth elements are also found production. Strategic Resources, Inc., has Korea, and Vietnam sometimes produce in phosphorite deposits in the southeastern completed drilling the carbonatites in the small quantities. In the future other U.S. along the Atlantic Coastal Plain from Lemitar Mountains in Socorro County and deposits throughout the world may provide North Carolina to the center of the Florida is awaiting final test results before proceed- sources, including uranium deposits in Peninsula. ing further. Geovic Mining Corporation Australia, Canada, and Kazakhstan. has staked claims in the Cornudas Moun- tains in the Otero Mesa area in southern Where in the U.S. New Mexico and applied Are Rare Earth 150 for drilling permits. BE Elements Found? Resources, Inc., has drilled at Apache Warm Springs 120 Rare earth elements were on the Sullivan Ranch in produced from pegmatites Socorro County, where in the U.S., including 90 they found anomalous New Mexico, before 1950. concentrations of rare earth California’s Mountain elements associated with Pass mine began produc- 60 China beryllium vein deposits. tion of rare earth elements Claims have been staked in 1952 but closed in in kilotons Production in the Caballo and Burro 2002 because of environ- 30 USA Mountains where rare earth mental problems and the Other elements are found in vein availability of cheaper 0 deposits and in igneous supplies of rare earth 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 rocks. Deposits of yttrium elements from China. and are found Molycorp, Inc., plans to Global production of rare earth elements, in kilotons, from 1950 through 2010. Data from the U.S. Geological Survey. in igneous rocks at Pajarito reopen the Mountain Pass Mountain in the north- mine in 2012 to provide eastern Mescalero Apache a domestic source to meet the growing Where in New Mexico Are Rare Indian Reservation, south of Ruidoso. demand for rare earth elements. Earth Elements Found? Although Molycorp, Inc., reported Other areas in the U.S. have unde- Rare earth elements are found throughout recoverable resources of 2.7 million short veloped deposits of rare earth elements, New Mexico, and several areas are tons grading 0.18 percent yttrium and 1.2 mostly in igneous rocks, including deposits undergoing current exploration. Strategic percent zirconium in 1990, the Mescalero at Bokan Mountain in Alaska, Resources, Inc., plans to drill in the Apache Indian Nation is not interested in in Idaho, and the Bear Lodge Mountains Gallinas Mountains in Lincoln County developing these deposits at this time. in Wyoming. Rare earth elements are this summer, where rare earth elements new mexico earth matters 2 summer 2011 New Mexico mines were ting process can take as long as Farmington La Cueva Stinking Hopewell producing rare earth elements Bromide No. 2 Laughlin two to five years to complete and Sanostee (Chuska Lake Petaca Peak as early as the 1940s, from Mountains) Ojo Caliente Cimarron in many cases may take much pegmatite deposits found in San Toadlena area No. 1 Picuris longer. Nambe Miguel, Santa Fe, Rio Arriba, and Standing Farr Rociada Rock Ranch Meeting the Demand Taos Counties in northern New Miguel El Porvenir Mexico, and in Grant County in Gallup Creek B.P. Hovey Elk Mountain Dome Tecolote Substitution of other materials southwestern New Mexico. Peg- Ranch Monte Largo in many of the components matites are coarse-grained igneous Herrera Ranch Tijeras Lobo Hill requiring rare earth elements Zuni Mountains rocks with granitic composition. Canyon Pedernal Hills generally is not an option. Most They contain quartz and of the production will have to and represent the last crystallizing come from new mines, although phase of igneous rocks. However, Lemitar Mountains Gallinas Mountains recycling and conservation can New Mexico pegmatites typically Chupadera Mountains reduce the demand. Geologists are too small to be mined for Capitan know where many potential rare Ojo Caliente Salinas rare earth elements today. Rare No. 2 Peak earth element deposits are, but earth elements are also found in Pajarito funding is needed to define and Caballo Three Rivers sandstones (fossil placers) in the Telegraph Black Hawk Mountains develop these deposits. San Juan Basin in northwestern Burro Mountains In the past, mining companies New Mexico, but these deposits Gold Hill White Signal 0 25 50 miles responded to an increase in are also too small to be mined at San Simon Hueco Mountains demand by increasing production (Granite Gap) Cornudas Mountains current prices. Florida Mountains or opening new mines. Today, Tertiary veins and igneous rocks mining companies cannot always Challenges Associated Cretaceous beach placer sandstone deposits meet the rapid shifts in supply with Production Cambrian veins and igneous rocks and demand, partly because of Not all rare earth element depos- Proterozoic igneous rocks and pegmatites the complexities involved in the its can be mined, even if they are permitting processes, but in large high grade deposits. A number of Known deposits containing high concentrations of rare earth elements in part because of the rapidly chang- variables determine if a deposit New Mexico, by mining district. ing economics of the market. can be mined. The mineralogy Once it is determined that the deposit of the deposit must be known; rare earth is economic to mine, plans are developed Processing elements can be recovered economically and permits obtained. Rare earth element Rare earth elements are not traded on only from selected minerals like bastnasite, deposits are mined by both conventional the open market like most commodities. monazite, and . Some deposits underground and open-pit methods. Addi- Instead they are processed to specific have complex mineralogy that may not tional environmental issues are identified manufacturer specifications. The deposits be amenable for recovery of rare earth and plans developed to minimize them. can have a complex mineralogy and can be elements. The deposit must have a high Archaeological, biological, hydrologic, and difficult to process. Once mined, rare earth enough grade to be mined at a profit. The other studies are conducted to determine minerals are first separated from non-ore deposit must be low in impurities, espe- pre-mining conditions. In the U.S. and materials by various physical means, cially uranium and . Finally, the most countries, new mines must have including gravity, flotation, and magnetic deposit must be mined and processed with extensive mine and reclamation plans, and separation. This initial process is called minimal impacts to the environment. companies must identify post-mining land concentration. The mineral concentrate The first step to determine if a deposit is use before permits are issued. This permit- is further processed using acid and other economic is the exploration stage: Geolo- chemicals to separate the individual gists sample surface exposures and drill to elements. The process of extraction and DISTRICT determine the mineralogy and chemical PRODUCTION recovery is enormously complex, because NAME composition of the deposit. Feasibility rare earth elements have similar physical Gallinas studies are conducted using these data 146,000 lbs of bastnasite concentrate and chemical properties. Each element Mountains to determine if the deposit has enough requires a different degree of processing. material to mine at a profit. Metallurgical 112 lbs of samarskite, few hundred lbs Petaca of monazite, 12,000 lbs of Ta-Nb-REE ore Furthermore, this separation process cur- tests are conducted to determine if the rently is performed only in China. Similar Elk rare earth minerals can be economically Mountain 500 lbs of Ta-U-REE concentrate separation processing facilities may be built separated. Potential environmental issues in the U.S., Australia, and other countries are identified. Exploration can take two Rociada Several thousand tons of REE-Ta ore in a few years. years or more. Many deposits will never be $10,000 worth of beryl, Tecolote mined, even after millions of dollars have tantalite-columbite and monazite Environmental Issues been spent on exploration, if the feasibility Gold Hill REE production in the 1950s Deposits of rare earth elements nearly studies indicate that the deposit cannot be always occur with quantities of uranium mined at a profit at that time. Companies and thorium. These radioactive elements may examine the same deposit many times Production of rare earth elements (REE) in are generally not found in high enough as economic conditions change. New Mexico, to date. new mexico earth matters 3 summer 2011 concentrations to make them RARE EARTH 2009 For More Information economic, but they occur in high (2nd QUARTER) SELECTED USES ELEMENT US $/kg The New Mexico Bureau enough concentrations to require of Geology and Mineral special handling in the disposal of Lanthanum 6.05 re-chargeable batteries, catalyst Cerium 4.60 catalyst, glass, polishing, re-charge. batt. Resources has a number the waste rock that remains after of reports on rare earth Neodymium 14.58 magnets, , glass mining and processing. In addi- occurrences in New Mexico. tion, the processing of rare earth Promethium 14.50 magnets, glass colorant Information on national and elements requires large amounts of Samarium 4.75 magnets, lighting, lasers international occurrences, acid and other hazardous chemi- Europium 465.38 TV color along with other pertinent cals, and the resulting toxic waste Gadolinium magnets, superconductors statistics, is available through must be handled carefully. Terbium magnets the U.S. Geological Survey Mining and processing also and the U.S. Department requires large amounts of water, Dysprosium 108.62 magnets, lasers Erbium ber-optics telecommunication cables of Energy. Many of these and in many areas in the U.S. resources are available online. Yttrium 45 phosphors, ceramics, lasers and the world, conflicts arise over Some of the more pertinent water use and potential impacts. ones include: For example, the Apache Warm Selected uses of rare earth elements, and prices (in U.S. dollars per Springs deposit in Socorro County kilogram, in 2009). The Principal Rare Earth Elements is near Ojo Caliente and other Deposits of the United States—A warm springs, and residents are The Future Summary of Domestic Deposits and a Global concerned about potential impacts to the Consumers are demanding more cell Perspective by K.R. Long, B. S. Van Gosen, N. springs from exploration and mining. phones, televisions, computers, iPods, K. Foley, and D. Cordier, 2010. U.S. Geo- Environmentalists are also concerned about video games, wind turbines, hybrid/electric logical Survey, Scientific Investigations Report potential exploration and mining impacts cars, and solar panels—all of which require 2010-5220. Available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/ to the fragile desert ecosystem in the Otero more rare earth elements. Although it is sir/2010/5220/ Mesa area, where Geovic Mining Corpora- difficult to predict the amount of rare earth tion plans to drill for rare earth elements in elements that we will need in the future, Geology and Mineral Deposits of the Gallinas the Cornudas Mountains. Each deposit will it is likely that future production could Mountains, Lincoln and Torrance Counties, have its own unique environmental issues be met with six to ten new mines in the New Mexico; Preliminary Report by Virginia that must be addressed. world. The new mines that can meet cur- T. McLemore, 2010. New Mexico Bureau of rent regulations and obtain mining permits Geology and Mineral Resources, Open-file Report OF-532. Available at http://geoinfo. Other Challenges to Production first will likely be the next producers of nmt.edu/publications/openfile/downloads/ Financing for exploration and development rare earth elements, even if better deposits OFR500-599/526-550/532/ofr_532.pdf of new mines is now competitive on a are discovered later. New Mexico has some global scale, not only with other mineral deposits that are in the early exploration REE, and Thorium Districts and deposits but with other types of investments. stage, but it will take years for these Occurrences in New Mexico by V. T. McLemore, Mining companies must engage the local deposits to be developed, even if they prove R. M. North, and S. Leppert, 1988. New community and obtain a social license to be economic. Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral to operate; without community support, For most applications, there are no Resources, Open-file Report OF-324. Available production delays are inevitable. Mining known substitutes for rare earth elements. at http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/publications/open- companies must meet expensive regulations New research is ongoing to develop file/downloads/OFR300-399/300-325/324/ and pay taxes. Mining companies, regulating technologies that will require less of them, ofr_324.pdf agencies, universities, and others are now and manufacturers are finding ways to be recognizing the shortage in trained person- more careful about how they use rare earth Minerals, Critical Minerals, and the U.S. nel as the aging, experienced workforce is elements. Just as aluminum cans became Economy, National Research Council, 2008. retiring. The permitting process in the U.S. thinner as the price of that soared, National Academies Press. Available at http:// (and elsewhere) now requires contingency companies will learn to make better use of www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12034 plans for natural disasters (volcanic activity, the resources that are available. Scientists earthquakes, droughts, floods, tornadoes), are researching ways to develop synthetic Critical Materials Strategy, U.S. Department of and those can be difficult and expensive. In rare earth elements, but that technology, Energy, 2010. Available at http://www.energy. gov/news/documents/criticalmaterialsstrategy. some areas of the U.S. and throughout the if developed, will take many years. In the pdf world, infrastructure (including roads, rail- meantime, we would be wise to take stock roads, electricity, water, etc.) is not adequate of our own domestic resources, as we Rare earths statistics and information, U.S. for mines to operate, and in other areas, the continue to evaluate the potential for the Geological Survey. Available at http:// existing infrastructure requires maintenance prudent development of those resources, in minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/ and repair. The mining companies must light of our own growing needs. rare_earths/index.html#myb include these costs in their feasibility studies, thereby decreasing profitability. Lowering —Virginia T. McLemore Virginia McLemore is a senior economic permitting and environmental standards is geologist and mineral outreach liaison with not an option to overcome these challenges. the New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources. new mexico earth matters 4 summer 2011 Bureau News Director Search Continues Cooperative Geologic Mapping Program The search for a new director for the New was recently reauthorized for an additional Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral ten years. This year, 45 states requested a Resources continues. Peter Scholle retired total of $9.8 million. on June 30, after 12 years of service. A Rockin’ Around New Mexico number of qualified candidates have been identified, and interviews will continue The New Mexico Bureau of Geology and into August. L. Greer Price is serving as the Mineral Resources conducted its annual bureau’s interim director until a new direc- teachers’ workshop, “Rockin’ Around New tor comes on board. Greer came to the Mexico,” on July 5–8, 2011, at the Valles bureau in 2001, has served as an associate Caldera National Preserve Science Educa- director since 2004, and has been deputy tion Center in Jemez Springs. Teachers Volume 11, Number 2 director since 2007. representing grades K–12 came from across Published twice annually by the the state to learn more about the geologic New Mexico Bureau of Geology Mine Map Project history of the Jemez Mountains. The Las and Mineral Resources Conchas fire restricted field activities to L. Greer Price The New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Interim Director Mineral Resources received an additional Jemez Pueblo, the San Diego Canyon area a division of $25,000 for the current fiscal year from the around Jemez Springs, and White Mesa. New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of The was allowed to drive to Valle Daniel H. López Surface Mining. These funds are in support Grande and witness the southwestern extent of the burned area. The teachers President of our ongoing work on acquiring and geo- 801 Leroy Place referencing coal mine maps in the San Juan attended lectures on earthquakes and Socorro, New Mexico 87801-4750 Basin, under the direction of Maureen earthquake-caused liquifaction in Christ- (575) 835-5420 Wilks and Gretchen Hoffman. This is the church, New Zealand, and on fire ecology. Albuquerque Office seventh year of this project. The lectures were followed by discussions 2808 Central SE on volcanic, seismic, and fire hazards, and Albuquerque, New Mexico 87106 on safety awareness. Many of the attendees (505) 366-2530 Southwest Book Design and Visit our main Web site Production Awards were from New Mexico Tech’s Masters geoinfo.nmt.edu of Science in Teaching (MST) program. The New Mexico Bureau of Geology’s For information on the 2012 workshop, Board of Regents recent publication Geology of Northern New Ex Officio contact Susie Welch at [email protected]. Mexico’s Parks, Monuments, and Public Susana Martinez Governor of New Mexico Lands won two awards at the 2nd Annual Healy Foundation Jose Z. Garcia Southwest Book Design & Production Secretary of Higher Education competition in June. The popular book The New Mexico Bureau of Geology this placed first in the guide and travel category, year received a second gift of $50,000 Appointed from the Healy Foundation of Taos, New Richard N. Carpenter and was also a finalist in the scholarly and President technical category. Sixty-nine contestants, Mexico. This gift is in support of our 2009–2014, Santa Fe Aquifer Mapping Program. many from major publishers across the Jerry A. Armijo West, vied for recognition in 11 categories A Familiar Face Secretary/Treasurer in the competition, which is sponsored by 2009–2014, Socorro the New Mexico Book Association. The Many of you will have noted that there is a Deborah Peacock focus was on accessibility to the reader. new (but familiar) face in the Publication 2011–2016, Albuquerque The winners were honored at the annual Sales Office. Susie Ulbricht, who worked Abe Silver, Jr. meeting in Santa Fe in June. for us from 2001 to 2005, has joined our 2007–2012, Santa Fe Publication Sales Office staff once again, Omar Soliman STATEMAP Award this time as Publications Resource Special- 2011–2012, Socorro This year the New Mexico Bureau of ist. Susie is currently working half time Editors Geology and Mineral Resources once and is one of the people you are likely to talk with if you call to order publications L. Greer Price again received funding from the National Jane C. Love directly from the bureau (575-835-5490). Cooperative Geologic Mapping Program Layout and Graphics (STATEMAP). This year’s program at The office is staffed Monday through Gina D’Ambrosio the bureau was funded in the amount of Friday, 9 a.m. to noon and 1 p.m. to 4 Phil Miller, Leo Gabaldon $230,427. The bureau first received fund- p.m. Earth Matters is a free publication. ing for this program in 1993 and continues For subscription information please call to rank No. 1 in funding among the states (575) 835-5490, or e-mail us at involved in the program. The National [email protected] Cover photo of Ship Rock, New Mexico © Gary Rasmussen new mexico earth matters 5 summer 2011 New Mexico Institute of Mining & Technology NONPROFIT ORGANIZATION New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources U.S. Postage 801 Leroy Place Socorro, New Mexico 87801-4750 PAID Return service requested permit no. 1888 Albuquerque, NM

Coming Soon Geologic Map of the Valles Caldera, Jemez Mountains, New Mexico by Fraser Goff, Jamie N. Gardner, Steven L. Reneau, Shari A. Kelley, Kirt A. Kempter, and John R. Lawrence. Geologic Map 79—30-page text, 1 sheet. Scale 1:50,000, 3 cross sec- tions, ISBN 978-1-883905-29-3. $18.95 plus $6.50 for shipping and handling and 5% gross receipts tax for NM residents. Also available rolled; call for details. This new Valles caldera map and cross sections represent the The Rio Grande: A River Guide to the Geology and cumulative research efforts of countless geologists over the past Landscapes of Northern New Mexico by Paul W. Bauer. 40 years, and several state and federal agencies. GM–79 compiles 120 pp., full color. Spiral bound, on waterproof paper. $18.95 plus detailed geologic mapping completed in the past eight years from $6.50 shipping and handling plus 5% gross receipts tax. parts of the nine 7.5-min USGS topographic quadrangles that This comprehensive river guide provides detailed, full-color encompass the caldera. More than 150 map units are described in maps of 153 miles of the Rio Grande, from Lasauses, Colorado to detail. Also incorporated are new geochronologic data and recent Cochiti Dam in New Mexico. Divided into eleven river stretches, refinements to nomenclature. Available September 1st. including the popular whitewater runs in the Taos Box, Racecourse, and White Rock Canyon. The river maps are developed on an aerial photographic base (digital orthophoto quads), allowing the user to more easily identify locations. Available August 1st.

For more information about these and other bureau publications: • Visit our Web site at http://geoinfo.nmt.edu • Write or visit our Publications Office on the campus of New Mexico Tech, 801 Leroy Place, Socorro, New Mexico 87801 • Call (575) 835-5490 or e-mail us at [email protected] • Publication prices do not include shipping and handling or taxes where applicable.

new mexico earth matters summer 2011