Sports and Social Sustainability Female Empowerment through Physical in Sri Lankan High Schools

Sarah Straubinger & Theresa Volbert

Main field of study – Leadership and Organisation Degree of Master of Arts (60 credits) with a Major in Leadership and Organisation Master Thesis with a focus on Leadership and Organisation for Sustainability (OL646E), 15 credits Spring 2018 Supervisor: Hope Witmer

Acknowledgements

To Ilse, Andy, Julius, Scotty P, Jack, Stefanie, Anna and Kevin: because you are the ones that made all of this possible. Thank you so much for all these unforgettable memories and for sharing tears, laughs and lions with us!

We are very grateful to our siblings, parents, our whole family and friends, who have provided us through moral and emotional support in our life and throughout this thesis process.

Special thanks to Hope Witmer, who supported us from day one on.

Thanks SALSU for being our second family for the last 10 months.

Thank you Vika & Lena for being our lab partners, STPLN Crew for providing us with your creative space, Lena & Hanna for just being you, Sophie for your unconditional support and friendship, Collin for your awesome feedback, Abdallah for providing us with food, Yoerik for this beautiful picture, Lukas for your charger and Tiffany & Cody for letting us participate at the kids’ swim and surf lesson.

And the biggest thanks to all interviewees in , Lund and Copenhagen! Thanks for sharing your stories with us.

Thank you all!

Abstract

This inductive research paper addresses the issue of gender inequality among the youth in Sri Lanka. Thus, semi-structured interviews with (former) students were conducted to investigate how physical activities and in Sri Lanka can contribute to female empowerment on a personal, relational and societal level in order to reach gender equity. Taking the ‘Ecological System Theory’ and the ‘Three-dimensional Model of Women Empowerment’ as an analytical lens, the perspective of Sri Lankan high school students was explored. Key findings highlight the importance of a safe class climate characterized by a motivational environment and a strong social network to enable empowerment to unfold. However, the society's cultural values and beliefs can hinder this process and restrain physical education to be a catalyst for female empowerment. Finally, directions and challenges for practical management to counteract gender prejudices are identified and future research is outlined.

Keywords: Gender, Gender Equality, Gender Equity, Female Empowerment, Physical Education, Physical Activities, Sports, Sri Lanka, High School Students, Child’s Development, Safe Space, Class Climate, Social networks, Culture

Table of content

1. Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Background ...... 1 1.1.1 History, culture and the role of gender in Sri Lanka ...... 1 1.1.2 Sri Lankan school system ...... 2 1.1.3 Impact of physical education on females ...... 3 1.2 Definitions of terms ...... 4 1.2.1 Gender inequality and gender equity ...... 4 1.2.2 Female empowerment ...... 4 1.2.3 Physical education (PE) and physical activities (PA) ...... 5 1.3 Research problem ...... 5 1.4 Purpose ...... 6 1.5 Research questions ...... 6 1.6 Structure ...... 6 2. Conceptual framework ...... 7 2.1 The process of empowerment ...... 7 2.1.1 Dimensions of empowerment ...... 9 2.1.2 Motivational (task-oriented), ego-oriented and safe PE class climate ...... 10 2.1.3 Impact of culture ...... 12 2.2 The interplay of development, female empowerment and PE ...... 12 3. Methods ...... 14 3.1 Research approach and design ...... 14 3.2 Data creation and collection ...... 15 3.2.1 Semi-structured interviews ...... 15 3.2.2 Key informant interviews and field observation ...... 17 3.3 Data coding, organizing and analysis ...... 18 3.4 Research reliability, validity and limitations ...... 19 3.4.1 Reliability and validity ...... 19 3.4.2 Limitations ...... 19 3.5 Ethical Consideration ...... 21 4. Findings ...... 22 4.1 Availability and access to PE ...... 23 4.1.1 Availability of PE ...... 23 4.1.2 Access to PE ...... 24

4.1.3 Summary of availability and access to PE ...... 25 4.2 Motivation, ego-orientation and safety climate ...... 26 4.2.1 Motivational (task-oriented) or ego-oriented PE class climate...... 26 4.2.2 PE classes as safe spaces ...... 29 4.2.3 Summary of PE class climate ...... 32 4.3 Three dimensions of empowerment ...... 32 4.3.1 Societal empowerment and societal restrictions ...... 33 4.3.2 Relational empowerment in the interplay with societal restrictions restrictions 34 4.3.3 Personal empowerment ...... 36 4.3.4 Summary of personal, relational and societal empowerment ...... 38 5. Discussion ...... 39 5.1 Theoretical discussion ...... 39 5.2 Practical contributions ...... 40 5.3 Future research ...... 40 6. Conclusion ...... 42 References ...... I Appendix ...... VI Appendix 1: Semi-structured interview questions for (former) students...... VI Appendix 2: Sample of key informant (KI2) interview questions ...... VI Appendix 3: Pictures of interviews and field observation ...... VII

List of figures

Figure 1: The Ecological Systems Theory of Bronfenbrenner (1994) ...... 8 Figure 2: The three dimensions of female empowerment ...... 8 Figure 3: Conceptual framework ...... 13 Figure 4: Investigated high schools in Sri Lanka ...... 20 Figure 5: Three parts of analysis ...... 22 Figure 6: Exosystem ...... 23 Figure 7: Micro- and mesosystem ...... 26 Figure 8: 3DMWE ...... 32

List of tables

Table 1: Overview of semi-structured interviews ...... 16 Table 2: Overview of the key informant interviews and the field observation ...... 18

List of abbreviations

3DMWE Three-Dimensional Model of Women’s Empowerment

EST Ecological Systems Theory

FO Field Observation

KI Key Informant

PA Physical Activity

PE Physical Education

PT Physical Training

F-FS Female Former Student

F-S Female Student

M-FS Male Former Student

M-S Male Student

SDG Sustainable Development Goal

1. Introduction

“Empowering women is seen as one of the central issues in the process of sustainable development for many nations worldwide” (Huis, Hansen, Otten and Lensink, 2017, p.2). Attempts at ensuring basic rights of women go back to the year 1945, when the United Nations Charter declared the UN resolution to promote universal respect for and observance of human rights and dignity, regardless of race, sex, language, or religion (Chaudhuri, 2013). Reaffirming their commitment 70 years later, the United Nations presented 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to, amongst other things, strive for gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls (SDG No. 5) within the following 15 years (UN Women, n.d.). The Global Gender Gap Report 2017, published by the World Economic Forum (2017), outlines how the failure to socially integrate women and girls results in the loss and underdevelopment of skills, ideas, and perspectives that are crucial for facing local and global challenges.

Signatories of the UN SDGs across the world are striving to meet these objectives with more or less commitment and success; for many the issue of gender equality is the most intractable of all the SDGs. Sri Lanka is an example of one of these countries that struggles with gender inequality – the island ranks number 109 out of 144 countries in 2017 (No. 100 out of 144 in 2016) in terms of gender equality (World Economic Forum, 2017). There are different ways to tackle gender inequality. Physical education (PE) is one way to capture gender dynamics and attempts to improve them (Haseena, 2015, Tom & Praveen, 2018). Post-war Sri Lanka is in the process of development, which brings the opportunity to positively influence the process during the early stages (The World Bank, 2016).

Hence, this research study focuses on gender inequality in Sri Lanka and has as its focal point the PE classes in local high schools, which will be explored through the lens of female empowerment and gender equity. To better understand the context, the following sections will provide an introduction to the topic.

1.1 Background

1.1.1 History, culture and the role of gender in Sri Lanka

Gender reflects cultural norms and values (Cuddy, Crotty, Chong & Norton, 2010). Hence, it is important to first understand the cultural context in which the observed schools are embedded. Sri Lanka is a country with a wide range of different ethnic and religious groups, including Sinhalese, Tamils, Muslims, Burghers, Malays, Parsis, and the indigenous inhabitants, the Veddas (Schulenkorf, 2010). Given the historical, geographical and socio- cultural context of the country, it has always been a multi-ethnic society with deep historical roots and a high potential for political conflicts (ibid). After the end of a more than 25 years long civil war in 2009, the social, economic, and political consequences of the war are still visible on the island. Today, Sri Lankan society continues to be marked by different ethnic, religious, linguistic, and geographical divisions that lead to tensions, ethnic conflict and contribute to gender inequality (ibid). In addition, natural catastrophes like the tsunami in 2004 and several floods within the last years (Reuters, 2017) aggravate the living conditions and have left its marks in the Sri Lankan society.

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Female labor force participation is often seen as the prime indicator of change in the status of women (Hasanovic, 2014). According to the ‘Quarterly Report of The Sri Lanka Labor Force Survey 2017’, only 36.9 percent of the economically active population is female, whereas within the economically inactive population (about 7.3 million) 73.8 percent are women. Hence, women are still under-represented in upper management and leadership positions in the private and public sector (Kovinthan, 2016, Weeratunga, n.d.). Business positions or professions which are traditionally considered “male occupations” such as pilots are rarely chosen by women (Hasanovic, 2014). This subordinated role in labor market reflects women’s social position and expectation – not only in the economic environment but also in a family and in society in general (ibid).

In Sri Lanka, a country where religion, traditional culture and politics have a strong hold on society, efforts to protect traditions run the risk of creating cultural and social barriers when it comes to changing the role of women and improving gender equity (Nanayakkara, 2012, Kovinthan, 2016, Senne, 2016). Traditional views of the ‘sacred’ family represent strong opposition to changes in gender relations (Kovinthan, 2016). The hostility of many towards moving away from the traditional ideal of ‘the good woman’ – taking care of the children and house – creates a “dangerous space for women and girls who may challenge the status quo” (Kovinthan, 2016, p.4).

1.1.2 Sri Lankan school system

The aforementioned gender inequality in Sri Lanka is also present in their education system. Due to cultural and economic reasons, girls in Sri Lanka did not attend school until 1947, when a free and compulsory education system was introduced (Weeratunga, n.d.). Today, in Sri Lanka there are 9.931 public (free of charge and owned by the government), 98 private (international and not free of charge) and 734 privivena (school for Buddhist monks) schools (Liyanage, 2013). The public schools can be either girls, boys or mixed schools and all private schools are mixed gender schools. The education systems comprises of 13 years of school, starting with primary school at the age of 5, continuing with junior and senior from 11 until 16 years old and finishing with collegiate/tertiary at the age of 18/19 (ibid). For this research study, the authors decided to focus on junior and senior secondary schools as well as collegiate/tertiary, and define these school years from grade 6 until grade 13 as ‘high school’.

The equal access for girls to primary, secondary and has been an important component in the idea of gender equality (Kovinthan, 2016). in particular has the potential to enhance women’s control and power in their life (Kabeer, 2005). The access to basic human rights, which has a significant positive influence on the empowering process during adulthood such as employment prospects, is often neglected in childhood (Chaudhuri, 2013). Instead of challenging traditional gender norms, education in post-war Sri Lanka has upheld existing gender rules that devalued the status of women and girls in society (Kovinthan, 2016). There are cases presented in studies where teachers show strong gender biases and ideologies by paying more attention to boys and automatically judge the abilities of girls to be lower (Kabeer, 2005, Kovinthan, 2016). Gender stereotyping

2 within the school environment often mirrors social inequalities of the society at large. Girls are portrayed as passive, modest, and shy, while boys are seen as assertive, brave, and ambitious (ibid). Consequently, within this scope of gender roles in society, the opportunity for girls to empower themselves has been limited.

1.1.3 Impact of physical education on females

The history of female participation in sport is marked by discrimination and division. However, it is also filled with great accomplishments by female athletes as well as advances for female empowerment and gender equality in general (United Nations, 2007). The importance of sport and its positive impact for all genders and especially for females has gained increased awareness in politics and research throughout the recent years (see Theberge, 1987, Ashton-Shaeffer et al., 2001, Lindgren et al., 2011, Haseena, 2015, Tom & Praveen, 2018). Sport is no longer just seen as luxury. Politicians and policy makers increasingly recognize the significance of sport to society (van Eekeren, ter Horst, & Fictorie, 2013). An example of this change of thinking was expressed in 2015 when the UN General Assembly dubbed the 6th of April ‘International Day of Sport for Development and Peace’ (IDSDP) (United Nations, n.d.). Further evidence of an attitudinal shift in regards to sport is demonstrated in the many acts and guidelines implemented to promote the participation of girls and women in sport, such as the ‘Canadian Physical Activity Guidelines’, which recommends a minimum of 60 minutes of physical activity (PA) per day for children by the age of 5 years (Tremblay et al., 2012) or the ‘Education Amendment Act’ called ‘Title IX’ in the United States (Women’s Sports Foundation, 2011). ‘Title IX’ prohibits and punishes the discrimination of women in all educational programs and activities, including sports, from elementary schools to colleges and in the United States (ibid).

Lakshmi Puri, the representative of UN Women, further confirmed this view that sport held great power as a tool for female empowerment (Puri, 2016). According to her, in sports, females defy misperceptions about prejudices they face as weak or incapable by demonstrating physical strength, strategic thinking, as well as through gaining leadership skills and thereby tearing down gender barriers, stereotypes and discrimination (ibid). Hence, sport can have a major impact on the advancements of human rights and socio-economic development, in particular in terms of female empowerment (Bailey, Wellard & Dismore, 2005, Nanayakkara, 2012, Puri, 2016). However, the aforementioned advancements for women do not have to start in adulthood but instead, effective female empowerment can be achieved at an early age through PA and PE (VanSickle, 2012). Regular PA improves the physical, psychological and social health of school-aged children and youth (Bailey et al., 2005, Janssen & LeBlanc, 2010, Poitras et al., 2016).

In Sri Lanka, most public schools are gender-segregated and also in mixed schools, there is a clear division between boys and girls during classes (Dencker Løwe Jacobsen, 2017). This segregation is also apparent in the different schools’ curriculums such as with regards to the amount of PE classes. While the school system attaches importance to keeping alive the country’s passion towards sport also among the youth (Wood, 2015), there is still a great gap between genders in equal access to sport for children inside as well as outside of school

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(according to KI1, personal communication). There is evidence that gender-based attitudes play a major role in a children’s participation in PA (Bailey et al., 2005).

1.2 Definitions of terms

1.2.1 Gender inequality and gender equity

The term gender refers to “non-biological, culturally and socially produced distinction between men and women and between masculinity and femininity” (Gunawardane, 2016, p.66). Gender does not only mean the biological sex (also addressing people with transgender or intersex identities), but also includes relational, hierarchical, historical, contextual and institutional elements, and gender expectations that can vary and change over time (WHO, n.d.). These expectations define how people “should interact with others of the same or opposite sex within households, communities and workplaces (gender relations)” (ibid). Although it is clear that gender is a social construct that goes beyond the distinction of the biological sex, it is important to mention that within this study, by referring to “gender”, the paper mainly focuses on the distinction between female and male.

The term is used as a construct to describe the social structure regulating and maintaining unequal power relations between women and men and determines the roles, behaviors, activities and attributes that a particular society believes are appropriate to women and men (Hasanovic, 2014, Gunawardane, 2016). According to Longwe (2002), gender inequality should be understood as women having less access to facilities, opportunities and resources, resulting in the allocation of resources and opportunities. The United Nations (as cited in DCAF, 2017) describes gender equality as the equal enjoyment of socially-valued goods, rewards, resources and opportunities by women and men. Based on this understanding, gender equality is the end goal – equal rights and conditions – while gender equity refers to the process of reaching equality, consisting of ensuring fairness and compensating for gender disadvantages (DCAF, 2017). Within this research paper, the focus is set on gender equity as the essential means through which gender equality and the needs of women needs will be reached.

1.2.2 Female empowerment

From a feminist approach, gender inequalities are anchored in the social processes, norms and concepts of society; leading to feminist studies and movements promoting women’s rights and interests to effect social change (Hasanovic, 2014). In regards to PE, liberal feminism has focused on the disparities between activities offered to boys and girls, the “different socialization of girls and boys into gender-specific activities; stereotyping and attitudes, and unequal access to facilities and opportunities” (Green & Hardman, 2005, p.162).

Women empowerment captures the process through which women gain the confidence, strength, information, and skills needed to make strategic choices to improve their lives

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(Kabeer, 2005). In this context, empowerment is defined as a process that gives power to the disempowered and increases their ability to make strategic choices. It differs from autonomy as it is not an independent static concept but rather a process that is influenced by several factors. While empowerment is a constructive approach for addressing gender inequalities in society and enabling women to achieve desired outcomes, it is essential to look at other factors that may inhibit or hinder this process (ibid). These factors are further developed and examined in this paper (see chapter 2).

1.2.3 Physical education (PE) and physical activities (PA)

As the terms ‘physical education’ (PE), ‘physical activities’ (PA) and ‘sport’ are used in a broad definition, a short clarification is given in the following. The Australian Bureau of Statistics (2009) describes PA as any form of bodily movement, performed by a muscle, or group of muscles that leads to an increase in one’s energy expenditure. Sport exists as a form of PA, and has a similar concept as PA, fitness and exercise, but includes rules, elements of competition, physical exertion and skill, amongst other things. Within the given research frame, PE refers to the educational process at school ”that aims to improve human development and performance through physical activity” (Gleaner, 2015). It includes formal lessons as well as informal physical activities and aims at developing specific knowledge, skills, and understanding for children (ibid).

1.3 Research problem

In contemporary literature, female empowerment is defined as a multifaceted process that is influenced by various factors of different environments (Bronfenbrenner, 1994, Ettekal & Mahoney, 2017) which can happen on the personal, relational and societal level (Huis et al., 2017). Research shows that sport can be an effective tool for achieving female empowerment (e.g. Theberge, 1987, Ashton-Shaeffer et al., 2001, Lindgren et al., 2011, Haseena, 2015, Tom & Praveen, 2018). However, the specific impact of PE in schools on each component of female empowerment, from the individual level all the way to the macro, has yet to be explored. This report seeks to add to the understanding of this relationship between sport and female empowerment by distinguishing between distinct outcomes and challenges found at the three dimensions of empowerment.

Therefore, this research paper will contribute to the existing body of knowledge about PE and female empowerment by combining the two assumptions: “sport is a tool for female empowerment” and “female empowerment is happening on the personal, relational and societal level”. Furthermore, one major factor that influences whether sport has the ability to empower females is the group climate and environment within which sport takes place (Seifriz, Duda and Chi, 1992, Walling, Duda & Chi, 1993, Moore and Fry, 2017, Harwood et al., 2015, Gano-Overway, 2013, Newton et al., 2007). By investigating the impact of sport as a tool for personal, relational and/ or societal empowerment with a focus on the PE class climate and in the context of Sri Lankan high schools, new knowledge is added to existing research.

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1.4 Purpose

The purpose of this research paper is to explore the perceptions and experiences of Sri Lankan high school students of physical education through the lens of female empowerment and gender equity.

1.5 Research questions

 How do students perceive PE classes in regard to motivation, ego-orientation and safety climate?  How do the students perceive the contribution of their PE classes to personal, relational and societal female empowerment?

1.6 Structure

This paper is organized into six main chapters with further subchapters. The first chapter provides detailed background information about the context and the purpose of this study. In the second chapter, relevant theories and the conceptual framework are presented. Chapter three provides a detailed description of the methods that are used for the data collection and analysis and why those methods were chosen. In the fourth chapter, the data presentation is summarized and findings from the research and their analysis are presented. Before ending with the conclusion, the key findings will be summarized and discussed in the fifth chapter. Lastly, recommendations for future research and practice will be deduced.

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2. Conceptual framework

This chapter presents the conceptual framework in which the research paper is anchored. Research on the impact of PE and PA supports the claim that sport is an effective tool for female empowerment (e.g. Theberge, 1987, Ashton-Shaeffer et al., 2001, Bailey et al., 2005, Lindgren et al., 2011, Haseena, 2015, Tom & Praveen, 2018). However, there are several factors influencing whether or not sport can actually have the power to be a catalyst for female empowerment. To place it within the larger field of study, this research paper identifies how previous studies assess the interrelations between sports, female empowerment and gender equity. Existing research and literature will be presented to provide a comprehensive understanding of perspectives and methodologies that have been employed when exploring these interrelated issues. This chapter will explain how contemporary research views empowerment as a process of development as well as how and why different factors can have an impact on this development process (see section 2.1). Based on these theoretical perspectives, a conceptual framework was developed and will be presented at the conclusion of this section (see 2.2).

2.1 The process of empowerment

Ecological Systems Theory (EST) According to the EST of human development (Bronfenbrenner, 1994), the term of empowerment can be understood as a process of an individual’s personal development. This theory is used by various researchers to explain how activities foster a healthy and positive development for children from different backgrounds and what role the particular environment that they are acting in plays in this development process (Ettekal & Mahoney, 2017). Bronfenbrenner’s EST consists of four different environmental systems: the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem and the macrosystem. The theory proposes that the development of children is directly influenced by their own experiences within (microsystem) and between (mesosystem) different systems (e.g. school, family, friends), as well as indirectly influenced (exosystem) by factors that the child is not directly part of (e.g. schoolpolicy). All three lower-order systems (micro, meso, exo) are then again under the influence of the country’s society’s cultural beliefs, attitudes and norms (macrosystem) (ibid).

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Figure 1: The Ecological Systems Theory of Bronfenbrenner (1994)

Three-dimensional Model of Women’s Empowerment (3DMWE) Based on the EST for development, Huis et al. (2017) propose the 3DMWE. This model consists of three distinct dimensions in which empowerment can take place: personal empowerment (own beliefs and actions), relational empowerment (beliefs and actions with respect to relevant others such as spouse, family and community), and societal empowerment (at the larger social context) (see figure 2). While the 3DMWE was designed for the study of women empowerment in microfinance, it will now be applied in this research study. The three dimensions of this model arise from previous research that has defined the process of empowerment as the ability to make individual choices about the following three different aspects: agency, resources and achievements (Kabeer, 2005). The 3DMWEs personal dimension equates ‘agency’, which refers to the people’s ability to act upon their own choices despite possible oppositions; in a negative sense it encompasses the authority over other people which may also include the use of violence. In line with the 3DMWE, certain bias and norms as institutional, cultural or ideological ones can have an impact on power relations and people’s ability to decision-making (ibid). Resources (referring to the relational dimension) include the material and social allocations through various institutions and the society (Kabeer, 2005, Huis et al., 2017). The outcomes of the independent decision- making to live the desired life, including for example the improvement of well-being and the achievement of equal gender roles in politics, form the term of achievement (relating to the societal dimension) (Huis et al., 2017). Changes in one dimension can entail positive as well as negative impacts on the other dimensions, reflecting the interconnection and interdependence within the process.

Figure 2: The three dimensions of female empowerment

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With regard to the two above presented models (EST and 3DMWE), the following three key parts will provide different perspectives on the research topic of sport as a tool for female empowerment. First, empowerment through sport will be placed within the three dimensions of the 3DMWE. Second, the perceptions of the PE class climates regarding motivation, ego- orientation and safety climate will be investigated as it is part of the relational dimension and belongs to the micro- and mesosystem of the EST. And lastly, to address the macrosystem, the impact of a society’s culture on the power of sport as a catalyst for girls’ empowerment will be assessed.

2.1.1 Dimensions of empowerment

Huis et al. (2017) define empowerment as a multifaceted process, which involves individual as well as collective awareness, beliefs, and behavior embedded in the social structure of specific cultural contexts and thereby distinguishes between personal, relational and societal empowerment.

Personal empowerment Empowerment initiatives or actions that boost empowerment on the personal level have according to Huis et al. (2017) a positive impact on the following individual’s characteristics and attributes: control beliefs, self-confidence, self-esteem and self-efficacy. They encounter psychological aspects regarding individual actions and personal beliefs. ‘Control belief’ means the extent to which women are aware of their power to decide about their personal life outcomes and the belief in their ability to choose the direction of their personal life (Huis et al., 2017, Hansen, 2015). ‘Self-confidence’ needs to be developed to make one’s voice heard in public spaces, to be confident enough to defend own opinions or to offer advice to others (Huis et al., 2017). ‘Self-esteem’ as indicator for self-empowerment draws attention to the emotionally value of one’s own worth (Kato & Kratzer, 2013), whereas ‘self-efficacy’ is the ability to cope with difficult situations and can be shown in the ways women interact with family members, neighbors, friends, community members or people outside their immediate environment (Huis et al., 2017, Kato & Kratzer, 2013). In this context, Hansen (2015) emphasizes the impact of people’s belief in their own efficacy on their personal motivation, life choices, their functioning, or coping strategies and thus on their capacity for action.

Relational empowerment Power cannot just be possessed by an individual, but is defined by the relationship to others (Christens, 2012). This is why women’s empowerment can also be measured by the women’s position in relation to their environment in terms of their partner, family, or social networks – which is described as “relational empowerment” (Huis et al., 2017). According to Huis et al. (2017) – in the context of microfinance services to women – the following factors are relevant when assessing whether a women is relationally empowered or not: decision- making power, freedom of mobility and number of social networks. First, in terms of decision- making, women are often dependent on their husbands’ decisions, for instance in terms of

9 household spending (Hansen, 2015). Without a sense of power over their own life outcomes, their voices remain unheard and decisions are made by others (ibid). Second, empowerment includes also the freedom to move freely in order to visit places outside home or outside the village such as a grocery store or sports clubs. And third, the importance of social networks can be seen in interrelations between group members as social support that can help in dealing with difficult situations (Hansen, 2015) and community involvement can positively affect the intrapersonal component of empowerment (Christens, 2012). The social network size is defined by the number of school groups, sports groups, memberships etc. that one is part of (Hansen, 2015) and is a significant aspect of one’s relational empowerment. These networks can help individuals to develop a higher self-esteem, higher motivation, or to control personal behavior (Fleury & Lee, 2006). Overall, the interpersonal relations can help in reaching justice and equal power, especially within youth empowerment (Christens, 2012).

Societal empowerment The dimension of societal empowerment comes from a macro perspective as it is about a culture shaped by norms, beliefs and values (Huis et al., 2017). This dimension of empowerment is concerned with women’s position in society and women’s position relative to men as well as by the percentage of female leaders and women’s opportunities and rights in education (ibid). Certain values and rules within a society also influence the relational empowerment process, as women in countries like Sri Lanka are supposed to interact with family members in respect to social norms (Hansen, 2015). This can be measured through official reports like the Gender Development Index or the Gender Gap Report (see section 1.1.1) to draw conclusions about gender gaps in certain societies. With regard to the topic of this paper, the societal dimension can contribute to the extent to which girls are supported to attend schooling and participate in sport programs.

2.1.2 Motivational (task-oriented), ego-oriented and safe PE class climate

According to the EST, a child’s development is influenced by different ecosystems (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). From the microsystem perspective, a PE class climate can have a major influence on the ability of sport to be a tool for female empowerment (Bailey et al., 2005, Gano-Overway, 2013, Harwood et al., 2015, Moore and Fry, 2017). But, just the availability of PE classes does not necessarily promote PA and an inappropriate provision can have negative results for students, especially for girls (Bailey et al., 2005). Looking at existing research, three main groups of class climates can be observed, namely motivational (task-oriented), ego-oriented and safe climate.

Motivational (task-oriented) and ego-oriented climate The goal perspective theory by Nicholls (1984, 1989) states that there are two different ways that an individual can perceive success in achievement-situations like sports. On one side there is task-orientation, which refers to an individual that experiences success through trying hard and improving performance. Ego-orientation on the other side describes an individual that measures success by comparing ones performance favorably to others (Walling, Duda & Chi, 1993). The work of Nicholls (1984, 1989), Ames and Archer (1988) indicates that

10 classroom environments also can be characterized as either task- or ego-oriented. Seifriz, Duda and Chi (1992) extended the work of Ames and Archer (1988) into the sports domain and found out that a task-oriented PE class climate (being rewarded for trying hard; every student has an important role in the team) supports the student’s personal improvement as well as her or his enjoyment and motivation in PE. Whereas an ego-oriented PE class climate (students outdo each other; teachers’ recognition is limited to the best players) leads to a decrease of enjoyment and reduced self-esteem (Seifriz, Duda and Chi, 1992, Walling, Duda & Chi, 1993). Further PE and PA research demonstrate the correlation between a motivational climate (promoting students’ self-development and fostering performance goals) within a sports class and positive outcomes such as students’ enhanced self-esteem, better group performance, student’s enjoyment and motivation (see Harwood et al., 2015, for a review). At the same time, an ego-oriented climate (competitive or fearsome) leads to antisocial moral attitudes or demotivation within the group (ibid). Furthermore, Moore and Fry (2017) assessed the relationship between a student’s feeling of ownership (e.g. student gets the chance to determine the rules of a game) in a PE class and her or his feeling of empowerment to also be physically active outside of PE classes. The quantitative study with high school students supports the proposition that satisfying experiences, such as feeling ownership, imply a beneficial effect on the students’ self-confidence and their feeling of empowerment to continue being physically active outside of school (Moore & Fry, 2017). Similar positive PE experiences are supportive for lifelong PA habits, whereas a climate dominated by demotivational and competitive (ego-oriented) aspects fail to address the interests of students and can harm such healthy practices (Bailey et al., 2005). Safe space Creating a caring climate – one that makes students feel safe, welcomed, valued and respected – in PE classes supports students’ positive social behavior (Gano-Overway, 2013, Newton et al., 2007). Gano-Overway (2013) explored the behavioral patterns of high school PE students when teachers provide a caring class climate. The study results show that when students perceive PE classes as safe spaces, where teachers and other students show empathy, make each other feel valued and respected, they develop enhanced prosocial behavior, characterized as a sharing, helping, inclusive and caring behavior (ibid).

According to the UN Women (as cited in Groot, Mohlakoana, Knox & Bressers, 2017) empowerment means “that people – both women and men – can take control over their lives: set their own agendas, gain skills (or have their own skills and knowledge recognized), increase self-confidence, solve problems, and develop self-reliance. It is both a process and an outcome” (p. 88). Hence, increasing self-confidence is one major part for a girl’s path from being unpowered to being empowered that can be achieved in an environment where girls feel safe.

To summarize, a motivational (task-oriented) climate as well as an environment that is perceived as a safe space (Gano-Overway, 2013) are necessary to enable girls to develop themselves and to empower.

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2.1.3 Impact of culture

Different empowerment researchers explored the impact that the cultural factors – embedded in the macrosystem – have on the empowerment of women (see Nanayakkara, 2012, Hansen, 2015, Gunawardane, 2016, Senne, 2016, Huis et al., 2017). Social, cultural, political and economic barriers can derive from gender-related norms and prejudices and affect the process of development (Nanayakkara, 2012). As proposed by the authors of the 3DMWE, culture is a major moderator in the empowerment process (Huis et al., 2017). Besides the factor of time, which refers to empowerment being a continuing process, culture explains why some women may feel more empowered compared to others and why the outcomes of empowerment interventions may differ from nations to nations (ibid).

To find out about the role of sports in Sri Lankan high schools, one has to consider possible barriers like traditions and perceptions anchored in history and expressed in society. Social factors determine how an individual and the community perceive goals and opportunities for change (Fleury & Lee, 2006). Furthermore, society sets the frame for women’s engagement in physical activity through specific values, motivation, and skills. Certain tasks assigned to females, as for example looking after the children or keeping the house, can hinder girls from participating in physical activities and may be the reason for men to prohibit girls’ engagement in sports (ibid). Thereby the need of a supportive personal and physical environment is stressed to promote PA – including the design of safe neighborhoods to reduce social isolation and facilitating PA.

From a historical perspective, former conflicts or events can have a negative impact on the security of social environments that have existed before. As mentioned in the introduction, ethnic conflicts in Sri Lanka are still evident in culture and politics. Serious events like the Tsunami changed people’s attitudes and contributed to a growing pessimism in parents’ minds regarding safety concerns (Fleury & Lee, 2006). Due to these barriers and safety considerations, girls in particular are still restricted in the participation in sports (see chapter 5). According to the United Nations (2007), women are often considered being too weak for sport. This kind of stereotypes led also to the assumption that sport is harmful to women’s (reproductive) health (ibid). In contrast, it is evident that women who face few barriers to exercise engaged more frequently in PA (Fleury & Lee, 2006). To understand social and contextual correlates of PA in schools, a broad perspective that includes not only the individual but also the social and environmental dimensions is needed to analyze the interdependence of those (ibid). This is why the research questions are analyzed not only from an intrapersonal point of view, but also take into account the interpersonal level, community, environment and culture.

2.2 The interplay of development, female empowerment and PE

The conceptual framework of this research study (see figure 3) is derived from the aforementioned development, female empowerment and PE and PA theories. The frame is based on Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) EST which understands the term of a child’s development

12 as a process influenced by different ecosystems. Moreover, female empowerment is according to the 3DMWE of Huis et al. (2017) divided into three dimensions, namely personal, relational and societal which all play a relevant role on the path towards gender equity. To understand the interconnections between the different approaches, the two theories are combined and together will be used as a guide to frame the research analysis in order to answer the research questions.

To lay a foundation for the further analysis and the investigation of the research questions, special attention will be given to the exosystem, since the school system, including the availability and access to PE, indirectly has an impact on the girls’ process of development. In order to answer the first research question (How do students perceive PE classes in regard to motivation, ego-orientation and safety climate?), the focus will lie on the micro- and mesosystem because the impact of the PE class climate depends on the students’ and teachers’ relations. To explore the second research question (How do the students perceive the contribution of their PE classes to personal, relational and societal female empowerment?), the focus will be extended to the three dimensions of the 3DMWE (Huis et al., 2017). Additionally, the macrosystem and in particular the Sri Lankan culture has an impact on all parts of the conceptual frame and therefore will be considered during all analysis parts. This conceptual framework is designed to combine all parts and perspectives together, to conclusively analyze the overall impact that PE can have on the process of female empowerment and gender equity.

Figure 3: Conceptual framework

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3. Methods

This chapter provides an overview of the research design including the methods that are used in this research study to gather the necessary data that will address the purpose of this research. Also the reasons for choosing the intended methods for this specific research will be clarified. After introducing the research approach and design (see section 4.1), the methods of how data was created and collected (see section 4.2) and how the collected data will be coded, organized and analyzed will be explained (see section 4.3). Finally, the reliability, validity, limitations (see section 4.3) and ethics (see section 4.4) of the data are discussed.

3.1 Research approach and design

The research approach and design is based on the formulated research questions describes the “coherent overall plan of the research” (Layder, 2013, p.11). This paper is conducted with an inductive research approach to find out about the patterns or connections by using theories from previous research in order to explore this research topic (Blaikie, 2003, Silverman, 2015). The inductive approach uses the research questions to narrow the scope of the study, and the theoretical framework, including the EST and the 3DMWE, is used as analytical lens. The aim is on exploring the patterns of the situation in Sri Lankan high schools from the student’s perspective. Therefore this approach is more about making assumptions within the research scope then about making overall generalizations. According to Berkwits and Inui (1998), the use of qualitative research methods helps to capture expressive information about perceptions, feelings and motivations. Hence, in order to gain insights about the students’ perception of what role PE plays in empowering girls in the context of Sri Lankan high schools, qualitative research methods seem most appropriate. Viewing the research from an ontological perspective, this study lies within the idea of constructionism and deals with understanding the interpretations by an individual (6 & Bellamy, 2012).

The chosen research method of this paper is semi-structured interviews using open ended questions. Semi-structured interviews have the advantage of ensuring comparability between the interviewees’ perceptions and experiences through the given structure (Tracy, 2013) as well as providing freedom for unstructured aspects of the interviews to allow flexibility and depth of responses (ibid). Furthermore, in addition to the semi-structured interviews with students, which form the basis of the research study, semi-structured and unstructured interviews with key informants as well as one field observation are used in order to explore the research topic from different perspectives and to strengthen the authors’ knowledge about the background of the subject. Using semi-structured but also unstructured interviews for the key informant interviews seem appropriate, because unstructured interviews give the interviewee the freedom to answer questions in her or his own frame of reference without being restricted by leading questions from the interviewer (Rosenberg, 2012). While interviews give the interviewer assumptions about what people are thinking, ethnographic

14 field observations allow the interviewer to first-hand look at what people are doing, which helps to better understand the researched phenomena (Silverman, 2015).

The semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews (semi-structured and unstructured) as well as the ethnographical field observation are conducted and analyzed by the authors themselves and therefore belong to primary data (Blaikie, 2003). Secondary data on the other hand is raw data that is generated by someone else and are used to complement the primary data with further relevant information (ibid).

In the focus of this research topic are countries where gender equity and quality education are still in the process of development. Gender inequality is still a major issue in Sri Lanka (for more information see section 1.1.1) and even though sport is strongly embedded in their culture, the equal access to it remains questionable. Therefore, the authors visited Sri Lanka in April 2018 for four weeks in order to learn about the country, its culture and society as well as to conduct interviews and do the field observation on-site.

3.2 Data creation and collection

This chapter provides a more detailed description of the research methods that were chosen for this study and how primary data was created and collected through semi-structured interviews (see section 4.2.1), key informant interviews (semi-structured and unstructured) as well as by means of one field observation in Sri Lanka (see section 4.2.2).

3.2.1 Semi-structured interviews

Being in Sri Lanka for four weeks in April 2018 enabled the authors to find relevant interview partners. The interview target group was beforehand decided to comprise of female and male students (in the analysis abbreviated with ‘F-S’ for female students and ‘M-S’ for male students) and former students (referring to students that finished school within the last 10 years; in the analysis abbreviated with ‘F-FS’ for female former students and ‘M-FS’ for male former students) of Sri Lankan high schools (see definition of high school in section 1.1.2). Because of the fact that previous studies point out “a clear trend of decreasing levels of activity as girls get older, and a widening disparity between girls’ and boys’ physical activity behaviors” (Bailey et al., 2005, p. 3) especially in secondary schools, the chosen focus seems reasonable for the purpose of this study.

The procedure of selecting the interview partners was done with the help of hostel owners, other travelers or others that knew students or former students and could help making contacts. Furthermore, the contact to three further researchers based in Sri Lanka helped to connect with a big network of sustainable hostel, hotel and lodges owners whose contacts to local communities was beneficial for the interviewee selection process. During the course of the study, 15 semi-structured interviews with both male and female students as well as former students of different Sri Lankan high schools were conducted. The reason for choosing male as well as female students was to explore both sides of perceptions and

15 experiences regarding the topic of female empowerment and gender inequality in PE classes. Students from public as well as private schools were chosen to gather insights about whether the influence of international curriculums and teachers has an influence on the students’ experiences in PE classes or not. In order to assess differences between PE in gender separated and gender mixed schools, students from both kinds of schools were interviewed.

The structure of the semi-structured interviews was as follows: after explaining the purpose of the interview, questions regarding the interviewees’ personal details (gender, age, nationality, etc.) followed. Afterwards, the interview design continued with more detailed and open questions to get a deeper view into the participants’ opinions. According to Bryman and Bell (2013), this type of structure offers the possibility of developing questions along the interview process and relate to the answer given by the interviewee. Questions are open- ended, which lead the option of creating dialogue and extended answers. Regarding the interview structure and content, questions about the availability, amount, and variety of PE classes at school and the PE class climate were asked. Then, a variety of questions followed that enable to explore the exploration of the students’ perception of the role of teacher, parents and society on the access and quality of PE classes as well as the teachers, parents, societies and students’ attitude towards the opposite gender. Questions to better understand the child’s motivation and opinion towards PA followed. Also, questions regarding the interviewees’ own feeling of empowerment as well as her or his opinion on the importance of sport for girls offered relevant insights. Lastly, the interviewee had the chance to fictionally propose to the Sri Lankan government three things that in her or his opinion are necessary to be changed in the Sri Lankan school system (for more details about the interview outline see Appendix).

The following table gives an overview of the interviewees that were chosen to form the data basis of this qualitative research study in order to explore the perceptions of students in Sri Lanka on the topic of female empowerment through PE.

Table 1: Overview of semi-structured interviews

INTERVIEWS INTERVIEWEE TYPE OF SCHOOL DATE LOCATION F-S = Female student AGE SCHOOL NAME BOYS GIRLS GENDER GENDER IN SRI M-S = Male student ONLY ONLY MIXED MIXED LANKA F-FS = Female former (PUBLIC) (PRIVATE) student M-FS = Male former student 10.04. Weligama M-S1 12 Brilliant Stars x 2018 Internatinal College, Matara 11.04. Weligama M-S2 19 D.S. Senanayake x 2018 College,

14.04. Weligama M-S3 20 Carey Collage, x 2018 Colombo

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14.04 Weligama M-FS4 24 Mahinda Collage, x 2018

14.04. Weligama M-FS5 28 , x 2018 Matara 15.04. Weligama F-FS6 29 Weligama Girls x 2018 School, Weligama 15.04 Hiriketiya F-FS7 21 Governmental x x 2018 School, International School, Colombo 15.04. Hiriketiya F-FS8 30 Girls School, x 2018 Tangalle 15.04. Hiriketiya M-FS9 24 Mixed School, x 2018 Tangalle 17.04. Hiriketiya F-S10 12 Galle x 2018 International School, Galle 20.04. Arugam Bay F-S11 12 Galle x 2018 International School, Galle 21.04 Arugam Bay M-FS12 23 Singapure x 2018 Singaleh School, Arugam Bay 25.04. Ella M-S13 18 St Josaps College, x 2018 Bandarawela 30.04. Matara F-S14 17 St. Marys x 2018 Convent, Matara 30.04. Matara F-FS15 19 St. Marys x 2018 Convent, Matara

3.2.2 Key informant interviews and field observation

Additionally, in order to extend the knowledge about gender inequality, the school system, sport and culture and to gain further insights about significant aspects of the Sri Lankan society, four key informant interviews with in total six interviewees as well as one field observation were carried out. In an interview with a Sri Lankan woman who moved from Sri Lanka to the U.S. at age 23 and now lives in Lund, Sweden, deeper knowledge about the Sri Lankan culture and how the role of women in Sri Lanka differs from that in the U.S. and Sweden could be added to this research. The interview with a Danish woman who spent 6,5 weeks in Sri Lanka in 2017 to do a project based on SDG 5 (gender inequality) helped to understand the urgent need for initiatives and actions that boost female empowerment in Sri Lanka. Apart from the students’ perspective, talking to a female teacher and a female council of high schools in Weligama provided an additional relevant perspective on the topic of female empowerment through PE. Finally, meeting a couple from the U.S. who moved with their children to Arugam Bay, Sri Lanka, in 2011, was very insightful as both of them work for ´ the Nations´. This NGO is based in Hawaii and aims at strengthen local and

17 international communities through the sport of surfing and swim lessons to promote social change (Surfing the Nations, 2018). Apart from conducting the interview, joining one of the Surfing the Nations’ swim and surf lessons in Arugam Bay was an opportunity to do a field observation to collect information of the behavior of Sri Lankan children in a safe surrounding where female and male children were all doing sports together. This field observation then was used as additional information and to better understand the students’ comments on their perception of a safe environment and their relations among peers. By watching the children interacting with each other – especially with the opposite sex –, connections to the benefits of PA could be made and used for the analysis of the data.

The following table gives an additional overview of the conducted key informant interviews and the field observation.

Table 2: Overview of the key informant interviews and the field observation

INTERVIEW DESCRIPTION DATE LOCATION KI = Key Informant FO = Field Observation 28. March Sweden, Lund KI1 Sri Lankan women who moved from to the U.S. at age 23 and 2018 now lives in Lund, Sweden 02. April Denmark, KI2 Danish women who did a 6,5 weeks project about SDG 5 2018 Copenhagen (gender inequality) in Sri Lanka in 2017 14. April Sri Lanka, KI3 Teacher and school principal of gender mixed schools in 2018 Midigama Weligama, Sri Lanka 20. April Sri Lanka, KI4 U.S. couple who moved to Arugam Bay in 2011 and are 2018 Arugam Bay working for Surfing the Nations (NGO to strengthen local and international communities through physical activities) 21. April Sri Lanka, FO Taking part in a 2h swim and surf lesson organized by the NGO 2018 Arugam Bay ‘Surfing the Nations’ in Arugam Bay, Sri Lanka

3.3 Data coding, organizing and analysis

The content analysis technique was chosen to analyze the primary data. This technique can be used to organize the data based on categories, which will be helpful when looking at different aspects of empowerment (Silverman, 2014). Part of the content analysis technique is to code and organize the data in order to decide whether the gathered information can be categorized in groups to make it more accessible and easier for the analysis and in the end to use the data in the most convenient way for answering the research questions (6 & Bellamy, 2012).

Based on the content analysis technique, the process of analyzing the data in this research paper is divided into three main phases. First, after conducting all interviews, the authors listened to the interview recordings in order to gain reliable transcripts. Moreover, the material was coded by highlighting important words and sentences as well as writing down

18 notes to collect the most relevant information. Second, after finishing the first process of scanning the material, different categories are identified and put into specific groups which are then linked to each other. Despite having determined categories, additional information that cannot be categorized was studied to complete the analysis (Silverman, 2014). The categories will be linked to the conceptual framework and mostly focus on the main issues of PE, female empowerment, and access to sports. For instance, the process of coding centers upon keywords related to the 3DMWE and therefore includes attributes and criteria which are connected to the personal, relational and societal level of empowerment. At the same time, the categories are connected to the EST.

This categorization process is based on the structure and idea behind the conceptual framework and closely ties to the theory in order to start positioning the gathered insights in the theoretical background of this research paper. Finally, in order to go from the concrete material to broader themes and patterns, linkages between the identified categories are created to find contradictions and implicit assumptions. Thereby, the conceptual framework is helpful to understand, describe and analyze the data in order to elaborate detailed answers to the research questions.

3.4 Research reliability, validity and limitations

3.4.1 Reliability and validity

Research deals with reliability and validity. The question whether the method and findings of the study are replicable and future researchers will achieve the same results and interpretations, is in the discourse of reliability (Silverman, 2015). The conducted interviews therefore address the topic of reliability by having specific patterns to compare the participant’s answers within a transparent research process. Theoretical transparency is further given through empirical literature and a theoretical framework as base for the interpretation and data analysis (ibid).

When it comes to validity, the extent to which other researchers can make use of the study is to be considered. First, construct validity includes the formulation of structured interview questions in order to clarify the topic of investigation and to be able to interpret the students’ perceptions. Second, conclusion validity means the extent to which the data supports statements which are made based on analyzed patterns. It is not reasonable to draw a general conclusion from just one individual interviewee’s answer (6 & Bellamy, 2012). Rather there is a legitimated theoretical framework to ground the data into theory and to make inferences in order to generate useful knowledge.

3.4.2 Limitations

Due to the timeframe and scope of this study, this research paper entails different limitations. As the study only focuses on high schools which are all situated in the southern, eastern,

19 western or central part of Sri Lanka, the geographical limitation is acknowledged. Within the limited time for conducting interviews, a further investigation of the northern part and more rural areas was not feasible, as the places of the interviews mostly represent areas that are tourist destinations. The following map shows the locations of the high schools this study is focusing on.

Figure 4: Investigated high schools in Sri Lanka

Besides this geographical limitation, another critique of this study approach is that there can be no generalization of findings as there were only a limited number of in total 15 interviewees from in total 14 different schools. Due to the age of the interviewees, some were not able to give elaborate answers but tended to keep them short and easy. Also the interview questions had to be designed in a way that the children and young adults were able to understand them. Another limitation in the course of data gathering involves the issue that the authors were not able to speak the interviewees’ mother languages, namely Tamil and Sinhalese. Even though English is part of most Sri Lankan School curriculums, the ability to speak English was only common with females and males that work in the tourism sector and have to speak English on a daily basis. Hence, the authors had to carefully select the interviewees based on their English skills in order to receive adequate interview answers. Therefore, the interviewees represent one target group of students and former students that have the chance to visit a school and live in an environment where English skills are used and promoted. This limitation is another reason why the study results cannot be generalized on whole Sri Lanka.

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3.5 Ethical Consideration

As Silverman (2015) describes, there are three parts of ethics which have to be considered: Codes and consent, confidentiality and trust. Looking at this study, it is a natural right for all of the participants to know about the nature of the research and about the fact that they are interviewed in order to investigate the research questions. This could be problematic in some case when it comes to certain bias. Knowing about the research purpose might lead to falsified answers regarding the perception of female empowerment or access to sports. As there was sometimes a risk of being observed from their family members, interviewees may have answered less truthfully, and therefore false data could cause wrong conclusions about the student’s perspective. It is also important to question whether all participants understood the purpose and aim of the study correctly. Not only because of the language limitations (see section 3.4.3), but also due to the fact that children at a young age and with another cultural background may not be aware of being researched. Therefore the authors tried to explain the research purpose as clearly as possible.

Furthermore, the way how the interviews were conducted is not quite common in doing research. Instead of asking for parent’s permission or setting up an official agreement, the authors just started talking to the children they met for example at the beach. Although this approach and way of getting data was actively chosen and part of the research process, it has to be considered that another research topic might have been critical for collecting the data this way. When reflecting about the role of the researchers, some facts have to be mentioned: the authors both are female, coming from a Western country and have proper English skills. This might affect the interview process and the relation between interviewer and interviewee. Because the Sri Lankan children have another cultural background, a different level of language skills and an age difference, they might feel some limitations during the interview or even feel cowed. In this context the authors are also aware of being an active part of the study since they are always observing their surroundings, and perceive the country through their own experiences on site, which then in turn might affect the analysis part.

Confidentiality includes the protection of the participant’s identity. To ensure the right for anonymity, the conducted interviews were executed without publishing the participant’s full name. In addition, before using any information for research, the authors had to make sure that each participant agrees on doing so (Brown, 2006). In terms of trust, the research process aimed at creating a feeling of security and trust among the researches and the interviewed people, also to avoid the risk of having a negative attitude towards researchers in the future (Silverman, 2015). To not harm society, the research was conducted appropriate to legal and social norms of Sri Lankan and with respect to culture.

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4. Findings

The findings part is structured into three sections with according key themes (see figure 5), to illustrate different key aspects of empowerment as it relates to the students’ perceptions. First, the analysis will start in the center of the conceptual framework and concentrates on the exosystem. This system does not have a direct but indirect impact on the child’s development (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). The purpose is to explore the current situation whether Sri Lankan high schools provide gender equal access to PE classes in order to lay the foundational information that is necessary to answer the following two research questions. After exploring the role of the exosystem, the analysis will continue with the meso- and microsystem, examining the students’ perceptions of the PE class climate. After exploring the micro-, meso- and exosystem of the EST, the analysis will continue with the three dimensions of female empowerment as proposed by the 3DMWE. Therefore, the students’ perceptions will be explored to help understand and analyze how PE is contributing to each of the three dimensions. Furthermore, all three of the aforementioned focal points (exosystem; micro- & mesosystem; 3DMWE) are embedded in the macrosystem of the EST. Throughout all analysis parts, the influence of the macrosystem and particularly the will be considered and its influence on all systems and empowerment dimensions will be taken into account. The analysis will conclude by bringing together all of the investigated themes in order to in the end provide an overall picture of the findings.

Figure 5: Three parts of analysis

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4.1 Availability and access to PE

Figure 6: Exosystem

The way that a school system and its curriculums are structured belongs to the exosystem of the EST, because a school’s regulations and structures do not have a direct but indirect impact on girls’ empowerment. Based on the findings of the 15 interviews with Sri Lankan high school (former) students, there are discrepancies between the different kinds of schools that exist in Sri Lanka. The schools that the interviewees attended range from public boys- only, girls-only and gender-mixed schools to private gender-mixed schools.

4.1.1 Availability of PE

The foundation for female empowerment through PE is the availability of PE in Sri Lankan high schools. The analysis shows that independent of the kind and location of the schools, a wide variety of sport disciplines are offered by Sri Lankan high schools throughout the school week. The offer ranges from general PT (Physical Training) to , karate, , volleyball, , running, , high-jump, low-jump, football and many more. F-S10, who was born in Byron Bay, Australia, and moved to Sri Lanka in 2017 with her family, said that compared to her Australian school, the Sri Lankan international mixed school offers even more PE than her former school (F-S10, personal communication). The availability of PE does not depend on the kind of school, but on the facilities, the available teachers and money that the school possesses. M-FS4 mentioned that “in [her] school, so many kinds of sports were available but in rural areas it is not like that” (M-FS4, personal communication). While most sport disciplines do not require many facilities, swim lessons are only offered by a few schools that have their own swimming pool or have access to a public pool. Also, M-S3 (personal communication) stated that in his boys-school, swim lessons were offered but the

23 students have to pay for the use of the pool. These responses demonstrate that there is a wide range of PE disciplines available in Sri Lankan high schools, setting the foundation for the possibility of PE to be a catalyst for female empowerment. Even though one can see disparities in the amount of sport facilities available between schools that are in rural and urban areas, in all schools, independent on whether they are gender separated or gender- mixed, governmental or private, sport is an important part of the curriculum. Therefore, this part of the exosystem that indirectly impacts a child’s development, does not have a negative impact on female empowerment through PE since the basic prerequisite of availability of PE is given.

4.1.2 Access to PE

Despite the variety of offered PE disciplines, not all students take the opportunity to participate in PE and thus not take advantage of PE for their potential personal development. Four different recurring answers can be observed for this behavior. First, all interviewees confirmed that compared to Sri Lankan universities, where participating in PE is mandatory (F-FS15, personal communication), students of high schools themselves can decide whether they want to participate in PE or not – “If we want, we can go. It’s all up to us” (M-S3, personal communication) – and also which PE discipline they would like to take part in. A second barrier to participation in PE is that all the analyzed schools only offer sport before and after school (e.g. M-FS5, personal communication) or on Saturdays (F-FS7, personal communication). Due to the fact that PE is not part of the mandatory daily education curriculum, it takes more effort and commitment to participate in, which makes room for external influence to hinder the students’ involvement in doing sports. This explanation is confirmed by M-FS5 who assumed that “anyone can do sport but it depends on the influence from home. In some families they say that you’ll not be successful in your studies when you also do sports” (M-FS5, personal communication). Furthermore, M-S13 (personal communication) justified his non-participation by saying “I have to learn after school, so I don’t do sports”. These statements reveal that even though the school offers PE (exosystem), the influence of the family (microsystem) can impact the students’ decisions and thereby hinder them to join in PE.

Another reason for girls to restrain from specific PE disciplines is the spread belief that some types of sports are not suitable for all genders. For example, when the authors asked about the interviewees’ opinions on whether there are sport disciplines that are only for males or only for females, F-S14 declared that "cricket is only for boys and the girls play " (F-S14, personal communication) and M-S13 considered cricket as suitable "only for boys, because girls don’t know how to play cricket" (personal communication). To understand the gained data, it is helpful to keep in mind the research that shows that “girls were socialized into ‘female’ activities, for example, netball and gymnastics, and boys into ‘male’ activities, for example, football and cricket” (Leaman, 1984, p. 772). This stereotyping of gender roles in society in the context of sport was confirmed during the interview process. The assumption that girls are not good enough to participate in some sport disciplines is fostered by cultural beliefs of Sri Lankans themselves. Namely, after observing that there are rarely females

24 outside practicing sport, the authors asked the interviewees about the reasons for this dynamic. All interviewees gave similar answers.

“Culture! Just one word “culture” (M-FS12, personal communication) “It is a cultural situation here” (M-FS4, personal communication) “Our traditional differences” (F-FS6, personal communication) “I don’t think a lot of parents would like that to be their daughters” (F-FS7, personal communication).

However, these observed gender prejudices vary between rural and urban areas, as confirmed by M-FS5 who argues that "not a lot of girls would ask to join the boys playing cricket. In Colombo [one of the two capital cities of Sri Lanka] yes, but not here in Weligama [a village in the southern and more rural part of Sri Lanka]” (M-FS5, personal communication). F-FS8 confirms this statement by pointing out that “in Colombo, there is more freedom. But here [in Hiriketiya, a small village in the southern part of Sri Lanka] is no freedom” (F-FS8, personal communication). These comments indicate that a more modern and more open-minded urban environment, such as Colombo (e.g. M-S3, M-FS5, F-FS8, M- FS9, personal communications), influences the cultural beliefs and norms of Sri Lankan citizens. It seems that cultural beliefs and norms, implemented in the macrosystem of the EST, have a more distinctive impact on gender prejudices in PE in rural than in urban environments. Therefore, it is likely that female students in urban areas have more freedom to decide how often and in what kind of PE they want to participate.

4.1.3 Summary of availability and access to PE

To conclude, even though the foundations for female empowerment through PE are laid by the large offer of PE disciplines for both girls and boys at all kinds of schools, not every student takes this opportunity due to different influences, such as the parents’ or male students’ cultural opinions and beliefs. While the parents’ and students’ influence is situated in the microsystem of the EST, their beliefs and norms derive from the macrosystem and encompass Sri Lankan cultural values. Furthermore, this phenomenon seems to have a greater impact on the possibility of PE to be a tool for female empowerment in rural areas compared to more open-minded urban environments like Colombo.

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4.2 Motivation, ego-orientation and safety climate

Figure 7: Micro- and mesosystem

The previous section (see 4.1) demonstrated the fundamental availability of PE for both female and male students in Sri Lankan high schools. Therefore, this part of the exosystem does not have a negative impact on female empowerment through PE since the basic prerequisite is given. However, even though the access is not negatively affected by this part of the exosystem, the analysis has shown that the macrosystem, particular the cultural beliefs and norms of the Sri Lankan society, can be a boundary for girls to participate in PE and to empower themselves.

The focus of this section will lie on the micro- and mesosystem of Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) EST. Hereby, the semi-structured interviews with students and former students, as well as the key informant interviews and the field observation will serve as the basis for analyzing the students’ perception on the PE class regarding a motivational (task-oriented), ego-oriented and safe climate.

4.2.1 Motivational (task-oriented) or ego-oriented PE class climate

According to Seifriz et al. (1992) and Ames and Archer (1988), a motivational (task-oriented) PE class climate can boost a student’s personal improvement as well as enjoyment and motivation in PE. A motivational (task-oriented) class climate describes a PE class where students get rewarded for trying hard and every student has the feeling of belonging to the group and being an important part of the team (Seifriz et al., 1992, Ames & Archer, 1988). Furthermore, teachers create a motivational class climate by promoting students’ self-

26 development and fostering performance goals to enable girls to enhance their self-esteem (Harwood et al., 2015).

The interview results show that because PE is not a mandatory subject of a student’s weekly curriculum (see section 4.1.2), the motivational factor of even practicing sport first has to start with a student’s decision to join the PE class. The fact that PE is optional and students need to overstep this possible barrier to participate can on one hand create a motivational climate, because only the students who want to do sports actually participate. However, on the other hand, the schools create the assumption that PE is not important enough to be part of the main curriculum. Therefore, parents and students get biased to not see the value in PE, which is hindering a motivational attitude in the first place and could lead to a demotivational class climate because students don’t take it seriously.

Looking at the perceptions and experiences of the interviewees, F-S10 (personal communication) explained that during their PE classes, the teachers talk about fair play, how to behave in a team and how to foster teamwork. Developing such a ‘team-player’ attitude in sports supports a motivational climate because students learn how to not just think of their own, but also about their team members. By doing so, important skills and mindsets, such as that performance doesn’t just mean to win but to behave in a fair and constructive way, are promoted. In private gender mixed schools, fair play and teamwork are part of the PE classes as confirmed by F-S10 and M-S1. The majority of students and former students however stated that their PE classes were “more just relaxed and having fun” (M-S13, personal communication), that “some teachers just show the exercise, but they don’t teach very well” (F-S14, personal communication) and that “some coaches teach wrong things” (F- FS15, personal communication).

Furthermore, promoting and teaching such ‘team-player’ attitudes and behavior prevents an ego-oriented PE class climate, which is described by Seifriz, Duda and Chi (1992) and Walling, Duda and Chi (1993) as the opposite of a motivational climate. It reflects an environment where students outdo each other and a teacher’s recognition is limited to the best and favoured students. There were only some rare cases where the PE teacher created an ego-oriented class climate in which girls felt discriminated, and which hinders the development of self-esteem.

“Our swimming teacher is a bit bossy to us foreigner girls because he thinks that we are not strong enough to swim to the other end compared to the other boys. He’s kind of sexist.” (F-S10, personal communication)

However, apart from some particular experiences, the students mostly perceived their coaches as “very kind and friendly” (M-S13, personal communication) and that “he [the coach] cares a lot about his team” (M-S3, personal communication). Giving recognition to only the best or favored students was only reported once form M-S1 who said that “the best player is the boss of the team, also girls sometimes are bosses” (M-S1, personal communication). The teacher however did not differentiate between genders and just rewarded the students for trying hard and perform, which according to Ames and Archer (1988) and Seifriz et al. (1992) can create a motivational climate. Also that the student “as a boss” has then the chance to determine the rules of a game creates a feeling of ownership,

27 which according to Moore and Fry (2017) increases a student’s self-confidence and feeling of empowerment. However, this experience was reported only by one student and cannot be generalized for other schools.

Compared to the findings of Seifriz et al. (1992) and Ames and Archer (1988) who state that ‘getting rewarded for trying hard’ and ‘fostering performance goals’ (Harwood et al., 2015) are relevant for creating a motivational climate, the authors perceived that students felt more comfortable in PE classes where the climate was less competitive but more relaxed.

“The Sri Lankan teachers [at girls school] don’t go in to the water with you but just shout at you [...] but now at Galle [private school] it’s more free and easy [...] And it’s more like a friendship atmosphere.” (F-S11, personal communication)

“I first went to a government school, which is only girls and they are really really strict, it’s like they choose what they want you to do [...] In the governmental school, sports is very competitive” (F-FS7, personal communication)

“He [the teacher] should have a strong personality, he should have leadership skills, authority. Both, friendship but also authority.” (M-FS4, personal communication)

The findings reveal a tendency that public schools are generally more strict and that PE classes are more competitive compared to private schools. Also, it seems that an inner motivation of students to do sports emerges more from the fun-factor than from getting rewarded by competing against each other in a strict atmosphere. This assumptions also refers to section 4.2.2, which assesses how the feeling of being in a “safe space” is influencing a girl’s development through PE classes.

Also, an ego-oriented class climate created by students outdoing each other was not directly reported. The question about whether allowing girls and boys to participate in games with the other gender at school as well as in their free time seemed to even irritate the students because there was a shared belief that “everything is for everybody” (e.g. F-FS8, F-S11, personal communications). However, even though the first reactions of the students were that they want girls and boys to have the same opportunities and same access to sport, while talking to the students, one could often observe that they are influenced common gender prejudices.

“It is not a formal ban but in the minds they are not as strong as men [...] Actually there are no restrictions for girls but in a practical scenario there are some restrictions from the society. The society has them in minds” (M-FS4, personal communication).

One can deduce that due to the cultural beliefs and norms (macrosystem), which a child is confronted with during her or his upbringing, beliefs about the female gender to not be equally strong for example can lead to prejudices. Therefore, the cultural beliefs which are part of the macrosystem can have an impact on the PE class climates by creating situations where students outdo each other based on their gender. This would apply to gender separated schools where gender biased behavior is prevented from the outset.

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4.2.2 PE classes as safe spaces

To unfold girls’ empowerment, the creation of a safe space is crucial (Lepp & Zorn, 2002, Toraiwa, 2009). According to theory, an environment that allows students to express themselves regardless of their gender or cultural background fosters feelings of trust, respect and safety (Lepp & Zorn, 2002, Gano-Overway, 2013). Within the discourse of this research paper, it is investigated what the interviewed students consider as “safe space” by looking closer at the given interview responses. To understand their perception of a safe environment, the role of the teacher in PE classes as well as the students’ mutual relationships are explored.

The feeling of connectedness when being in a group The school environment not only brings along a rich diversity of students, but also a wide range of social and cultural backgrounds. This is where collective learning gains importance in the empowerment process. Sharing experiences among peers can evoke a feeling of connectedness with other students (Toraiwa, 2009), as illuminated with the given interview responses. A repeating positive aspect was the enjoyment of being in a group, because the students like “playing and spending time together” (M-FS12, personal communication), “playing with friends” (F-FS8, F-S10, F-S11, personal communication) or getting a good connection to other people (F-FS15, personal communication). While executing PA together in a safe space, mutual respect by accepting each other’s differences and facing own prejudices can evolve. In this context the safe space also has the potential to counteract social stereotypes and cultural barriers (Weis & Fine, 2000).

An important question that comes up in this consideration is whether there is a difference between gender-separated and gender-mixed schools when it comes to the assessment of a safe environment. On the one hand, as suggested by Toraiwa (2009), an “all-women environment” tends to create a general sense of safety. Accordingly, some interviewed girls feel safe and comfortable among their female peers in class. However, as a result they automatically experience situations with boys as “awkward” because the girls are not used to be surrounded by boys. With statements like “girls cannot talk to a big group of boys” (M- FS9, personal communication), the male students expressed their (negative) view on the girls’ level of self-confidence. FS15 approves this view by describing some girls as being intimidated in a boys-dominated out-of-school environment (“Girls are sometimes shy and don’t talk so much” (F-FS15, personal communication)). The interviewee explains this situation with the circumstances outside of school and links it to the fact that even girls from mixed schools experience gender-mixed PA only in school, but not outside in their free-time – which is connected to the cultural restrictions as mentioned in section 2.1.3.

Particularly the students from a mixed school pointed out the positive outcomes of being together with female and male students. One student suggests an “open school” (M-FS12, personal communication); another interviewee prefers a mixed school because she “likes to meet people, both boys and girls together” and the mixed match “would be more competitive and more fun” (F-FS7, personal communication). Nevertheless, the interviews have shown that there are also some voices where girls perceive the mixed gender environment uncomfortable because “the boys can get very intimidating” (FS11, personal communication). Obviously, the students from gender-separated schools don’t get this opportunity to interact

29 with the other gender during the PE class, and therefore cannot judge on their feeling of “being safe” nor compare it to the environment in a mixed class.

The role of the teacher Another important factor that decides about the children's perception of an environment to be a safe space is the role of the teacher (Lepp & Zorn, 2002). In order to feel empowered by getting the opportunity to fully express yourself, needs, interests and individuality need to be supported by the teacher (ibid). In a safe space, teachers show empathy and set the ground for a caring climate, which is characterized by feeling safe, valued and respected (Gano- Overway, 2013, Newton et al., 2007). The majority of interviewed students refer to this aspect by talking especially about terms like “friendship” and a “positive attitude” (M-FS12, personal communication) as contributing to a “good mood” (F-S11, personal communication). This kind of atmosphere in PE classes is influenced by the teachers’ behavior and forms the setting in which the students experience feelings of safety. To decide which specific characteristics define a “good” teacher, the interview responses are examined in detail. F- FS6 (personal communication) mentions a “kindly, active and qualified” teacher when being asked about the requirements for a positive atmosphere during the PE class.

Contrary to research which states that a teacher’s authority and power is fundamental to create a safe space for student’s empowerment (Toraiwa, 2009), the given answers of the interviewees instead all put emphasize on a kind and friendly relationship between teacher and students which is characterized by humor and a “fun-factor” (M-FS12, personal communication). This description suggests that girls feel more comfortable when they experience the PE class in an ‘easy-going’ way and are allowed to have fun with their friends, which then facilitates the learning process:

“He [a teacher from the UK] is so funny and chilled out [...] Everyone starts laughing when he’s there. The sense of humor he has makes you want to learn. Everyone is in a good mood when he is there.” (F-S11, personal communication)

“It’s a women, she’s a good teacher. She communicates well and is always happy. She teaches so that we understand. It’s more like a friendship.” (F-S14, personal communication)

Nevertheless, despite a certain amount of a “relaxed” teacher’s leadership style and a “friendship atmosphere” (M-FS12, personal communication), a presence of some authority and skills still helps the students to develop and to lead the learning process of PA. Similar to the findings of previous studies, the need for clear objectives and directions that are given by the sport teacher and guide the students during the PE class, is a major factor to create a safe space. M-S3 confirms that a good coach shows “both friendship but also authority”, and further a “strong personality” (personal communication). Taken this example, guidelines and clear instructions to facilitate the development process are included in the students’ perception of a positive class environment. What is also considered important for the children when it comes to the teachers’ behavior in PE classes is the skill to demonstrate what is expected from the students. An interesting observation is the fact that a male student assumed male sport teachers to be stronger than female ones, because a man is able “to control the crowd and to control especially the boys” (M-S3, personal communication). His

30 former experience of “a lady who was coaching [them] and she had difficulties to handle [them]” even fosters his argument. Contrary, the interviews have shown that there is a feeling of frustration with a lack of structure (see also Toraiwa, 2009). For instance, a female student stressed that “a good coach supervises the students well”, “improves the students’ talents” and shows competence by not teaching “wrong things” or being rude (F-FS15, personal communication).

What plays a significant role in the matter of a safe space is the teachers’ attitude towards the students and her or his beliefs in a student’s abilities to do PA. Research reveals that personal boundaries of a teacher can negatively affect students’ needs and the quality of education (Lepp & Zorn, 2002). In line with some authors who argued that participation in PA is influenced by the “cultural belief system that values certain activities and skills for one sex and not for the other” (Bailey, 2005, p.5), certain female interviewees mentioned the different treatment of boys and girls during PE. Especially when teaching activities which are said to be more suitable for boys, like for example swimming, male teachers indicated prejudices against the girls’ abilities and tend to prefer teaching and encouraging only the boys (e.g. F- S10, personal communication).

In the bigger picture of female empowerment and with regard to the so-called control-belief, (as described in section 2.1.1), it is important for students to take control over their own lives and also to have control of their learning process (Toraiwa, 2009). This is supported in the PE class by engaging (self-) criticism and the ability to express one’s needs and concerns. In an environment where students are enabled to develop a high control-belief, a safe space can be identified and empowerment can occur. While the aspect of a teacher’s authority on the one hand creates a feeling of structure and guidance, the factor of control-belief on the other hand deconstructs the teacher’s role because control-belief implements a certain amount of freedom for the students. Lepp & Zorn (2002) describe the providing of choices as “inherent in the culture of a safe space” (p. 385). In relation to this study, if the teacher offers that kind of self-determination and independence, he can be perceived as being “soft”, because you “could choose what you want” (F-S11, personal communication). Likewise, Toraiwa (2009) observed that “students could claim personal authority for the construction of their own learning” (p. 68). Consequently, the power of authority gained in PE classes is likely to be transformed to the students’ personal development process also outside of school and to the self-confidence for girls. Still in the subject of control-belief, too much pressure of school can be a barrier for the creation of a safe space (Lepp & Zorn, 2002). When students are pushed to work “more quickly than they feel comfortable” (ibid, p. 385), they feel too stressed to participate in the PE class and put learning for school at the first place (M-S2, F- S11, M-S13, personal communication).

In short, according to Toraiwa (2009), the power of an instructor or teacher is „one that opens, not closes, the possibilities for empowerment“ (p.77) and helps “overcome obstacles to empowerment” (p. 68). Taking this fact to the setting of a PE class, teachers create a safe space by giving confidence and making especially the girls feel encouraged, which might require “additional thought, sensitivity, and strategies for conflict management” (Lepp & Zorn, 2002, p. 385).

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4.2.3 Summary of PE class climate

Former research has proven that motivational (task-oriented) climate and an environment in which girls feel safe are crucial in an effective girls’ process of development and empowerment. However, the findings show different results about how the interviewed students perceive their class climate. First of all it is important to mention that the fact that PE is optional can either create motivational climate due to only motivated students participating or can have the opposite effect due to the created belief that sport is not important enough to be mandatory. Contrary to former studies, which state that motivational climate created through performance and rewarding systems is boosting empowerment, the interviewees felt more comfortable and safe in less competitive but more relaxed atmospheres. Also there are patterns in the interviewees’ answers which show that public schools seem to be more strict and competitive than private schools. Based on the findings regarding motivational climate, due to a more relaxed perceived atmosphere and the teaching of soft skills, private schools seem to be advantaging in creating a climate that enables girls to empower. This kind of atmosphere is also supported by social peer groups where experiences are shared and a feeling of connectedness is created. In conclusion, the class climate has a main influence on the student’s perception of PE.

4.3 Three dimensions of empowerment

Figure 8: 3DMWE

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4.3.1 Societal empowerment and societal restrictions

As described in section 2.1.1 and related to the 3DMWE, societal empowerment incorporates a women’s status in society compared to men and thus the extent to which girls are supported to participate in PA (Huis et al., 2017). For analyzing the presented data, first the student’s description of the current status of women is examined, followed by an investigation of how sport is influencing this situation and the role of females on different levels.

When the participants were indirectly questioned about the impact of cultural and societal influences on their involvement in sports, the majority always mentioned the aspect of cultural restrictions in terms of women’s opportunities to do sports. A strong theme that emerged especially among girls from girls-only schools was the perception of a women’s role in society. A constantly recurring statement was the fact that in Sri Lankan culture, “women don’t go the beach”, and at the same time valuing culture as “very different than others” (F- FS15, personal communication).

“Normally girls don’t play at the beach like boys do. Boys do the pleasure time activities […] but girls don’t do that. It’s a society thing […]. It’s very difficult in our society.” (F-FS15, personal communication).

The limited power for girls in society is mirrored in the students who perceive the Sri Lankan culture as a place where there is “no freedom” and “it’s not good to show you at the beach as a Sri Lankan woman” (F-FS15, personal communication). When giving statements like these, the girls automatically compared their situation to that of the boys; often taking their brothers as example (“My brother is allowed to go to the beach because he is a boy” (F-FS15, personal communication)). In addition, the interviewed boys (from mixed public schools) confirm that girls are underrepresented when it comes to PA. They have “never seen girls playing cricket”, never watched “a girl doing a bicycle race” (M-FS12, personal communication), nor often seen girls swimming (“Just look at how many girls are swimming here in Sri Lanka – you don’t find a lot” (M-FS4, personal communication)). The girls’ awareness of women’s absence at the beach is further strengthened by the boys’ assumption that women always stay at home.

“Culture is basically that women stay at home. They go to schools and then stay at home and do homework, get married and be a housewife.” (M-FS12, personal communication)

“Most of the ladies in Sri Lanka have to be cultural. They are not much into sports, because they used to stay home.” (M-S3, personal communication)

What is striking within the given responses is that the girls are aware of the unequal gender roles and societal discrepancies regarding activities on the beach, but nevertheless, they still would like to change the situation. Indeed, girls expressed their wish to do more sports (“we would like to join but often we don’t have the permission” (F-FS8, personal communication)). This is where a significant correlation to the impact of the immediate environment – as anchored in the EST of Bronfenbrenner (1994) and described as microsystem – comes into the frame of the analysis. When looking at the societal status and level of empowerment of

33 female students, their relation to their parents and the close community needs to be considered as well, leading to the analytical part of relational empowerment.

4.3.2 Relational empowerment in the interplay with societal restrictions restrictions

Throughout the interview process the majority of respondents indicated that the limited number of girls doing PA is often due to societal restrictions. Although the majority of girls show a positive attitude towards doing sports, they are afraid of the parents’ reactions and the neighbors’ opinions. This dynamic could be observed in frequently given answers like “My mother doesn’t allow me to go outside to the beach. It’s too dangerous because many people are there” (F-S14, personal communication).

“Girls are sometimes afraid to participate in sports. Sometimes the girls would like to but they don’t have the permission. It’s because of the parents, husbands or boyfriends.” (M-FS9, personal communication)

These statements underline the pressure on girls put by society. On the one hand it’s the traditional role women are set into, on the other hand it’s the power of men that restrains the girls from their individual decision-making. Anchored in theory, the fact that parents’ concerns about their daughter’s safety can be a powerful constraint on the participation in PA (Bailey et al., 2005) supports the correlation between different environments of an individual. Similarity, these relationships are linked to the micro- and exosystem in the child’s development process.

Not only the parents’ influence but also the impact of neighbors and of the wider community plays an important role in the process of girls’ empowerment. A remarkable result to emerge from the gained data is that a bad reputation within the close environment of an individual can be a crucial barrier for girls to engage in PA.

To the question whether girls would join boys playing at the beach, a girl from a gender- separated school answered “They [the boys] wouldn’t mind but the people who are walking by are thinking differently. If we talk to the boys they think we might have an affair or something” (F-S14, personal communication). This indicates that girls feel observed and may not move freely in their environment; what can be directly linked to the importance of a “safe” environment (see 4.2.2). Also the boys recognize that it’s not always the parents who don’t want their daughters to be empowered in exercising PA, but rather it’s about “what others say” which puts “a lot of pressure on the parents” (M-FS12, personal communication). Expressed for example through the perception that “people always judge what you do” (M- FS5, personal communication), nearly every one of the respondents mentioned the strong impact of societal restrictions. These restrictions are not written down but still visible in a “practical scenario”, as stated by a boy from an only boys-school (M-FS4, personal communication). He observed that the gender discrepancies are not established in “a formal ban but in the minds of the men”, where women “are not as strong as men”. In comparison to the interviewed girls, nearly all of the boys were experiencing more freedom of independent mobility in terms of doing sports.

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The safe environment in which women can move freely and have the power to make their own decisions is essential to execute PA, as a “connection between restrictions on children’s freedom to be away from home and the participation in both organized and unorganized sports” was revealed in previous studies (Bailey et al., 2005, p.5). Yet, certain restrictions in society and culture contribute to a limited participation of girls in PA.

In addition, a risk of social isolation and decreased fitness in the long term were figured out as consequence of neighborhoods which are perceived as unsafe (Fleury & Lee, 2006). During the interview process it was recognized that the girls are intimidated by cultural rules and afraid of showing their body and bare skin in public. As consequence, their freedom of mobility is reduced in that sense that they feel uncomfortable being at the beach (M-FS9, M- S13, personal communications). From a viewpoint of the empowerment process, this is also affecting their personal and relational level of empowerment. As in some cases they associate feelings of fear or intimidation with doing outdoor PA like swimming in particular. Thus, the girls’ freedom of mobility – as one major part of (relational) empowerment – is restricted. These feelings occur within cultural perceptions of female bodies as “sexual and reproductive resources for men” and can be tackled through sports (Bailey et al., 2005, p. 2). Specifically, by having access to PA experiences which are traditionally said to be only suitable for boys (e.g. cricket or swimming), there is potential to develop a feeling of strength and thereby a sense of ownership of the female body. As a result, girls may profit from a stronger sense of identity and self-direction, transforming it to their behavior in community life (ibid).

Still within the discourse of the 3DMWE and the importance of relationships, another field of environment is investigated in the following. What is also noticeable in the collected data is the topic of friendship and social gathering that comes along with doing sports. By statements like “[During sports,] I help people and I learn from people” (M-S3, personal communication) it is shown that the social factor engages girls as well as boys to participate in PA. This goes in line with the relational empowerment and influence of social networks as described in the 3DMWE. Supported by Hansen (2015), social groups can help dealing with difficult situations. In the conducted interviews there was a positive correlation between PE and relational empowerment, strengthened by the fact that a community spirit, created through team sports like volleyball or basketball, is boosting the interpersonal component of empowerment (Christens, 2012). As in recent studies highlighted, peer groups can foster the encouragement in sport and at the same time positively affect norms and behaviors (Bailey et al., 2005). When asked about their motivation for sports, a common answer during the interview process was linked to the socializing with friends as a side-effect of PA (e.g. F-FS6, F-FS8, F-FS15, personal communication). The social network then was defined by the kind of school the children go to: girls from a gender-separated school tend to have only female friends in their life out of school, whereas girls from international schools obviously have peer groups of gender-mixed friends (compare to Bailey et al., 2005). Especially with regard to the tendency of decreasing girls’ activity in sports with increasing age (Bailey et al., 2015, p. 3, confirmed by M-FS4, personal communication), the importance of like-minded social groups is emphasized. An important enforcer in the empowerment process through sport can thereby be the creation of a social network with a common involvement in PA.

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Social groups, not only in theory defined as an important driver in the process of empowerment (see Hansen, 2015), but also becoming evident in the additional interviews with key informants, can help young women not to feel alone and be a part of collective action. This kind of “collective empowerment” (Hansen, 2015) as included in the relational empowerment level is illustrated with the project of interviewee KI4. In the interview it was explained that collective action and community spirit are needed to get the children involved (KI4, personal communication). Due to the parents’ concern and about letting their daughters participate in a swimming class, the creation of a wide community with a common purpose helped reducing families’ insecurities. As analyzed earlier in this paper, the neighbors’ view on a family’s reputation can be determinant for a girl’s permission to PA. To convince the community about the swimming class, the project initiators started with a small group of children, walking from one house to another, talking to neighbors to then get more and more girls joining the group.

Regarding this process through the lens of the exosystem and from an relational empowerment perspective, the community spirit created a collective feeling of empowerment, security and self-esteem among the children. Positive experiences like these, where the interest in PA is shared, have shown a beneficial contribution to the process of inclusion (compare to Bailey et al., 2005). As a result, the girls develop also on the personal level of empowerment as they are given a voice (KI4, personal communication). These newly developed empowerment values like self-confidence and self-esteem then have the potential to be transformed to the girls’ behavior in PE classes at school.

4.3.3 Personal empowerment

Talking about key topics like self-esteem, the way girls see and value themselves defines the self-worth and self-confidence (Huis et al., 2017), therefore creating a specific feeling of personal empowerment. Hence, sport can help in that way that physical strength and strategic thinking are developed during PE, and in the long term support reducing discrimination and stereotypes (Puri, 2016). When looking at the interview responses in this context, self-confidence through PA can be identified as an outstanding aspect. Especially the girls who showed a high participation in PE and PA recognized a personal development of self-confidence and linked it with the individual kind of sport they were doing. Perceiving sport as a “challenge” (F-FS6, personal communication), the interviewed girls felt “powerful” (F-FS8, personal communication) and had “more energy” after having experienced PA. Additionally, the participation in sports was positively connected to patterns of decision- making and coping with life. As theoretically explained in literature (Huis et al., 2017, Kato and Kratzer, 2013), self-efficacy includes to cope with difficult situations and the ability to achieve goals, which is confirmed practically in the given answers.

“You can better face problems in life, you know, when something bad or something good happens you can better face it in life and you can cope with new experiences” (F-FS8, personal communication)

Students use their gained confidence through PE as a tool to make decisions in their personal life, as well as to have a perspective for their future career. A girl from a gender-

36 separated school was hoping for better chances in the job market after having increased experiences in sports. She linked the participation in PA to a demonstration of skills like motivation and personality, which were considered important aspects in the process of job application (F-FS6, personal communication).

Not only feelings of energy, power and strength were outlined by the interviewees, but also benefits like a healthy lifestyle and a relaxed mind were included in the answers. Whereas boys draw special attention to terms like “Leadership”, “Teamwork” or “Personality” (e.g. M- S2, M-FS4, M-FS12, personal communication) when asking about benefits of PA, the female interviewees put emphasize on the aspect of health which sport is reinforcing. The majority of the female students pointed out that sport is like a compensation to learning in school and to keep a balanced lifestyle (“if you study all the time it’s good to have some free-time for your mind and body” (F-FS15, personal communication)). This expresses the personal will of being healthy and maintaining a healthy and positive lifestyle, thus demonstrating the “individual choice” in the empowerment process as highlighted by Huis et al. (2017), While previous studies reveal children’s improvement in academic performance with increased PE (Bailey et al., 2005), the side-effect of being more productive in school because of a “relaxed” mind through PE was confirmed by participants of the study (e.g. M-S1, F-S11, F-FS15, personal communication). To conclude, the interviews have shown that PA and PE can positively influence academic goals and personal achievement, therefore also supporting the establishment of self-esteem and self-confidence coming along with educational and intellectual development (Bailey et al., 2005). From both girls’ and boys’ perspectives, PA helps “not to be scared and facing any challenge” (F-S14, personal communication). This improvement of self-confidence is also associated with cultural restrictions and perceived as a chance to gain more freedom in society (M-S1, personal communication), which is also stressed in related literature (see Kurtiş et al., 2016)

Nevertheless, it could be observed that the development of empowerment on different levels through PA is limited. Female participants of the study feel also intimidated by a culture where boys are perceived as being stronger than girls (M-FS4, personal communication). They were not yet totally empowered in that sense that they feel powerless in making their own decisions in society and overcome the power of men. The girls are aware of the “disrespectful” treatment when it comes to PA like surfing, but display a low control belief in their own decision-making.

“Everybody should be free you know. I would like to have a life like that, like yours. More freedom, but how do I change that […]. It is important for the girls but everybody is silent, you know, what can we do. We need to change everyone's mind.” (F-FS8, personal communication).

This is where sport can respond to the self-worth feeling and establishment of self- confidence to make girls have a say in society. The probability that girls develop self- confidence and self-efficacy – crucial for personal empowerment and interlinked to relational and societal empowerment – is increased with girls’ opportunities to take part in PA.

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4.3.4 Summary of personal, relational and societal empowerment

Overall, the conducted interviews revealed several benefits of the participation in sports on the process of female empowerment. As the analysis indicated, the levels of personal, relational and societal empowerment are interconnected and influencing each other.

First, the collection of the students’ responses show a generally positive linkage between self-confidence and PA and lead to the conclusion that PA can contribute to the development of self-worth, thus contributing to personal empowerment. Furthermore, the individual responses all together also form an argument for the development of higher self-esteem, motivation and ability for decision-making as supporting factors for relational empowerment (see also Fleury & Lee, 2006). Finally, as research has shown, the level of empowerment is influenced by certain bias in society.

Thus, the role of sport gains importance as it can counteract to gender inequalities and undervaluing girls’ abilities (e.g. Puri, 2016, Bailey et al., 2015). Misperceptions about women’s rights to participate in sports, as investigated during the interview process, can be tackled through a process of female empowerment on different levels. Sport as a strong driver for this process was revealed within the analysis as the outcomes of PA stand in positive relation to the empowerment levels.

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5. Discussion

5.1 Theoretical discussion

This study contributes to the broader field of research about PA being a catalyst for development and empowerment. The findings reinforce the statement that PA can be a stepping stone in the society’s process from gender inequality, over gender equity towards gender equality in the long term. Various theoretical attempts have been made to understand the impact of PA and PE on female empowerment, such as in geographical contexts like Africa (Fleury & Lee, 2006) or the U.S. (Moore & Fry, 2017) or with the focus on the 3DMWE (Huis et al, 2017). However, this study contributes to the existing literature with choosing the context of PE in Sri Lankan high schools as well as by combining both the EST (Bronfenbrenner, 1994) as well as the 3DMWE (Huis et al., 2017). Based on this analytical lens, empowerment is not just seen as one linear process but occurs on personal, relational and societal dimensions. However, there are different influences affecting the capability of PE to enhance female empowerment. To formulate a deeper, more profound understanding of how female empowerment can unfold in PE classes in Sri Lankan high schools, students’ personal experiences and perceptions about PA have been investigated. The results reveal that the three dimensional process of empowerment is interconnected and interdependent on the ecosystems of the EST. In addition to the particular empowerment dimensions, the focus of this analysis lies on the importance of PE class climate which belongs to the micro- and mesosystem.

A relevant basic finding before addressing the research questions is that independent of the kind and location of a school, a wide variety of sport disciplines is offered by Sri Lankan high schools. Nevertheless, there are differences between public and private schools as well as between schools in urban and rural areas in regards to the availability of sport facilities like swimming pools, available teachers and financial resources. However, it confirms that the precondition to PE is given.

With regard to the first research question that sets the focus on motivation, ego-orientation and safe class climate, the results demonstrate the strong impact of the various environments that a girl is surrounded by and which are illustrated with the EST. In comparison to previous research that pinpoints the necessity of a motivational climate for empowerment, the findings of this study cast a new light on the definition of motivation. The interviews indeed confirm that a motivational climate is beneficial to promote PE, though the investigation indicates that this climate is more associated with fun and social aspect than with competitive and productive objectives. These findings are coherent with former research that reveals the importance of creating a safe space for enabling empowerment.

In the context of the second research question, female empowerment occurs on all three different levels – personal, relational and societal – which cannot be interpreted isolated but rather touch upon each other in an interplay. This interplay highlights the positive linkage between sports and the development of self-confidence and self-esteem (personal empowerment) which are then transformed to the interaction with peer groups (relational empowerment). An important finding in the understanding of the research problem is the impact of the immediate environment of a girl, identified as the micro-/mesosystem. This study validates the EST that a girl’s empowerment does not only depend on her own

39 mindset, behavior and wish for development but also on the beliefs of parents, neighbors, teachers and on a bigger scale even on society’s value system and culture.

In summary, the findings legitimate the developed conceptual framework as the analytical lens to address the purpose of this study and call for the promotion of PE to counteract gender inequalities and undervaluing girls’ abilities. On this basis, it is argued that PE supports the process of empowerment on different levels and thus can help to contravene prejudices about women’s participation in sports and gender biases in general.

5.2 Practical contributions

This study can be used by the public sector to transform theoretical findings into action. The research reveals that gender prejudices can be deeply anchored in the societies’ mindsets. Therefore, future projects about gender equity in Sri Lanka should include female and male, as well as children and parents, in order to address and influence all generations and target groups. Changing only one party will not be as effective as trying to reach several target groups with this topic through workshops or projects for example. Furthermore, in the course of conducting the interviews it transpired that it is often the case that both females and males stop practicing sport after they left school or . Hence, there is a need for better sports facilities, more sports clubs and public sport events for all genders and generations to keep the motivation to do sport also alive outside of the education. One goal of the ‘Sri Lanka Tourism Strategic Plan 2020’ is the building of new venue events including indoor sporting in Colombo (Ministry of Tourism Development, 2016). As this is part of the long-term strategy of making Sri Lanka a more sustainable “tourism” destination, such decisions however need to also bear in mind the equal access and inclusion of the whole local community and could be used for future events addressing gender inequality.

Another important investigation was regarding the girls’ shy and cowed behavior during the interviews as well as the swim and surf lesson in Arugam Bay (field observation). Being separated from the other gender during education, which comes along with the gender separated school, does not help children to develop confidence in how to approach the other gender. Therefore, gender mixed activities in as well as outside of school should be promoted. Also, this research study was explored through the lens of female empowerment and gender equity, however PA brings along many more advantages. The shocking number of victims of the devastating tsunami in 2004 could have been reduced if not only a minority of the Sri Lankan society would have been able to swim (KI4, personal communication). This calls for investments of the public and private sector in swimming pools for schools, free-of- charge swim lessons as well as a governmentally initiated campaign promoting and encouraging all genders and generations to learn how to swim.

5.3 Future research

Future researchers that examine female empowerment through physical education in Sri Lankan high schools might extend the research ground to schools in the northern part of the island. Based on the gathered data, a generalization of the findings for all parts of Sri Lanka

40 is not possible due to geographical, religious or cultural discrepancies between different parts of the island. It would also be interesting to get the opinions and perceptions of the teachers on this research topic, as this would add another perspective to the analysis. Also, in a practical sense, talking to and interviewing teachers might increase the teachers’ awareness about the importance of PE for girls and positively influence their mindsets and behavior. The research analysis looks at motivational climate, ego-oriented climate as well as a class environment in which girls feel safe. Thereby the topic about the influence of female empowerment through different teachers’ leadership styles is briefly touched upon but could be interesting for further investigations. While this study is only concentrating on female empowerment through PE, other subjects such as arts or theater are proven to have an impact on empowerment as well (e.g. McHenry, 2011) and could be the focus of further research in the context of Sri Lanka. Also, the findings show that there are differences between schools regarding the availability of PE and in particular the offer of swimming classes. Reasons for this facility discrepancy like the access to swimming pools seem to lie in monetary and infrastructure concerns of the particular school. In what sense the surrounding infrastructure of a certain geographical area correlates with the empowerment of women and gender equity in this area could be an interesting research ground for studies inside but also outside of Sri Lanka. By this means, the importance for governments to invest in better infrastructure to reach more gender equality could be resulting findings.

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6. Conclusion

The aim of this research was to explore the students’ perceptions and experiences of physical education (PE) in Sri Lankan high schools through the lens of female empowerment and gender equity. A four-week field trip to Sri Lanka in April 2018 enabled the researchers to gather relevant primary data for the analysis.

In sum, this paper argues that physical activities (PA) must be promoted at an early age and thus highlights the importance of PE as it has the potential to contribute positively to a girl’s development and helps to contravene prejudices about women’s participation in sports.

Key findings that have been illuminated are the strength of a motivational class climate and the students’ perception of a safe environment within the PE class which set the foundation for a girl’s empowerment to unfold. Furthermore, the empowerment process occurs on a personal, relational and societal level which is all interconnected and interdependent. Personal values like self-esteem and self-confidence define how a girl values herself and can be encouraged through PA inside and outside of school. These values are fostered within social networks and peer groups, adding significance on the relational level. The empowerment process is shaped by the entire set of experiences while being under the umbrella of the Sri Lankan culture and values system, which is still hindering girls from being encouraged in the participation of sports.

On a bigger scale, the research reveals the importance of PE because it has the potential to foster female empowerment and counteract gender inequalities. It calls for action to enhance PA in all fields of a child’s daily life, in particular for girls.

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Appendix

Appendix 1: Semi-structured interview questions for (former) students

PRIVATE LIFE & SCHOOL - Can you shortly introduce yourself? (hometown, age, siblings etc.) - Where and to what kind of schools did/do you go to in Sri Lanka? (mixed/international/girls-/boys-only?) - How many girls and/or boys were/are in your class? - IF FORMER STUDENT: What are you working with now?

AVAILABILITY, ACCESS & VARIETY OF PE - What types of sport did/do you have in school? - How often did/do you have sport in school? - IF MIXED SCHOOL: Did/do you have sports class together with boys? - How did/does a regular sport class at school look like in Sri Lanka? - How would you describe the group dynamic/ climate in your sports course? (competitive, strict, relaxed) - How often do you do sports in your free-time? - What kind of sport events does your school have? (Do you participate?)

FEMALE EMPOWERMENT, GENDER EQUITY & CLASS CLIMATE - Is your sports teacher female or male? - How does the gender of your sports teacher affect your sports trainings? - What kind of skills do you think a good coach should have? - What kinds of sports do you think are only for boys or only for girls? - When I walk along the beach or town, I only see boys playing cricket, going surfing or even swimming. What do you think is the reason that I don’t see any girls? - What role do the parents / neighborhood play when it comes to a girls’ access to sport? - IF FEMALE: Imagine you and your friend (female) want to join the boys playing volleyball on the beach here in Sri Lanka and you go and ask them if you can join. What do you think would the boys say? How would you react if they say yes/no? - What are 3 skills that you learn through sport? - IF FEMALE: How important is sport for you? IF MALE: How important is sport in your opinion for girls? - IF GIRLS-SCHOOL/MIXED SCHOOL: How confident are the other girls in your class in sport? (open-minded, taking the lead in sports?)

CLOSING - What would be things that you would like to change in your Sri Lankan school?

Appendix 2: Sample of key informant (KI2) interview questions

- Can you shortly present yourself? - What was your main motivation to do that project in Sri Lanka? - In which areas was this project based in Sri Lanka? - What are the main reasons for gender inequality in Sri Lanka? - What impact do you think does the school system have on the gender inequality? - You wrote in your blog that one main reasons for girls to not feel “free as a bird” is the lack of security. Which effect and impact would it have if girls do more sports; starting when they are still young? - How did you experience female entrepreneurship in Sri Lanka? - What could help Sri Lankan women to feel more empowered? Is it up to the government? - What would be three things that you would like the Sri Lankan government to change regarding the education system?

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Appendix 3: Pictures of interviews and field observation

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