of Europeanrich-fens intheUKandSweden. In size throughout Europe,withasignificant proportion Fens havebeen reducedtoafragment of theirformer 1.2 NationalandInternational Context be richandvaried. complex assemblageofvegetation types,whichcan lowland anduplandfens,butmanyfensconsistofa mires. There arealsosignificantdifferences between lateral, suchassprings,rillsandflushesvalley ground wherewatermovementsarepredominantly permanently high.Soligenousfensoccuronsloping as basinsandfloodplainswherethewatertableis peat orsoil. They occurinpoorlydrainedareassuch subject togenerallyverticalwatermovementsinthe water sourceandquality:topogenousfensare Fens aresubclassifieddependingontheground intermediate forms. enriched theyarecalled are knownas Where thewaterisderivedfrombase-poorrockthey water liesclosetothesurfacethroughoutyear. soils ofsourceareas,aswellbyrainfall).Ground water chemistryinfluencedbythemineralrocksand Fens areminerotrophicpeatlands(peatlandswitha 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. HabitatDescription Lead Partner:ScottishEnvironmentProtection Agency/Catchment PlanSteeringGroups. Target: Completeastudyinatleastonecatchmentby2012. mosaic ofwetlandhabitats. Examine thepotentialforenhancementandrestorationoffensonacatchmentscale,aspart Priority Action (FE1) Floodplain fenatDowLochs,CreeValley. June2004 poor-fens andwherethewaterisbase rich-fens, buttherearealso (Peter Norman) FENS approximately 250ha. & Gallowayhasanumberoffens,whichcover , themajoritylikelytobemarsh.Dumfries approximately 3370km northern EnglandandnorthWales. In1998therewas distribution, withconcentrationsinEast Anglia, the UK,fensarewidespreadbutunevenintheir Reedbeds, Marshes,Upland SpringsandFlushes. Mesotrophic Lochs,Oligotrophic Lochs,Swamps, also containrelevantinformation:EutrophicLochs overlap withfens,andthefollowingactionplansmay A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.4 Associated Habitats Newlaw MossnearDundrennan(SSSI). (SSSI), Other importantsitesinclude also 50haontheRSPB’s Ken-DeeMarshes hydroseral bog/fendevelopmentinScotland. There is Wood ofCreereserve,isonethebestexamples and Clachaneasy, particularlywithintheRSPB’s The CreeValley floodplainbetweenNewtonStewart 2.3 SiteExamples waterbodies. are alsoassociatedmarginalareasoflochsandother hollows hasallowedtheirformation.Somerich-fens where thetopographyofdrumlins,gorseyknollsand Fens arescatteredacrossDumfries&, often 2.2 CurrentDistribution and/or landusechangesonadjacentland. quality asaresultoflossappropriatemanagement fens inrecentyears,butseveralhavedeteriorated There hasbeenlittledeliberatedrainageorlossof 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries&GallowayStatus Perchall LochnearLockerbie(SSSI)and Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership 2 offen,marshandswampin Black Lochnear Ae reserve. 125 PEATLAND HABITATS FENS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3. Importance for Associated Species Purple Small Reed Calamagrostis purpurea, Greater Spearwort Ranunculus lingua, Purple Flag Iris Iris 3.1 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) versicolor and Broad-leaved Cotton-grass Eriophorum Due to the limited extent of fens in the UK, many fen latifolium. mosses and liverworts are now scarce. Imbricate Bog-moss Sphagnum affine is known from a number 3.3 Invertebrates (very high importance) of sites in Dumfries & Galloway. It is found in very wet Fen habitats support thousands of invertebrate poor-fens, as well as other wetland habitats. Twisted species including more than half the UK’s dragonfly Bog-moss Sphagnum contortum is one of the most species, as well as a large number of aquatic beetles. base-demanding bog-mosses, restricted to rich-fens A number of important invertebrates are known and flushes and rare in Dumfries & Galloway. Marsh from fens in Dumfries & Galloway. These include: A Fern Thelypteris palustris is a rare species, found at jumping spider Sitticus floricola, known from just a Newlaw Moss and a very few other sites in Dumfries handful of British fens and bogs including Kenmure FENS & Galloway but virtually absent from the rest of Holms and Stroan Loch; the Large Amber Snail Scotland. Succinea putris inhabiting fens and other wetlands at the northern edge of its range; a ground beetle Carabus granulatus restricted to marshes and fens in Britain; a hoverfly Chrysogaster cemiteriorum found in fens, wet meadows and valley bogs, at the northern edge of its British range; and the nationally scarce ground beetle Pterostichus anthracinus, found on shallow-profiled water margins and ditch-sides.

The caterpillars of Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary Boloria selene feed on Marsh Violet, and this butterfly is possibly more common on fens and marshes than in other habitats in Dumfries & Galloway.

3.4 Birds (high importance) Fens support a number of breeding birds, including Water Rails Rallus aquaticus, Snipe Gallinago gallinago, Curlews Numenius arquata, Sedge Warblers Acrocephalus schoenobaenus, Grasshopper Warblers Locustella naevia and Reed Buntings Emberiza schoeniclus. UK Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus populations are increasing. This species has already bred recently in Dumfries & Galloway, but is likely to make more use of nesting opportunities in the future. The very rare Spotted Crake Porzana porzana has also bred in the past, and may still do so but is easily overlooked. The dense undisturbed Lustrous Bog-moss Sphagnum subnitens. Carrick, , June 2007. (Peter Norman) nature of the habitat makes it of great value to PEATLAND HABITATS PEATLAND breeding wildfowl and some areas support roosts of 3.2 Flowering Plants (very high importance) wintering Starlings Sturnus vulgaris and wintering Up to a third of the UK’s native higher plant species raptors, particularly Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus. The are associated with fens across the country. The habitat is also important for migratory and wintering nationally scarce Elongated Sedge Carex elongata Snipe and Jack Snipe Lymnocryptes minimus. is found at Wood of Cree as well as on part of Ken- Dee Marshes. Water Sedge Carex aquatilis, which 3.5 Mammals (high importance) is restricted in the UK, is reasonably common in Fens of the region provide essential daytime cover Dumfries & Galloway. Other notable plants include and laying up sites for Otters Lutra lutra. The quiet, undisturbed cover provided by fen vegetation is also

126 Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P of importance to Water Shrews Neomys fodiens, 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Water Voles Arvicola terrestris and the most northerly population of Harvest Mice Micromys minutus in the • The total area of fen habitat in Dumfries & UK. Galloway is small and there are critically small populations of several key species. 3.6 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium importance) • Past drainage of surrounding areas of land for conversion to agriculture has lowered water Five amphibian species are found in fens in Dumfries tables and led to drying of remnant fen habitats. & Galloway, namely Common Frogs Rana temporaria, Common Toads Bufo bufo, Great Crested Newts • Nutrients from agricultural run-off and other Triturus cristatus, Smooth Newts Lissotriton vulgaris sources leads to eutrophication of fen waters. and Palmate Newts Lissotriton helvetica. This is likely to lead to a loss of aquatic vegetation and increased incidence of algal blooms, and FENS 3.7 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) may boost aggressive plants such as reed, which A number of specialist fungi can be found on fens, then become dominant at the expense of herb such as Fen Puffball Bovista paludosa, though there rich fen. Valley fens are particularly susceptible to has been little assessment of this habitat for fungi in agricultural run-off. Dumfries & Galloway. • Afforestation within catchments can lead to drying. • Loss of grazing on fens results in a build up of vegetation layers, drying and succession to species-poor fen and ultimately carr. • Fens on the Ken-Dee system are regularly flooded by hydro-generation operations, which can affect breeding birds in spring.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • RSPB manage fen habitats on their Wood of Cree, Ken-Dee Marshes and Kenmure Holms reserves for the benefit of breeding and wintering birds.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Manage catchments to enable fens to be maintained as part of a mosaic of wetland habitats. • Avoid water abstraction, including from

underground aquifers. HABITATS PEATLAND • Minimise nutrient enrichment from the Angelica, typical of the tall vegetation in rich fens. Lochaber Loch, August 2007. (Peter Norman) application of fertilisers within the water catchment and consider buffer zones around fens. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

• Fens play an important part in the water cycle and in certain locations provide critical water storage functions that alleviate flooding.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 127 128 PEATLAND HABITATS RAISED BOGS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T providing arange ofconditionsthatsupport plants a microtopography of an almostcontinuouscarpet ofbog-mosseswith surfaces arenotuniform;they aremadeupof Relatively undisturbedlowland raisedbog acidic conditionscharacteristic ofombrotrophicbogs. of criticalimportancetothecreationstrongly but notalways).Sphagnum peat) ordegraded(oftencapableofrestoration, blocked. Secondarybogscanbeactive(layingdown stabilised becausethedrainagepatternhasbecome been damagedbutwherethewatertablehas whilst ‘secondary’ bogsoccurwheretheboghas communities typicallyoccuraretermed‘primary’, where acrotelmisundisturbedandrichbog-moss rainfall (anombrotrophicsystem).Raisedbogs and thereforeallnutrientswatercomefrom bog israisedabovethelevelofwatertable of plants(calledtheacrotelm). The surfaceofthe to 12m)ofwater-loggedpeatandasurfacelayer Raised bogsconsistofadeepaccumulation(up 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Restoration ofKirkconnellFlowthroughtreeremoval.March2005. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: Arrange 10publiceventsby2015. selected high-profileeventssuchasNationalBog Week. Raise awarenessofthedamagecausedbyextractionandusehorticulturalpeat,concentratingon Priority Action (RB2) Lead Partner:RegionalProposal Assessment Committee. Investigate fundingforrestorationofRacksandIronhirstMossesaspartaLocharcomplex. Priority Action (RB1) Habitat Description hummocks and hollows speciesabundanceis RAISED BOGS

(SNH) has approximately3.5%ofUK’s raisedbogs. 500ha remaininginEngland.Dumfries&Galloway 94% from95,000hatoaround6,000ha,withonly extent of primary raisedboghas decreased by around UK butsincearoundthestartof19thcentury 800 raisedbogscoveringmorethan700,000hainthe Solway. Itisestimatedthatthereoncewereatleast west England,NorthernIrelandandbothsidesofthe for formation,suchastheScottishcentralbelt,north- certain areasthathaveconditionsparticularlysuitable and lowlandsituationsbuttendtobeclusteredin concentrations. IntheUKtheyarefoundinupland Finland, Sweden,UKandIrelandholdsignificant Raised bogsarefoundinmostEUcountries,butonly 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext stable relationshipwithbogcommunities. scattered scrubandbogwoodland leads tothelossofbog,insomecircumstances diversity. Although colonisationbytreesusually forms thathasmorenutrientsandagreaterspecies fen typevegetation,termedthelagg,sometimes the bogmeetsthatfromadjoiningmineralsoilsa In thezonearoundraisedbogswherewaterdraining hostile environmenttomostspecies. the historyofhumanactivities. They presentavery of bogs,theirfrequencyandpatterndependingon and animals. conifers were removedfromtwositesin Dumfries of thousands of naturallyregeneratedand planted the RestorationofScottish RaisedBogsProject,tens reintroduce grazing.From 2001 to2005,aspartof of restorationprojects,including experimentsto leading tochangesinnational policyandanumber become morewidelyrecognised inrecentyears, The conservationimportanceofraisedbogshas 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Bog pools Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership arenotanaturalcomponent canexistina RAISED BOGS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

& Galloway – Kirconnell Flow and Longbridge Muir. Further west, smaller numbers were removed from Carsegowan Moss, and as part of a separate project, 64ha of Moss of Cree was cleared of conifers. Drainage ditches at these sites have been blocked.

However, most of Dumfries & Galloway’s area of remaining raised bogs remains under conifer plantation, and there are extant planning permissions for peat extraction on several other sites.

2.2 Current Distribution Dumfries & Galloway’s largest raised bogs occur in lowland areas on the inner Solway plain and adjacent to the Cree estuary. There are a few raised bogs in RAISED BOGS the uplands, and several that show characteristics of both raised and blanket bogs as well as the transition habitats in-between.

2.3 Site Examples On the Solway plain a number of raised bogs were created under estuarine conditions. These now form the largest and most extensive raised bogs in the region, and include Kirkconnell Flow (SAC/SSSI/ NNR), and Longbridge Muir (SAC/SSSI). There are many smaller sites including Bell’s Flow (SSSI), Raeburn Flow (SAC/SSSI), Ring Moss (SSSI), Carpet of Red Bog-moss Sphagnum capillifolium. Kirkconnell Flow, February 2008. (Peter Norman) Kelhead Flow (LWS), Cowgarth Flow (LWS), Cadgill Flow (LWS), Burnfoothill Moss (LWS), 3. Importance for Associated Species Greenwrae Flow (LWS), Merkland Moss (LWS), and Carsegowan Moss (SAC/SSSI). Redhills Moss 3.1 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) (LWS) Catherinefield Moss (LWS) are remnants of Bog-moss Sphagnum abundance is of critical the Lochar Moss. Ellergower Moss (SSSI) is one of importance to the creation of the strongly acidic the few remaining examples of an intact upland raised conditions characteristic of ombrotrophic bogs. In fact bog. it could be argued that Sphagnum does not just occur on raised bogs, it actually is raised bogs. Thirty of the Several large sites remain under conifer plantations, 36 UK species have been recorded in Dumfries & although some are probably capable of restoration. Galloway, often from raised bogs, including Feathery These include Craigs, Ironhirst and Racks Moss (all Bog-moss Sphagnum cuspidatum and Cow-horn part of the Lochar Moss complex), Rascarrel Moss Bog-moss S. denticulatum in pools, Red Bog-moss (LWS) and most of Moss of Cree (LWS). S. capillifolium and Papillose Bog-moss S. papillosum on hummocks, and Blunt-leaved Bog-moss S. PEATLAND HABITATS PEATLAND 2.4 Associated Habitats palustre forming carpets between the hummocks. A number of habitats occur in close association and/ The scarce Golden Bog-moss Sphagnum pulchrum or overlap with raised bogs, and the following action occurs on pool edges, and the very rare Baltic Bog- plans may also contain relevant information: Blanket moss Sphagnum balticum, was identified on Racks Bogs, Fens, Native Wet Woods, Conifer Plantations. Moss in 1960 but is now probably extinct following afforestation. A wide diversity of other mosses and liverworts are also found on raised bogs, in addition to bog-mosses.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 129 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

Raised bogs are not as important for ferns as mosses, but the scarce Royal Fern Osmunda regalis is still extant on Lochar Moss.

3.2 Invertebrates (very high importance) Localised invertebrates such as Black Darter dragonflies Sympetrum danae and Large Heath butterflies Coenonympha tullia are found on some lowland raised bog sites in the region. Marsh Fritillary butterflies Euphydryas aurina were last recorded in Dumfries & Galloway on the Lochar Moss complex in the 1970s, but are now extinct following afforestation.

Many scarce invertebrates in Dumfries & Galloway Round-leaved Sundew. (Peter Norman) are closely linked to Sphagnum, including the RAISED BOGS money spiders Maro lepidus, Bathyphantes setiger, 3.3 Flowering Plants (high importance) Centromerus levitarsis and Erigone welchi, the water Typical species include Round-leaved Sundew beetle Laccobius atratus and Sphagnum Bugs Hebrus Drosera rotundifolia, Hare’s-tail Cottongrass ruficeps. All of these have a very restricted Scottish, Eriophorum vaginatum and Deer Grass Trichophorum if not UK, distribution. The pond skater Gerris gibbifer cespitosum. Cranberry Vaccinium oxycoccos and is known in Scotland only from Dumfries & Galloway. Bog Rosemary Andromeda polifolia, though scarce in It was last recorded on bog pools Lochar Moss much of Britain, are abundant on many raised bogs in in 1946, prior to afforestation, but still remains on Dumfries & Galloway. Less common species include Kirkconnell Flow and in non-bog habitat on the Black Great Sundew Drosera anglica and Oblong-leaved Water of Dee. A nationally rare jumping spider Sitticus Sundew Drosera intermedia. Species associated with floricola was recorded at Kirkconnell Flow in 2006. bog pools include White Beak-sedge Rhynchospora alba and Bog Sedge Carex limosa both frequently found on bare wet peat on pool margins, sometimes in shallow standing water. It is not known if any stable bog woodland exists in Dumfries & Galloway, but a similar habitat, consisting of scattered trees on the central areas or more usually on the lagg, is found on most local bogs. Birch Betula spp. and Bog Myrtle Myrcia gale are typical species.

3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (high importance) Adders Vipera berus occur on most raised bogs, often the only suitable habitat for them within extensive Large Heath butterfly. (Laurie Campbell) areas of improved farmland. Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara may also occur, but the water is Bog woodland supports a number of specialist generally too acidic for amphibians to breed.

PEATLAND HABITATS PEATLAND species, including Bog Bush Crickets Metrioptera brachyptera in open woodland with Cross-leaved 3.5 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) Heath and Purple Moor Grass, and Bilberry Pug A number of species of fungi are adapted to bogs, moths Pasiphila debiliata in birch woodland with or to the plants growing in them. This is especially abundant Blaeberry at their only Scottish location the case with Sphagnum mosses, which have a at Kirkconnell Flow. Although not restricted to bog specialised fungal flora including Bog Bell Galerina woodland, the very rare Six-spotted Pot Beetle paludosa. However, most bog fruit bodies are small, Cryptocephalus sexpunctatus is also known from the such as those of several species of the genus latter site. Mycocalia, closely related to the bird’s-nest fungi, which grow amongst wet vegetation.

130 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.6 Birds (low importance) 5. Factors affecting the habitat Breeding birds do not occur in high densities on raised bogs. Skylarks Alauda arvensis and Meadow • Afforestation of bogs results in loss of habitat, Pipits Anthus pratensis are probably the commonest although this is often a very gradual process with breeding species, with smaller numbers of Stonechats bog conditions persisting for many years under Saxicola torquatus. Although the habitat appears the trees. Tree planting on neighbouring areas suitable for feeding Nightjars Caprimulgus europaeus, also dries out bogs and acts as an invasive seed there are only a few records of this species breeding source. on raised bogs in Dumfries & Galloway. Red Grouse • Removal of peat for fuel or horticultural use Lagopus lagopus and Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix no results in loss of habitat. Planning permissions longer occur on most lowland raised bogs. exist on a number of bogs.

Birds of prey such as Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus, • Use of bogs for landfill sites results in loss of Merlins Falco columbarius and Short-eared Owls Asio habitat. flammeus hunt over raised bogs outside the breeding • Livestock and game management on bogs RAISED BOGS season, and there are a number of important roosts. may damage habitat though drainage, trampling, burning, and contamination with feed and 4. Environmental, Economic & Social droppings. Importance of Biodiversity • Agricultural use of neighbouring areas often reduces water levels on bogs, as a result • Being supplied with water and nutrients entirely of marginal ring-ditches and other drainage from the atmosphere, raised bogs are sensitive measures. Run-off from agricultural land indicators of climate change and pollution. (fertilisers and pesticides) may also damage bog • The process of peat formation locks up ecology. atmospheric carbon for thousands of years. • Water abstraction within the catchment area Recent research has suggested that 3.5 times may have an adverse effect on the hydrology the quantity of carbon is locked up in peat than in of raised bogs. There has been little built the world’s tropical rainforests. Drainage of peat development on bogs, but natural hydrology may releases this carbon back into the atmosphere. be disrupted by neighbouring developments However, active peatlands give off methane, and associated roads. which is a ‘greenhouse gas’. • Drying out the raised bog allows invasion by • Peatlands provide a historical record of past scrub and trees which it turn speed up the drying climates, vegetation and human history. out process and lead to the loss of special habitat Stored within the peat are plant and animal and fauna. remains, pollen grains, human artefacts and even occasionally ‘bog bodies’. Scientists and • The mosaic created by domestic hand-cutting of archaeologists use these remains to reconstruct peat provides a range of small-scale structures Scottish landscape history and prehistory. across a site, and is beneficial for some species. However, cutting is always damaging to the • Small-scale peat extraction for domestic use has habitat when carried out on a part of the bog been undertaken in Dumfries & Galloway, and surface not previously worked or in areas where

has not significantly damaged any sites. Although HABITATS PEATLAND past peat extraction has been so extensive as to the use of peat in horticulture has provided many leave only a thin covering of peat over the mineral benefits, and supports an extraction industry, soil. use of all horticultural peat is incompatible with biodiversity conservation. • Climate change may affect hydrology, habitat quality and species composition.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 131 BLANKET BOGS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • SNH has undertaken a programme of mapping, identifying the location, condition and potential threats to peatlands in Scotland. Details are held within the Lowland Raised Bog inventory (LRBI). • Forestry Commission policy includes a strong presumption against further forestry expansion on extensive areas (exceeding 25ha) of active raised bogs and degraded raised bogs capable of restoration to active status. It also encourages the conservation and restoration of peatland habitats within forests as part of the design and

RAISED BOGS management of open ground. • The SNH Peat Policy promotes the use of sustainable growing-media based on recycled organic materials in place of peat. • A number of raised bogs, such as Kirkconnell Flow and Carsegowan Moss are managed as nature reserves, and promoted to the public by SNH and Scottish Wildlife Trust.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Survey all raised bogs to at least Phase 1, ideally NVC, with an assessment of habitat condition where data not currently available. • Review existing planning consents for the extraction of peat on all raised bogs and examine whether consents on non-severely degraded sites can be withdrawn. Ensure Forest Design Plans identify areas of raised bog that have previously been planted, and where viable that they restore these areas through removal of trees. • Use the raised bog restoration schemes at Longbridge Muir and Kirkconnell Flow to evaluate measures for conserving and managing lowland raised bogs and to demonstrate best practice.

PEATLAND HABITATS PEATLAND • Phase out the use of horticultural peat by all statutory agencies. Promote public use of horticultural alternatives.

132 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership water chemistry isnutrient-poorandthe habitatis growth andimpeded decayof the peatisstillcapableofaccumulating through cover). Active blanket bogsarethoseinwhich atmospheric sources(rainwater, mistandcloud- the waterandmineralsupply comesentirelyfrom Sphagnum Blanket bogsarecomposedmostlyofwaterheldin ground, hencethenameblanketbog. typically formsoverlargeexpansesofundulating occurs inwethollowsoronslopesofupto30 exceeding 5m,although0.5-3mismoretypical.It decomposition ofmosses. This canreachdepths accumulates slowlyovermanyyearsthroughtheslow can coverwholelandscapes. A mantleofpeat and regularrainfall.Insuchareasblanketbogs with anoceanicclimate,whichiscoolhigh Blanket bogischaracteristicofareastheUK 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:SouthernUplandsPartnership/RegionalProposal Assessment Committee. Target: Identifysuitableblanketboglocationsby2012. designated sites,orthoseadjacenttosites. Restore degradedblanketbogsthroughtheblockingofmoorland‘grips’ Priority Action (BB1) Habitat Description mossesandareombrotrophic, thatis BLANKET BOGS Sphagnum . The o , but less than50,000ha. current areaof blanketboginDumfries & Gallowayis north andwestofBritainfrom DevontoShetland. The this habitat.Blanketbogsare distributedmostlyinthe it oneofthemostimportant internationallocationsfor significant proportionofthe totalglobalarea,making of blanketbogwith1,759,000ha inScotland,a and Ireland. The UKhasanestimated2,210,000ha In Europe,blanketbogsarefoundprimarilyintheUK 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext they canbecommononsomeblanketbogs. with localtopographyandgeographicallocation,but The frequencyofbogpools habitats. vegetation typesthatmayalsoprovideimportantsub- margins andvalleymires. These willsupportdifferent the nutrientsinit),suchassprings,flushes,stream systems (thosethatareaffected byground-waterand bog landscapemayalsocontainminerotrophic dominated byacidicplantcommunities. A blanket Bog poolwithBogbean.SilverFlowe,July1999.(PeterNorman) anddrains,especiallyon Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership onthesurfacevaries 133 PEATLAND HABITATS BLANKET BOGS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2. Dumfries & Galloway Status are the principal peat forming species on blanket bogs. Austin’s Bog-moss Sphagnum austinii and 2.1 Recent Trends Rusty Bog-moss Sphagnum fuscum are virtually There has been little recent loss of blanket bog to new restricted to undisturbed raised and blanket bogs. afforestation or drainage, but many existing drainage Extensive surface patterning with Feathery Bog-moss systems continue to operate. Sphagnum cuspidatum hollows occurs at Kirkcowan Flow, whilst the increasingly uncommon Golden Bog- 2.2 Current Distribution moss Sphagnum pulchrum normally grows around bog pool edges, and is a distinctive feature at Kilhern Blanket bog in Dumfries & Galloway occurs from 70 Moss. metres above sea level on the mosses, to altitudes of nearly 700 metres on the tops of 3.2 Invertebrates (high importance) /Kells and the Moffat Hills. Blanket bog is of great importance to many 2.3 Site Examples invertebrates such as spiders and leaf-hopper bugs. The nationally scarce ground beetle Agonum ericeti Blanket bogs occur on many of the hill ranges in BLANKET BOGS is associated with Sphagnum moss in a few Dumfries Dumfries & Galloway, including Merrick-Kells (SSSI), & Galloway bogs, along with the spider Clubionia Moffat Hills (SSSI), and Lowther Hills (SPA/SSSI). norvegica. Large Heath Butterflies Coenonympha Within the Merrick Kells range Silver Flowe (SSSI/ tullia also occur on blanket bogs, though not in NNR/Ramsar) consists of almost 200ha of mostly the density found on raised bogs. Azure Hawker blanket bog, although parts of the site grade into a dragonflies Aeshna caerulea breed in shallow bog raised bog type habitat. Areas of blanket bog are also pools with Sphagnum. Outside of northern Scotland, found on (NNR/SSSI). their only UK sites are in the Silver Flowe area. At lower altitude, there are a number of important blanket bogs in Wigtownshire, including Mochrum Lochs (SAC/SSSI), Kirkcowan Flow (SAC/SSSI), Kilhern Moss (SAC/SSSI), Blood Moss (SSSI), Derskelpin Moss (SSSI) and Flow of Dergoals (SAC/SSSI).

2.4 Associated Habitats A number of habitats occur in close association and/ or overlap with blanket bogs, and the following action plans may also contain relevant information: Raised Bogs, Upland Heaths, Acid Grasslands. Azure Hawker dragonfly, restricted in the UK to the bogs of Silver 3. Importance Flowe and the Scottish Highlands. (Laurie Campbell) for Associated The fringes of blanket bogs can support important Species marginal vegetation. Tussocky vegetation of taller Molinia, Carex or Juncus and the associated litter 3.1 Non-flowering build-up provides cooler, more sheltered microhabitats

PEATLAND HABITATS PEATLAND Plants (very high for adult craneflies and drier sites for over-wintering importance) invertebrates such as spiders. Ericaceous dwarf Bog-mosses, including shrubs also support many heather-feeding moths and Papillose Bog- other insects, as well as providing a well-developed moss Sphagnum vegetation structure for spiders. papillosum, Soft Bog- moss S. tenellum and 3.3 Birds (high importance) Magellanic Bog-moss Many areas of blanket bog are important for Black S. magellanicum, Grouse Tetrao tetrix which feed on the invertebrates Cloudberry. Mid Craig, Moffat Hills, and cotton grasses that can be abundant in these July 2007. (Peter Norman) areas. Red Grouse Lagopus lagopus also occur, and

134 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P wading birds such as Curlews Numenius arquata, Golden Plovers Pluvialis apricaria and Dunlins Calidris alpina all nest on blanket bogs, though have become increasingly scarce in recent decades.

A number of birds of prey, such as Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos, Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus, Merlins Falco columbarius and Short-eared Owls Asio flammeus often hunt over blanket bogs.

3.4 Flowering Plants (medium importance) Typical blanket bog plants include Cross-leaved Heath Erica tetralix, Crowberry Empetrum nigrum, Round-leaved Sundew Drosera rotundifolia, Bog Asphodel Narthecium ossifragum, and cotton grasses Eriophorum spp. Cloudberry Rubus chamaemorus BLANKET BOGS forms a dense carpet on some blanket bogs in the east of the region. Bogbean Menyanthes trifoliata is typical of bog pools.

Tall Bog Sedge Carex magellanica is a perennial of bog pools and hummocks in Sphagnum bogs, or at the edges of gently sloping bogs where there is slight lateral water movement. It is thinly scattered in Britain with some colonies lost as a result of drainage and afforestation. A number of other species are rare outside of the Highlands, but have been found in Dumfries & Galloway. These include Bog Blaeberry Vaccinium uliginosum, recorded in the Moffat Hills, and Few-flowered Sedge Carex pauciflora, a very inconspicuous species that grows on and around hummocks, usually in association with Sphagnum. Bog Bellcap Galerina sp. on Sphagnum mosses. Mid Craig, Moffat Hills. July 2007. (Peter Norman) 3.5 Mammals (medium importance) 3.7 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) Water Voles Arvicola terrestris are usually thought As with raised bogs, several species of fungi are of as mammals of lowland rivers, but as they have adapted to the plants growing in blanket bogs, declined in such habitats, it has become clear that especially with Sphagnum mosses that have a they also occur on blanket bogs and moorlands, specialised fungal flora including Bog Bell Galerina although their presence is often not obvious. Indeed, paludosa. However, most bog fruit bodies are small, this is their main habitat in some parts of Europe and such as those of several species of the genus upland populations appear to be surviving better than Mycocalia, closely related to the bird’s-nest fungi, those in the lowlands of the UK. Red Deer Cervus

which grow amongst wet vegetation. HABITATS PEATLAND elaphus wallow in bog pools to rid themselves of flies and parasites. 3.8 Fishes (low importance) 3.6 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium Salmon Salmo salar and Sea/Brown Trout Salmo importance) trutta benefit from the quality of waters produced by peatland catchments. Adders Vipera berus are frequently found on blanket bogs.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 135 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

• Peatlands play a significant role as carbon dioxide sinks in minimising global warming (see Raised Bogs). • Blanket bogs play a vital role in many catchments in the maintenance of water quality. Most of Scotland’s drinking water comes from catchments dominated by bogs. • Without the protective layer of peat high rainfall Blanket bog at Watch Knowe, next to Loch Skene, Moffat Hills. would erode many of the less stable upland soils July 2007. (Peter Norman) off the hill and into watercourses. • Uncontrolled burning can lead to increased • Where numbers of birds allow, grouse shooting

BLANKET BOGS erosion and the loss of characteristic bog species, is a sustainable economic use of upland areas. including the death of peat-forming species. Blanket bogs support many invertebrates, These can slowly recover over time (more than especially craneflies that are an essential 20 years), but the invertebrate population will be component of the diet of grouse chicks. seriously affected • The application of fertilisers and lime to 5. Factors affecting the habitat increase stock grazing productivity will inevitably lead to nutrient enrichment of the water supply, • Afforestation over extensive tracts of blanket modifying bog ecology to the detriment of bog and adjacent areas, often accompanied by biodiversity. furrowing of the ground, affects the hydrology and species composition. This increases as the trees • Acidification from atmospheric deposition has mature, require more water and cast more shade. altered the nutrient status of bogs, and hence the plant species composition. However, if lime is • Drainage of blanket bogs and their margins added to lochs, lakes and rivers as a treatment has been widespread in Dumfries & Galloway. for acidification, this may also have a detrimental Drainage ditches, both new and old, lower the effect on adjacent areas of blanket bog. water table and may initiate erosion, oxidation of the peat and modification the surface patterning, • Development, such as wind farms and leading to the loss of Sphagnum hollows. Even communication masts, together with associated unmaintained old drains continue to affect infrastructure such as access and maintenance hydrology. Lowered water tables alter the species roads can cause significant hydrological composition of the surface vegetation and have a disruption. Links to the national grid via landlines detrimental impact on specialist invertebrates. and pylons also has an impact on very fragile blanket bog during the construction phase. • Heavy grazing by sheep can have a significant impact on blanket bog vegetation, especially • The bog surface is a fragile habitat and can be if there is supplementary feeding (which damaged by even modest levels of recreational will increase the nutrient input) and other use. This is usually restricted by the natural PEATLAND HABITATS PEATLAND management measures such as drainage, wetness of blanket bogs, sometimes making them burning or fencing. Grazing and trampling by feral dangerous places to walk, but localised areas goats affects some sites. can suffer severe erosion. There is also a fire risk from recreational use.

136 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

• Erosion exposes more of the peat to the atmosphere, increasing drying and oxidation of the peat. Hag erosion may be instigated, resulting in extensive patches of bare eroding peat both in gullies and flatter areas.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • SNH has undertaken a programme of mapping, identifying the location, condition and potential threats to peatlands in Scotland. Details are held within the Scottish Blanket Bog inventory (SBBI). • Forestry Commission policy includes a strong

presumption against further forestry expansion BLANKET BOGS on extensive areas (exceeding 25ha) of active blanket bog averaging 1m or more in depth or any associated peatland where afforestation could alter the hydrology of such areas. It also encourages the conservation and restoration of peatland habitats within forests as part of the design and management of open ground.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Manage at the scale of hydrological units or catchments. Operations some distance away from the ombrotrophic Sphagnum communities can have a devastating effect if they are within the same hydrological unit. In order to conserve characteristic bog communities, it is necessary to look beyond the boundaries of a particular site. • Monitor the impact of recreational use of blanket bogs. Determine in detail the area, extent and condition of blanket bog within Dumfries & Galloway. • Use sites such as Silver Flowe NNR to demonstrate good practice. • Raise public and landowner awareness of blanket bog through guided walks, talks,

publications, press releases, and environmental HABITATS PEATLAND education opportunities, including National Bog Week. • Identify and evaluate opportunities for restoration of blanket bog habitats as forests are re-designed at felling and re-stocking. Where hydrologically possible, restore blanket bog adjacent to SSSIs such as Kirkcowan Flow, Derskelpin Moss, Flow of Dergoals and Ring Moss.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 137 138 GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS PURPLE MOOR-GRASS & RUSH PASTURES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T contain elements ofpurplemoorgrassand rush The following SitesofSpecialScientific Interest 2.3 SiteExamples habitat. of SpecialScientificInterest intheregionincludethis Galloway ataltitudesupto 300m,andatleast4Sites Purple MoorGrassandrushpastureisfoundin 2.2 CurrentDistribution Recent trendsarenotknown. 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries&GallowayStatus known, butthereisatleast65ha. extent inDumfries&Gallowayisnotaccurately An estimated4,500haoccursinScotland. The total Wales andwesternScotlandasfarnorthern Argyll. of Ireland.Itisfoundinsouth-westEngland,south Europe, withthepossibleexceptionofRepublic considerably morethansurvivesintherestof extent ofthishabitatintheUKisaround56,000ha, throughout westernEurope. The totalestimated Purple Moor-grassandrushpasturesoccur 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext biodiversity. to apatchworkofdiversehabitatsthatsupportshigh wet heath,scrubanddrygrassland,whichcontribute Rush. This habitatisoftenfoundinconjunctionwith abundant PurpleMoor-grassandSharp-flowered distinctive species-richvegetationcommunitywith rainfall. The soilsareusuallyacidic,supportinga drained sitesinlowland-midaltitudeareaswithhigh Purple Moor-grassandrushpasturesoccuronpoorly 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. HabitatDescription PURPLE MOOR-GRASS&RUSHPASTURES Lead Partner:RegionalProposal Assessment Committee/Farming&Wildlife Advisory Group. Target: Restore8haby2015. Restore PurpleMoor-grassandrushpastures. Priority Action (PMG2) Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayEnvironmentalResourcesCentre. Target: Completestudyby2012. Dumfries &Galloway. Determine theextent,distribution,compositionandstatusofPurpleMoor-grassrushpasturesin Priority Action (PMG1) Grasslands, UplandSpringsandFlushes. relevant information:Fens, Acid Grasslands,Neutral and thefollowingactionplansmayalsocontain or overlapwithPurpleMoor-grassandrushpastures, A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Loch (SSSI). Cleugh (SSSI) habitat hasnotbeencarriedout: pasture, butacompletesurveyoftheextentthis The habitatischaracterisedbyplantspeciessuch 3.2 FloweringPlants(highimportance) rarely formingthecarpetsfoundonbogs. leaved Bog-moss Cow-horn Bog-moss such asCompactBog-moss Purple Moor-grassandrushpastures.Bog-mosses A diversemossandliverwortfloraisfoundinmany 3.1 Non-floweringPlants(highimportance) 3. Importancefor Associated Species Grass ofParnassus. StronachHill,Skyreburn,September 2007. Bailliewhirr S. palustrecanbecommon,though S.denticulatumandBlunt- Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership (SSSI) andDowalton Sphagnum compactum Skyreburn (SSSI), (Peter Norman) , PURPLE MOOR-GRASS & RUSH PASTURES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

as Fairy Flax Linum catharticum, Field Gentian 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Gentianella campestris, Quaking Grass Briza media, Importance of Biodiversity Frog Orchid Dactylorhiza viridis, Greater Butterfly Orchid Platanthera chlorantha, Spignel Meum • Purple Moor-grass and rush pastures provide athamanticum, Whorled Caraway Carum verticillatum rough grazing for cattle and sheep. and Marsh Hawk’s-beard. Many of these are locally or nationally uncommon. 5. Factors affecting the Habitat 3.3 Invertebrates (high importance) • Lack of information and understanding about Purple Moor-grass the distribution, quality and importance of this and rush pastures habitat leading to poor appreciation of its value. provide important areas for butterflies • Agricultural improvement through drainage, and moths such as cultivation and fertiliser applications. the Small Pearl- • Agricultural abandonment, leading to rankness bordered Fritillary and scrub encroachment through lack of grazing. Boloria selene, Scotch Argus • Inappropriate management, including Erebia aethiops and overgrazing by sheep and burning. Narrow-bordered • Afforestation on or adjacent to important sites. Bee Hawkmoth Hermaris tityus. PURPLE MOOR-GRASS & RUSH PASTURES 6. Strategic Actions Scotch Argus, the characteristic 3.4 Reptiles and butterfly of local Purple Moor Grass 6.1 Recent and current activity Amphibians and rush pastures. (Richard Mearns) (medium importance) • None known, except maintenance of this habitat All of the region’s terrestrial reptiles and all of the on designated sites. common amphibians are found in Purple Moor-grass and rush pastures. 6.2 Other recommended actions • Include information on the importance of this 3.5 Birds (medium importance) habitat and its sensitivity to land use changes in Breeding birds of purple moor grass and rush pasture publicity and interpretation materials. include Lapwings Vanellus vanellus, Snipe Gallinago gallinago, Curlews Numenius arquata and Skylarks Alauda arvensis. Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus, Barn Owls Tyto alba and Short-eared Owls Asio flammeus are likely to feed over this habitat if they are nesting or wintering close by.

3.6 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) No species of fungi are restricted to Purple Moor- grass and rush pastures, but a wide range of unimproved grassland species occur, including waxcaps Hygrocybe spp. Field mushrooms Agaricus spp. may be found on more improved sites. GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND 3.7 Mammals (low importance) Although a wide variety of mammals may be found on Purple Moor-grass and rush pastures, including Purple Moor-grass and rush pasture at Stronach Hill, Skyreburn. Brown Hares Lepus europaeus and high densities of August 2006. (Peter Norman) small mammals, none are restricted to this habitat.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 139 140 GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS CALCAREOUS GRASSLANDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T pockets oflime-loving plantsarealsofound on disused quarries inDumfriesshire.However, small limited tosmallfragments on limestone,mostlyin Calcareous grasslandsinDumfries &Gallowayare 2.2 CurrentDistribution grasslands inrecentyears. resulted inadeclinethequalityofcalcareous Scrub encroachmentondisusedquarriesmayhave 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries&GallowayStatus 50ha withlessthan10hainDumfries&Galloway. Scotland withanestimatedextentoflittlemorethan north Lancashire.Calcareousgrasslandsarerarein soils, particularlyinthenorthPennines,Cumbriaand England areanothersignificantsourceoflime-rich Downs. Carboniferouslimestonesinthenorthof concentrations inWiltshire,DorsetandtheSouth Most lowlandgrasslandsoccuronchalkwith to areasofthecountrywithsuitablegeology. grassland throughouttheUK,butitisrestricted There isanestimated40,000-65,000haofcalcareous 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext verges, oldlimestonequarriesandrailwaycuttings. practices havesurvived.Itisalsofoundonroadside where low-intensityfarming grazing livestock,particularly across theUK,maintainedby calcareous grasslandsoccur phosphate. A rangeofdifferent poor inavailablenitrogenand soil andarerichincalciumbut the free-drainingnatureof be drygrasslandsbecauseof old redsandstone. They tendto chalk, limestone,serpentineand shallow base-richrockssuchas Calcareous grasslandsoccuron 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. HabitatDescription Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: All appropriatesitesdesignatedasLWS by2015. Designate calcareousgrasslandsasLocalWildlifeSitesandprovidemanagementadvice. Priority Action (CG1) CALCAREOUS GRASSLANDS Calcareous grasslandin former limestonequarry at Kelhead.June2007. (Peter Norman) and Flushes,QuarriesMineralWorkings. Neutral Grasslands, Acid Grasslands,UplandSprings Coastal SandDunes,Cliffs andSlopes, action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: overlap withcalcareousgrasslands,andthefollowing A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.4 Associated Habitats Stranfasket (SSSI), also befoundamongstotherhabitatsat Quarry (LWS). Pocketsofbase-richgrasslandcan around Eaglesfield Former industrialsitesincludeflooded 2.3 SiteExamples grasslands. isolated areasofbase-richglacialdriftwithinacid invertebrates. This isparticularlysowhere itformsa Calcareous grassland supportsarichdiversity of 3.2 Invertebrates(highimportance) from upperNithsdaleandthe Dundrennanarea. calcareous soils,suchasHerb Paris grasslands. There areoldrecordsofplants are notconfinedtocalcareous Arabis hirsuta,althoughthese campestris andHairyRockCress such asFieldGentian number oflocallyscarcespecies, nummularium Common Rockrose Fairy FlaxLinumcatharticum Quaking GrassBrizamedia, Wild Thyme Thymuspraecox, Galloway, typicalspeciesinclude for floweringplants.InDumfries& species diverse of all grassland types considered astherichestandmost Calcareous grasslandsare 3.1 FloweringPlants(veryhighimportance) 3. Importancefor Associated Species Cleugh (SSSI), . . They alsocontaina Helianthemum , BarjargLimeKilnandKelhead Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Gentianella Skyreburn (SSSI)and

and Paris quadrifolia lime pits Twayblade orchids. Bailliewhirr (Peter Norman) Common

CALCAREOUS GRASSLANDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

mosaic with other habitats 4. Environmental, Economic & Social such as scrub, rock outcrops Importance of Biodiversity and sparse bracken. Species include butterflies Due to their floristic richness, calcareous grasslands such as Common Blue tend to be attractive sites of high landscape value. Polyommatus icarus and One site (Kelhead) in Dumfries & Galloway is Small Heath Coenonympha managed as a picnic area. pamphilus; grasshoppers such as Meadow Chorthippus Common Blue butterfly. 5. Factors affecting the Habitat parallelus and Common (Peter Norman) Green Omocestus viridulus; • There is no current survey of the extent bumblebees such as the Common Carder Bombus or importance of this habitat in Dumfries & pascuorum and Red-tailed B. lapidarius ; and ants Galloway. such as Yellow Meadow Ant Lasius flavus. None of these insects are confined to this habitat. Although • Under-grazing and the complete cessation there are rare species more strongly associated with of management, especially at lowland sites, this habitat elsewhere in Britain, no detailed surveys can result in reversion to rank grassland and have been completed in Dumfries & Galloway. eventually closed scrub and woodland. • Overgrazing can result in the loss of tall herb and CALCAREOUS GRASSLANDS There are several molluscs in Dumfries & Galloway shrub species. that have a stronger association with calcareous • Agricultural intensification, including fertiliser grasslands. This habitat is particularly important for use, herbicide application, ploughing and snails because most need calcium in considerable re-seeding causes damage to calcareous quantities for their shells. Species include Wrinkled grasslands. Snail Candidula intersecta, Moss Chrysalis Snail Pupilla muscorum and Ribbed Grass Snail Vallonia • Development, particularly the in-filling of costata. abandoned limestone quarries where grassland has re-established itself, can result in loss of 3.3 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) habitat. For example, Eaglesfield lime pits were There are few species of fungi restricted to calcareous originally targeted for infill when the upgrading of grasslands. Their ecology depends much more on the the A74 was proposed; others were lost. presence of other species, especially mosses, rather • Areas of calcareous grassland have been than directly on the pH of the soil, though soil pH planted with conifers, especially those that does of course influence the presence of such plant appear as pockets within acidic grasslands. associates. Nevertheless, several species seem to prefer calcareous grassland, including Snowy Waxcap 6. Strategic Actions Hygrocybe virginea var. ochraceopallida, Big Blue Pinkgill Entoloma bloxamii and Grassland Puffball 6.1 Recent and current activity Lycoperdon lividum. • One site, at Kelhead Quarry, is currently 3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium designated as a Local Wildlife Site. importance) The dry nature of calcareous grasslands makes them 6.2 Other recommended actions more suited to reptiles than amphibians, though • Carry out a survey to determine extent and the small size of most sites reduces their value. All quality of this habitat type in Dumfries & Galloway. three native terrestrial reptiles occur on calcareous GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND grasslands that are part of a mosaic of suitable • Raise awareness of the importance of this habitats. habitat with owners and encourage appropriate management, including possible grazing.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 141 142 GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS NEUTRAL GRASSLANDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T 100ha inDumfries &Galloway. less than3,000hainScotland. There arelessthan grassland isestimatedtobe lessthan15,000ha,with total UKextentofunimproved species-richneutral somewhere inbetweenthese twoextremes. The the majorityofneutralgrasslandsareprobably by agriculturalimprovementisrareandthreatened; species poorandimproved;grasslandunaffected Many grasslandsfoundonfarmsintheUKarenow 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext relative tograsses. high proportionofbroad-leavedherbaceousspecies colourful landscapefeaturesinthesummer, duetoa traditional haymeadowsorpastures. They areoften use andre-seeding,areusuallymanagedas agricultural improvement,suchasextensivefertiliser balanced innutrients. They arenotheavilyaffected by grasslands growonwell-drainedfertilesoilthatiswell Semi-natural neutral(sometimescalledmesotrophic) 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics: 1. Lead Partner:National Trust forScotland. Target: 10publications/eventsby2015. leaflets/panels and/orguidedwalks/talks. Highlight theimportanceoflowlandmeadowstolandmanagersandpublicbyincludingthemin Priority Action (NG2) Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership/RegionalProposal Target: Restore5haby2015. Restore lowlandneutralgrasslands. Priority Action (NG1) Habitat Description NEUTRAL GRASSLANDS conditions make haycuttingdifficult. Nithsdale, but evenherethesmallsize and ground The bestexample isfoundat 2.3 SiteExamples found onroadvergesand other urbansites. vulnerable toscrubinvasion. Smallareasarealso remnant unimprovedgrassland,butthesesitesare intensively managedforagriculture,maycontain Areas suchassteepbanks,whichcannotbe remnants offormerhaymeadowscanbefound. to occasional,oftenisolated,fieldedgeswhere Unimproved neutralgrasslandsarenowrestricted 2.2 CurrentDistribution neglect isoftenthegreatestthreat. with moreerraticpatternsofweather. As aresult, manage themcanbedifficulttomaintain,particularly sometimes labourintensivetechniquesrequiredto more intensiveuses.However, thetraditionaland and thereislittleornodeliberateconversionto The importanceofthishabitatisnowrecognised 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Hay meadowatRockcliffe.July2007.(PeterNorman) Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Assessment Committee. Lag Meadow (SSSI)in NEUTRAL GRASSLANDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.4 Associated Habitats improved for agriculture, such sites require at least A number of habitats occur in close association 30 years to recover their grassland fungi. A few well- and/or overlap with neutral grasslands, and the known species such as the Field Mushroom Agaricus following action plans may also contain relevant campestris and the Giant Puffball Calvatia gigantea information: Calcareous Grasslands, Acid Grasslands, (which produces some of the largest fruitbodies of all Agriculturally Improved Grasslands. British fungi reaching 70cm or more across) are able to withstand some fertilisation. 3. Importance for Associated Species

3.1 Flowering Plants (very high importance) Plants such as Yellow Rattle Rhinanthus minor and Meadow Cranesbill Geranium pratense indicate lack of agricultural improvement. Other typical plants include Black Knapweed Centaurea nigra, Pignut Conopodium majus, Crested Dog’s-tail grass Cynosurus cristatus, Dyer’s Greenweed Genista tinctoria, and several NEUTRAL GRASSLANDS NEUTRAL orchid species: Northern Marsh Orchid Dactylorhiza purpurella, Fragrant Orchid Gymnadenia Common Green Grasshoppers create the sound of summer conopsea and meadows. Langholm, July 2005. (Peter Norman) Common Twayblade Listera ovata. 3.3 Invertebrates (medium importance) Locally scarce plants Management of grasslands as hay meadows is not include Melancholy ideal for many invertebrates as most larval foodplants Thistle Cirsium are cut and removed all at once. However, species heterophyllum and such as grasshoppers are able to exploit the short- Upright Vetch Vicia term cover provided by the grasses and large orobus and Lesser numbers of pollen and nectar-feeding insects, such Butterfly Orchid as bees, butterflies and hoverflies may visit during the Platanthera bifolia. flowering period. Earthworms occur at high densities whilst Spignel Meum and play a significant role in the ecology of neutral athamanticum may grasslands, mixing the soil, improving drainage and Crested Dog's-tail, a common grass of be locally common, assisting in the decomposition of dead material. neutral grasslands. (Peter Norman) but has a restricted UK distribution. 3.4 Birds (low importance) The demise of unimproved neutral grasslands is the 3.2 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) principal reason for the almost total disappearance of Species characteristic of unimproved grasslands Corncrakes Crex crex from the UK mainland. The last include scarce species such as Pink Meadow regular breeding in Dumfries & Galloway was in the Waxcap Hygrocybe calyptriformis. Genera with 1980s. Today, Skylarks Alauda arvensis are the main most or all of their species in grasslands include the nesting species, whilst Barn Owls Tyto alba, finches waxcaps Hygrocybe spp., pinkgills Entoloma spp., and other birds feed on the abundant small mammals,

earthtongues Geoglossaceae and Dermoloma spp. seeds or invertebrates associated with this habitat. HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND

Agricultural intensification has a more rapid and more drastic effect on fungi than on flora. Application of artificial fertilisers and liquid manure has been shown to eradicate many species within one year and all but a few others within five years. Once fertilised and

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 143 ACID GRASSLANDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.5 Mammals (low importance) 6. Strategic Actions Field Voles Microtus agrestis may reach high densities during the summer. Hedgehogs Erinaceus 6.1 Recent and current activity europaeus and Moles Talpa europaea take advantage • Traditional hay meadow management is still of the worm-rich soils. practised on a few sites.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social 6.2 Other recommended actions Importance of Biodiversity • Develop a fuller understanding of restoration techniques with the aim of expanding remnant • Most neutral meadows survive in a highly valued patches of unimproved neutral grassland. landscape of hedges and small woods, or in upland fringe landscapes with stone walls and • Train farmers to recognise valuable grasslands moorland. on their farms and to link with management advisory services such as FWAG. 5. Factors affecting the Habitat • Following an assessment of the likely impacts, restore traditional management techniques to

NEUTRAL GRASSLANDS NEUTRAL • Commercial improvement of pasture by sites where this is possible. drainage, ploughing, reseeding, and the • Consider the feasibility of creating new neutral application of inorganic fertilisers and herbicides grasslands by reducing soil fertility and direct has been shown to adversely affect floristic seeding of wildflowers. richness even at low levels of application. • Increased use of slurry, which unlike traditional, occasional, light applications of farmyard manure and lime, is detrimental to floristic richness. • The change from hay to silage production involves more frequent cutting, which reduces seeding opportunities for plants and disrupts the breeding of birds and other animals. • The change from mowing to spring and summer grazing resulting in the loss of those meadow plants and animals which are intolerant to summer grazing and adapted to traditional cutting management. • Abandonment and neglect results in gradual reversion to rank grassland dominated by False Oat-grass and eventually reversion to scrub or secondary woodland of lesser nature conservation value. • Remaining sites are small and highly fragmented.

GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND Rattling ripe seed pods of Yellow Rattle once indicated harvest time. Kirkconnel, July 2007. (Greg Baillie)

144 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership semi-natural habitats inBritain,yetlittle is known Acid grassland isprobablyoneofthemost extensive 1.2 NationalandInternational Context They arethesubjectofseparate actionplans. considerably tothebiodiversity ofacidgrasslands. Rock exposures the uplands, but is also normally managedas pasture. draining soilsandismorelikelytobeenclosedthanin occurs belowc300monnutrient-poor, generallyfree- grazing. Lowlanddryacidgrassland type. Itisusuallymanagedasunenclosedrough has lowfloristicdiversity, isbyfarthemostabundant as sandsandgravels acid igneousrocksandonsuperficialdepositssuch 4 to5.5derivedfromacidrockssuchassandstones, Acid grasslandsoccuronsoilswithpHrangingfrom 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics: 1. Lead Partner:RSPB. Target: 10interpretationleaflets/panelsand/orguidedwalks/talksby2015. including informationoninterpretationleaflets/panelsand/orguidedwalks/talks. Raise awarenessoftheimportanceextensiveareasuplandacidgrassland,especiallyforbirds,by Priority Action (AG2) Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership/RegionalProposal Target: Restore6haby2015. Restore lowlanddryacidgrasslands. Priority Action (AG1) Habitat Description andspringsflushes ACID GRASSLANDS Upland acidgrassland typically Upland acidgrasslandsaretypicallyextensive.UpperNithsdale,June2007.(GregBaillie) add , which currently known extent ofacidgrasslandinDumfries&Gallowayisnot 30,000ha withonly5000hainScotland. The exact in Scotland.Inthelowlandsitisunlikelytoexceed acid grasslandinuplandUKareas,with743,000ha suggest thatthereisinexcessof1,200,000ha requirements, especiallyinthelowlands.Estimates about itstrueextentorconservationmanagement scattered lowland areas. acid grasslandarefoundless frequentlyinwidely found throughouttheuplands. Smallpatchesof Large expansesofuniform acidgrasslandare 2.2 CurrentDistribution occurred atamuchreducedlevelsincethe1980s. Loss ofacidgrasslandstonewafforestation has 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Assessment Committee. 145 GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS ACID GRASSLANDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.3 Site Examples 3.2 Invertebrates (medium importance) Extensive upland acid grassland examples include Acid grasslands are poorer than calcareous sites for Merrick-Kells Hills (SAC/SSSI), Moffat Hills (SAC/ invertebrates, though the difference is not as marked SSSI) and Cairnsmore of Fleet (SSSI/NNR). as for flowering plants. Recent work on invertebrate fauna of Dumfries & Galloway suggests that although 2.4 Associated Habitats diversity is low, a few species are locally or nationally A number of habitats occur in close association and/ rare. Scotch Argus butterflies Erebia aethiops are or overlap with acid grasslands, and the following reasonably common in the region on lightly grazed action plans may also contain relevant information: or ungrazed acid grasslands, but they are known Upland Springs and Flushes, Upland Heaths, Inland from only two sites south of the border. The larvae of Rock Outcrops. In many cases, the presence of other Small Purple-barred moths Phytometra viridaria feed habitats in a mosaic with acid grassland is critical to on Heath Milkwort and possibly Lousewort, and have the overall biodiversity of an area. been recorded on a few sites in the region.

3. Importance for Associated Species 3.3 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) Unimproved, well-drained acid grasslands can be ACID GRASSLANDS 3.1 Birds (very high importance) rich in fungi, including many species of waxcap The typical upland acid grassland birds are Skylarks Hygrocybe, Entoloma and Dermoloma. Alauda arvensis and Wheatears Oenanthe oenanthe, the latter favouring areas with rock exposures. Ring Ouzels Turdus torquatus may also occur in rocky areas.

Several species of high conservation importance occur at low densities, but require extensive areas of the habitat in order to persist. Extensive sites form an important part of the territories of birds such as Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos, Red Kites Milvus milvus, Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus, Merlins Falco

columbarius and Field Voles runs - more often seen than the animals themselves. Barn Owls Tyto alba. Morton Loch, February 2007. (Peter Norman) Breeding waders may include Curlews 3.4 Mammals (medium importance) Numenius arquata, Field Voles Microtus agrestis can occur in enormous Lapwings Vanellus numbers on acid grasslands, so long as they are vanellus, Snipe not heavily grazed. Populations tend to cycle wildly Hen Harriers nest in heathland but Gallinago gallinago over 3-5 years, which has a knock-on effect on the hunt over extensive upland grasslands. (Steven Round) and rarely Golden populations of predators. Plovers Pluvialis apricaria. Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix also use the 3.5 Flowering Plants (medium importance) habitat where it is part of a mosaic with heathland, Lowland sites can be species rich, but most of the scrub and woodland. GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND uplands consists of species-poor swards. Grasses such as bents Agrostis spp., fescues Festuca spp., and Mat Grass Nardus stricta commonly occur, and Purple Moor Grass Molinia caerulea is abundant in wetter areas. Typical herbs include Tormentil Potentilla erecta, Heath Bedstraw Galium saxatile,

146 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

• Lack of grazing leading to an invasion by coarse grasses and scrub. • Change in agricultural production to silage production. In the uplands the main causes of change are: • Inappropriate grazing regimes (sheep, cattle, deer), typically excessive grazing at the wrong time of year. • Inappropriate muirburning can lead to habitat deterioration and destroy the nests of ground nesting birds. Tormentil, perhaps the most characteristic flower of acid grasslands. (Peter Norman) • Inappropriate forestry planting can threaten species of high conservation concern. Harebell Campanula rotundifolia, hawkweeds • Abandonment and neglect leading to

Hieracium spp., milkworts Polygala spp., and ACID GRASSLANDS Eyebright Euphrasia spp. Plants such as Heath encroachment by bracken. Spotted Orchid Dactylorhiza maculata, Mountain • Liming, ploughing and re-seeding around the Pansy Viola lutea, and Green-ribbed Sedge form lower fringes of upland areas. interesting assemblages in Dumfries & Galloway. • Windfarms can result in direct loss of habitat through turbine bases and associated 3.6 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) infrastructure. Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara are associated with this habitat. 6. Strategic Actions 3.7 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) 6.1 Recent and current activity Mosses and liverworts occur in low density in most acid grasslands, but interesting species can still • RSPB has identified upland areas that are sometimes be found in otherwise species poor important for birds, particularly those that are swards. Rock exposures considerably add to the sensitive windfarm developments. interest. 6.2 Other recommended actions 4. Environmental, Economic & Social • From aerial photographs and previous survey Importance of Biodiversity work, identify acid grasslands in Dumfries & Galloway that are capable of restoration, either to • The main hillwalking routes in Dumfries & high quality grasslands or other high biodiversity Galloway pass principally through upland acid habitats. grasslands. • Ensure minimal reduction in habitat area due to • Upland acid grasslands have often resulted from other land uses such as forestry. a degradation of heathland. Some are capable of • Through restoration, aim to link of fragmented restoration to this habitat, including commercial remnants of acid grasslands with each other and grouse moors. Once afforested or otherwise with other habitats. converted, restoration of such moors is very much more difficult or even impossible. • Promote appropriate management of acid

grassland habitat through advice to landowners. HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND 5. Factors affecting the Habitat • Ensure that the progress made in implementation and other information relevant to the habitat In the lowlands the habitat is affected by: is disseminated in existing newsletters and • Agricultural intensification, particularly circulars. fertilisation, ploughing and drainage.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 147 148 GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS INLAND ROCK OUTCROPS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T but especiallyrocktype. Variation isrelatedtoaspect,altitude,soilconditions, Inland rockoutcropsformanear-naturalhabitat. 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. the greater changebecomes.Lightlevels drop that surrounds them,butthedeeper cavegoes, similar qualities andspeciestotheexterior rock Shallow cavesandcaveentrances possessmany Natural caves also carrieddowntheslope withthewater. drought israrelyaproblem.However, nutrientsare habitats but,astheyoccurinareasofhighrainfall, moving downslope. They aregenerallywell-drained be moremobile,butevenlargeblocksmayslowly large blocks.Screesmadeofsmallerstonestendto can rangefromsmallstonesthroughtobouldersand adjacent slopes. The rocksareusuallyangularbut Screes valuable. the bedrock.Base-richseepagesareespecially have accumulatednutrientsleacheddownthrough comparison tothesurroundinglandbecausethey and ledgesbuttendtoberelativelynutrientrichin seepages are extremelyvaluableforarangeofspecies. base-rich substratesthatareinaccessibletograzing, but rockledges,particularlythoseintheuplandswith species capableofsurvivalinahostileenvironment, Parsley FernonscreeslopesamongstHeather. MennockPass, Lead Partner:ScottishNaturalHeritage. Expand populationsofrareandscarcespeciesoninlandrockoutcrops. Priority Action (IRO1) Habitat Description occurwhereweatheredrockfallsonto notonlyaddmoisturetorockfaces provideuniqueenvironments. INLAND ROCKOUTCROPS Rock faces August 2007.(PeterNorman) supportonly Upland Slopes, QuarriesandMineral Workings. Upland SpringsandFlushes, CoastalCliffs and action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: or overlapwithinlandrockoutcrops,andthefollowing A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Linn include the Clints(SSSI/NNR).Othernotablerockoutcrops Craignaw, andClintsofDromoreSpouto’ Vegetation ofinlandrockoutcrops ischaracteristically 3.1 Flowering Plants(veryhighimportance) 3. several sitesinthe Granite outcropsincludethe 2.3 SiteExamples explored bypeople. few deepnaturalcavesthatarelargeenoughtobe the region. Also thegeologymeansthatthereare rock outcropsoccurintheuplandsnorthof Due tothenatureofgeology, mostnaturalinland 2.2 CurrentDistribution outcrops. There hasbeenlittlerecentchangetoinlandrock 2.1 RecentTrends 2. almost impossibletoachieve. assessment ofitsextent,bothnationallyandlocally, is and itsoftennearverticalstructure,anaccurate areas. Duetothefragmentednatureofthishabitat localised indistribution,predominantlyupland This habitatoccurswidelyacrossEurope,butisvery 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext specialised faunatoexist. much morestable,whichallowsasmallbuthighly sharply andtemperaturehumiditylevelsbecome Importance for Associated Species Dumfries &GallowayStatus contains importantsandstoneoutcrops. Cairnbaber (SSSI)GlenwhargenCraig MoffatHills Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Dungeon Hills (SSSI). Crichope , , and INLAND ROCK OUTCROPS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

discontinuous and sparse. Typical species of Loch Dungeon. Sandstone has good moisture holding upland rock ledges include Great Woodrush Luzula capacity and can therefore be rich in mosses and sylvatica, Wood Crane’s-bill Geranium sylvaticum, liverworts. Water Avens Geum rivale and Wild Angelica Angelica sylvestris. Juniper Juniperus communis, Aspen Mobile screes are poor for ferns and bryophytes, Populus tremula and Rowan Sorbus aucuparia may with Parsley Fern Cryptogramma crispa and Woolly- also become established on these ledges, and even fringe Moss Racomitrium languginosum being the in narrow cracks on vertical rock faces, though the most obvious species. However, more stable screes latter is generally poor for flowering plants. composed of larger stones, and especially block screes, support many species in moist nooks and Botanists have long recognised the outstanding crannies that are similar to those found in woodland. importance of upland rock ledges as a habitat for a diversity of nationally rare and scarce plants. 3.3 Birds (very high importance) They are of particular importance where water Several birds of prey use rock ledges as nesting from upland seepages trickles over rocks. The sites, especially Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos, following species are mostly confined to the Scottish Peregrines Falco peregrinus, Kestrels Falco Highlands, with only small populations in the Lake tinnunculus and occasionally Buzzards Buteo buteo

District, the Pennines, North Wales and at a few and Merlins Falco columbarius. Many of the same INLAND ROCK OUTCROPS locations in Dumfries & Galloway: Alpine Cinquefoil rock faces are used by nesting Ravens Corvus corax. Potentilla crantzii, Alpine Sawwort Saussurea alpina, an eyebright Euphrasia frigida, Black Alpine Ring Ouzels Turdus Sedge Carex atrata, Hair Sedge Carex capillaris, a torquatus have lady’s mantle Alchemilla wichurae, Purple Saxifrage declined rapidly in Saxifraga oppositifolia, Roseroot Sedum rosea, Dumfries & Galloway, Mountain Sorrel Oxyria digyna and Alpine Meadow- with just a few pairs rue Thalictrum alpinum. now breeding in the east of the region. Screes colonise with flowering plants only very slowly, They particularly if at all. However, plants of more stable screes include favour crags, gullies, Bell Heather Erica cinerea and Heath Bedstraw screes and boulder Galium saxatile. A few screes, such as in Scaur Glen, fields, especially have been colonised by Hazel Corylus avellana and those overhung with Peregrine. (Laurie Campbell) other scrub species. heather and scattered trees. Wheatears Oenanthe oenanthe are also typical of scree slopes. 3.2 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) Oblong Woodsia Woodsia ilvensis is one of Britain’s 3.4 Invertebrates (medium importance) rarest ferns, and was reduced almost to extinction In upland seepages where shallow trickles or films by Victorian collectors in the Moffat Hills. It has of water run over rock exposures, the rock surface subsequently been reintroduced, but remains highly will generally have an algal film growing on it, and threatened. Holly Fern Polystichum lonchitis also this forms the base of the food chain for a small, but occurs on base-rich rock ledges and crevices in the exceptionally specialised invertebrate assemblage. Moffat Hills, its only site in the south of Scotland. There may also be a scattering of other plants, especially mosses and liverworts that are inhabited Inland rock ledges and outcrops are also important by some of the invertebrates that constitute this for mosses and liverworts. The typical habitat of assemblage. Narrow-leaved Fringe-moss Racomitrium aquaticum GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND is vertical siliceous rock faces on exposed or shaded Red Carpet moths Xanthorhoe decoloraria are mountain crags or in gorges, whilst Upright Brown known from only a few sites in the region, but are Grimmia Schistidium strictum is a moss of exposed probably common wherever Lady’s-mantle, the larval rock faces on upland crags. It is scarce south of the foodplant, occurs on exposed rocks in moorland. Highlands. Toothed Pouncewort Drepanolejeunea Cave life is largely unexplored in the region but at hamatifolia is a liverwort with a very limited global least 35 species of UK invertebrate are known to be distribution, but has been recorded on crags near restricted to such habitats.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 149 MONTANE MOSS-HEATHS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.5 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium However, there is no evidence that historical importance) stone removal for drystone dyking has had a Although inland rock ledges and outcrops may major impact. appear inaccessible to reptiles, Adders Vipera berus • Some livestock and especially feral goats are and Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara do manage agile enough to reach inland rock outcrops to find their way onto these sites and south facing not accessible to other herbivores. They may ledges and outcrops form ideal basking sites. Holes therefore restrict the distribution of some plants in under rocks and screes, and narrow caves may also the Moffat and . be used as hibernacula. • Agricultural practices such as grazing, fertiliser 3.6 Mammals (medium importance) and herbicide treatment, and stock feeding can seriously damage the biodiversity of inland rock Much of the biodiversity of rock ledges and outcrops. Bracken spraying needs to be carefully outcrops results from the fact that they are free from planned to avoid damage to scree communities. mammalian grazers and predators. However, where caves occur, particularly deeper ones, they can be very important roosting and hibernation sites for bats. 6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity INLAND ROCK OUTCROPS 3.7 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) Inland rock outcrops support many lichens but, • An action programme is underway for the unlike flowering plants, they are not susceptible to restoration of Oblong Woodsia populations co- grazing. Therefore, the type of rock and its location/ ordinated by Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. aspect is more important than its accessibility to • Monitoring of Ravens, Peregrines and other grazing animals, crag nesting birds of prey is carried out by the and rare species Dumfries & Galloway Raptor Study Group. are not confined to Sites prone to disturbance receive special inaccessible ledges protection. and faces. Rocks on scree slopes • The National Trust for Scotland relays live may be subject to CCTV images of nesting Peregrines to its visitor frequent movement, centre at Grey Mare’s Tail. making lichen • The Mountaineering Council of Scotland has establishment more Cudbear lichen Ochrolechia tartarea. produced an information sheet about birds and (Peter Norman) difficult. climbing, which contains guidance on responsible climbing. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity 6.2 Other recommended actions

Inland rock outcrops add considerably to the • Examine grazing levels in key locations to landscape, often forming the most dramatic feature of assess whether modifications to rates and an area. timing and/or use of exclosures might lead to an expansion of rock ledge communities. 5. Factors affecting the Habitat • Negotiate reasonable access restrictions with climbing organisations on specific sites at specific • Rock climbing can accidentally disturb times of year where recreational disturbance is nesting birds or damage flora. Some birds, and known to be a problem.

GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND occasionally plants, are subject to deliberate • Ensure that all new cycle and footpaths avoid illegal disturbance and theft. disturbance to important areas for breeding • Stone removal for agricultural or recreational birds. purposes such as track/path building could damage biodiversity and geological features.

150 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership infrastructure developments andclimatechange. walking, mountain-biking,quad/trail bikes,potential pressure, withaddedrecent pressuresfromhill- have continuedtobeadversely affected bygrazing The smallremainingareasofmontanemoss-heath 2.1 RecentTrends 2. montane heathvegetation,probablylessthan100ha. known. Littleofthelandabove600msupports heath inDumfries&Gallowayisnotaccurately Cairngorm Mountains. The areaofmontanemoss- Scotland, mostlyintheHighlands,especially 600,000ha ofmontanehabitatintheUKare Greenland, RussiaandCanada.Over90%ofthe distribution, butoccurextensivelyinNorway, Iceland, Montane moss-heathshavearestrictedEuropean 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext rocks arealsocommononmontaneheaths. liverworts. Sparselyvegetated snow-bed lies forlongperiodssupportanevenmorespecialist snow cover. Hollowswheresnowaccumulatesand Woolly-fringe Mosscannottolerateprolongeddeep Woolly-Fringe Moss,arefrequent. and lichens.Carpetsof way tohabitatsdominatedbymosses,club-mosses strong winds.Intheseareasgrassandheathergive exceptionally cool,cloudysummersandfrequent at loweraltitudeswhereanoceanicclimateproduces much oftheuplandsScotland,thoughcanoccur This isaround600mabovesealevelthroughout approach mostcloselytothoseof Arctic regions. the naturalleveloftreegrowthwhereconditions Montane Moss-heathsarefoundinareasabove 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:ScottishNaturalHeritage/ForestryCommissionScotland/National Reduce grazingpressureonmontanemoss-heathswherethisisconsiderednecessary Priority Action (MMH1) Dumfries &GallowayStatus Habitat Description habitatofgrasses,sedges,mossesand MONTANE MOSS-HEATHS moss-heath, dominatedby stony areasand Upland SpringsandFlushes,InlandRockOutcrops. Acid Grasslands,UplandHeaths,MontaneScrub, action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: overlap withmontanemoss-heaths,andthefollowing A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.4 Associated Habitats Lamachan. Cairnsmore ofFleet(NNRandSSSI) Beninner, Moorbroch,CairnsmoreofCarsphairn, Coomb (SAC/SSSI).Otherexamplesoccuron are foundon moss-heath southoftheHighlands.Goodexamples the bestdevelopedandlargestareasofmontane The Merrick-KellsandMoffat rangesholdsomeof 2.3 SiteExamples further north. composition ofthespecialistcommunitiesfound modified, onlyrarelydoesitapproachthespecies snow accumulates,althoughthevegetationmaybe lying snow-bedsintheregion.Inareaswherewinter andGallowayranges. There arefewlong- hills ofDumfries&Galloway, mostlyintheMoffat, This habitatislimitedtosmallareasonthehighest 2.2 CurrentDistribution Woolly Fringe-moss Racomitriumlanuginosum.White Coomb, (SAC/SSSI)andWhite Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Trust forScotland. . July 2007.(Peter Norman)

151 GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS MONTANE MOSS-HEATHS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3. Importance for Associated Species 3.5 Birds (medium importance) Few birds breed in this hostile environment. Dotterels 3.1 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) Charadrius morinellus have occasionally been found Late-lying snow-beds and moss-heaths have breeding, but are easily overlooked and most likely characteristic bryophyte communities. Woolly-Fringe to be seen on their spring migration; Golden Plovers Moss Racomitrium languginosum is well adapted to Pluvialis apricaria also breed in such habitats though montane conditions, deriving all its nutrients from elsewhere in the UK are more common on lower rain and mist and able to withstand total drought moorlands; Snow Buntings Plectrophenax nivalis for up to a year. Other moss heath species, though are scarce non-breeding visitors. Perhaps only not restricted to this habitat, include Broom Fork the occasional Skylark Alauda arvensis, Meadow Moss Dicranum scoparium, Little Shaggy-moss Pipit Anthus pratensis and Wheatear Oenanthe Rhytidiadelphus loreus, Glittering Wood-moss oenanthe are regular breeders. Other birds, such as Hylocomium splendens, Red-stemmed Feather-moss Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos and Merlins Falco Pleurozium schreberi and Fir Clubmoss Huperzia columbarius visit montane heaths to hunt and swifts selago. The rare Splachnum vasculosum, recorded often feed low above montane heath. in the Galloway Hills in 1957 and 1985 is sometimes associated with such conditions. Liverworts include 3.6 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) Alpine Rustwort Marsupella alpina and Notched MONTANE MOSS-HEATHES MONTANE Remarkably, Common Frogs Rana temporaria on Rustwort M. emarginata. montane heaths are not uncommon. However, the habitat is generally of low importance for reptiles and 3.2 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) amphibians. A diverse range of lichens is associated with montane heath including Reindeer ‘Moss’ Cladonia arbuscula and Iceland ‘Moss’ Cetraria islandica. Fungi associated with snow-melt are known from the Alps and have recently been discovered in the Scottish Highlands and the Lake District. Some may also occur in Dumfries & Galloway.

3.3 Invertebrates (high importance) Despite the hostile environment, a number of invertebrates specialise in moss-heath habitats, although few are totally restricted to this habitat: A money spider Hilaira frigida is found beneath rocks on the summits of mountains, a nationally scarce fly Alliopsis atronitens is found in moss-heath and snow-bed communities in the Moffat Hills, and a Common Frog, (Paul McLaughlin) ground beetle Carabus glabratus is an exclusively montane species. The nationally rare Broad-bordered 3.7 Mammals (low importance) White Underwing moth Anarta melanopa, a day-flying Mountain Hares Lepus timidus occasionally feed on species recorded from moss-heath on the Moffat and montane heaths. Galloway Hills, is known from just one site south of Dumfries & Galloway. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity 3.4 Flowering Plants (medium importance) Monitoring of montane heath may provide a good GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND Though montane heaths have a low diversity of flowering plants a number of important species indicator of climate change. occur. Species present include Wavy Hair-grass Deschampsia flexuosa Stiff Sedge Carex bigelowii, Dwarf Willow Salix herbacea, Heath Bedstraw Galium saxatile and Mountain Crowberry Empetrum nigrum subsp. hermaphroditum.

152 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

5. Factors affecting the Habitat 6.2 Other recommended actions • Carry out surveys to identify areas of near Poor soils and extreme climate render montane natural montane communities. heath unsuitable for forestry or intensive agriculture. However, the shallow soils, the restricted growing • Protect from inappropriate development. season, and the fragmented distribution render • Discourage disturbance and damage from montane areas especially vulnerable to: inappropriate forms and levels of use, including • Overgrazing by sheep, goats and deer which vehicles and recreational pressure. has caused the loss of much montane heath by • Ensure that Galloway Military Training Area conversion to grazing-tolerant grasses. Heavy excludes vulnerable zones and times. grazing may also result in nutrient enrichment and physical uprooting of plants. • Ensure that organised events (e.g. mountain marathon, orienteering etc.) consult with • Increasing recreational pressure from walkers relevant organisations to minimise damage to and mountain bikes causing damage to the fragile vulnerable zones. vegetation and soils. • Consider the need for studies to investigate • Quad bikes, even a single journey, can cause the effects of acid deposition on montane

significant damage. MOSS-HEATHES MONTANE communities. • Fires spreading from the sub-montane zone causing destruction of soils and vegetation. • The long-term effects of pollution such as acidification and global warming may result in the loss of species that will be unable to recolonise. • Developments such as radio masts and wind farms have the potential to cause substantial damage. • Climate change has the potential to totally wipe out this habitat in Dumfries & Galloway; a process that may already be underway.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • Monitoring of the impact of hill-walking and grazing on montane heath at White Coomb by the National Trust for Scotland. • A PhD study entitled ‘Assessing the potential for recovery of degraded montane heaths” was begun in 2006, funded by SNH and supervised by Aberdeen University, SNH, Macaulay Land Use Research Institute and the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology. It will assess the current condition

of UK montane heath and whether a decrease in HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND grazing will allow successful recovery of degraded heaths. Fir Clubmoss. White Coomb, Moffat Hills, May 2007. (Peter Norman)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 153 154 GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS UPLAND HEATHS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T grassland, scrub,woodland androckhabitats. is oftenpartofamosaic habitatswithblanketbog, areas withover100cmofprecipitation ayearandit in northernScotland.Heathland isusuallyfoundin above sealevel,thoughdescending tonearsealevel For muchofBritainthisisbetween300mand600m above theupperedgeofenclosedagriculturalland. Upland heathsarefoundbelowthemontanezonebut vegetation ondeeppeatisgenerallyregardedasbog. podsols orshallowpeat(lessthat0.5mdeep).Heath of dwarfshrubsonnutrientpoormineralsoils,peaty Upland heathsarecharacterisedbythepresence 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:LangholmMoorlandDemonstrationProject/RegionalProposal Target: Restore3000haby2017. Restore anextensiveareaofuplandheathforbiodiversity. Priority Action (UH1) Habitat Description Managed heathermosaic.MennockPass, August 2007. UPLAND HEATHS (Peter Norman) heath intheUKsouthofHighlands. This includesthemostextensiveareaofuplandwet upland heathlandisfoundinDumfries&Galloway. 50% heatherdominance. An estimated100,000haof million hectaresofitisestimatedtohavelessthan This islandwithatleast25%heathercover, but1.6 heath habitatintheUK,2,514,000haofitScotland. There isapproximately3.7millionhectaresofupland the BritishIslesandwesternseaboardofEurope. conservation significanceandarelargelyconfinedto Upland dwarf-shrubheathshaveinternational 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext including and PurpleMoorGrass,withacarpetofmosses species areCross-leavedHeath,Heather, Deer Grass where theclimateisdamper. Heretypicalplant are morecommonlyfoundinthenorthandwest Blaeberry, CrowberryandBellHeather. Wet heaths neutral soils. Typical shrubspeciesincludeHeather, regime). Dryheathsoccuronfreelydrainingacidto practices (includinggrazingpressureandburning aspect, slope,maritimeinfluencesandmanagement also influencedbyfactorssuchasgeology, altitude, upland heathsisbroadlylinkedtoclimate,but The variationinthevegetationcommunitiesof on theLowtherHills Good examples ofuplandheatharetobe found 2.3 SiteExamples the eastofregion. best qualityandmostextensive areasarelocatedin but duetogeology, climateandland-use history the Heathland isfoundthroughouttheSouthernUplands, 2.2 CurrentDistribution cover. be replacedwithgrassland,duetolossofheather years, areasofuplandheathlandhavecontinuedto Although losestoforestryhavedeclinedinrecent 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Sphagnum species. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership (SPA/SSSI), withextensive Assessment Committee. UPLAND HEATHS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

areas also on the Langholm Hills (SPA/SSSI). Most bryophytes of upland heaths are common Further west, the heaths tend to be wetter and more species, but in the north west Highlands several fragmented, generally with less Heather cover. species of liverwort of restricted world distribution Merrick-Kells Hills (SAC/SSSI) includes many sites, form luxuriant mats under the heather canopy. A few such as on Corserine, but the most extensive upland of these have been recorded in Dumfries & Galloway, heath in west is on Glen App and Galloway Moors on Cairnsmore of Fleet and other sites. They include (SPA/SSSI). Smaller areas are found at many other Lesser Whipwort Bazzania tricrenata and Purple locations, such as Cairnsmore of Fleet (SSSI/NNR), Spoonwort Pleurozia purpurea. Laughenghie and Airie Hills (SSSI), Artfield Fell, Criffel and Glenquicken Moor.

2.4 Associated Habitats A number of habitats occur in close association and/or overlap with upland heaths, and the following action plans may also contain relevant information: Acid

Grasslands, Blanket Bogs, Inland Rock Outcrops. UPLAND HEATHS

3. Importance for Associated Species

3.1 Birds (very high importance) Upland heaths are prime habitats for a suite of breeding birds including Red Grouse Lagopus lagopus, Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix, Golden Plovers Pluvialis apricaria, Dunlins Calidris alpina, Snipe Gallinago gallinago, Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus, Merlins Falco columbarius, Wheatears Oenanthe oenenthe, Ring Ouzels Turdus torquatus and Twites Northern Eggar Moths, abundant over upland heaths in some Carduelis flavirostris. Most of these have declined years. Grey Mare's Tail, July 1993. (Peter Norman) substantially over the last 100 years, and some, such as Dunlins and Ring Ouzels, are now very rare upland 3.3 Invertebrates (high importance) heathland breeding species. Wide-ranging species such as Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos hunt over Many invertebrates are dependent on the three- upland heaths. dimensional structure of upland shrubs and other vegetation. Insects such as craneflies Tipulidae 3.2 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) form a major part of the diet of the chicks of many moorland birds, including the Red grouse. The larvae The moss and liverwort community of upland heaths of a large number of moths feed on Heather and is strongly influenced by the stage of the heather. Blaeberry, including Emperor Moth Saturnia pavonia Many species are abundant during the pioneer phase and Northern Eggar Lasiocampa quercus. Sword- of heather growth. For example, Compact Bog-moss grass Xylena exsoleta is also known from moorland, Sphagnum compactum, a moss of wet heaths, is a as well as open woodland, though its larval foodplant poor competitor and usually found in open vegetation is not known. with bare ground. Some mosses have been shown to aid heather regeneration, but they decline as the A number of uncommon species have been recorded heather matures, only returning as the heather begins from heaths in the region, such as the nationally to degenerate and gaps open in the canopy. However, scarce spider Clubiona norvegica on wet moorlands;

at this stage they have to compete with flowering HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND a nationally scarce ground beetle Carabus nitens on plants. Light burning can be beneficial for bryophytes, wet upland heaths with Sphagnum; and a rare bee allowing the pioneer phase to begin again, but Nomada roberjeotiana at its only Scottish sites. intensive burning can be very damaging, wiping out some species.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 155 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.4 Flowering Plants (high importance) 4. Environmental, Economic & Social In addition to Heather Calluna vulgaris, upland heaths Importance of Biodiversity in Dumfries & Galloway are characterised by plants such as Crowberry Empetrum nigrum, Blaeberry • Most upland heaths are managed as extensive Vaccinium myrtillus, Mat Grass Nardus stricta, Red grazing for livestock, and/or as grouse moors that Fescue Festuca rubra and Sheep’s Fescue Festuca are dependent on Heather and its associated ovina. Where they are derived from former woodland, plants and invertebrates. the Heather may provide a refuge for many of the • Extensive upland heaths dominate the associated species of the original woodland ground landscapes where they occur, particularly during layer. flowering in late summer and autumn. Less common upland heath species in Dumfries & • Though there is a historic tradition of collecting Galloway include Cloudberry Rubus chamaemorus moorland berries, this is currently limited to a few and Lesser Twayblade orchid Listera cordata growing parts of the Highlands. In Finland, an estimated amongst or beneath Heather and Blaeberry on wet 67% of the population pick these resources;

UPLAND HEATHS heaths, and Bearberry Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, a in Sweden it is the basis of a significant rural low shrub found on dry heaths over gravely or rocky business; whilst in Norway the health authorities ground. Dwarf Cornel Cornus suecica, occurs in are so convinced of the benefits that they have Scotland south of the Highlands in only in a few small produced maps of good berry-picking areas. areas of the Moffat Hills. 5. Factors affecting the Habitat 3.5 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) Some areas of upland heathland are very rich in • Overgrazing of sheep and Red Deer, especially lichen communities, including a covering of Cladonia on newly burnt areas, is incompatible with species. maintaining upland heather cover and diversity. • Heather Beetles may be increasing, along with 3.6 Reptiles and Amphibians (high importance) the frequency of beetle outbreaks. It is believed Adders Vipera berus are the typical upland heathland that heather beetle is more likely to kill old reptile, but Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara and heather or heather that has been stressed by amphibians such as Common Frogs Rana temporaria drought, heavy grazing, trampling etc. also occur. • Poorly managed muirburn causing simplification 3.7 Mammals (high importance) of vegetation structure, loss of lower plant assemblages and erosion of peat. Mountain Hares Lepus timidus are charcteristic members of the upland heath community, but there • Conversion to more intensive forms of is evidence of local declines. Other mammals, such agriculture, through drainage of wet heath and as Red Deer Cervus elaphus, also make use of this moorland ‘gripping’, ploughing, reseeding, liming habitat. and fertilisation, particularly at lower elevations. • Encroachment of bracken reduces the biodiversity value of the habitat. • Replacement of heathland with forestry has taken place in the past, but is now controlled by national forestry policy. • The development of wind farms and associated

GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND access tracks is an increasing threat. • Hillwalkers and mountain bikes can cause localised erosion. • Acidification from atmospheric deposition may

Mountain Hare in winter. (Laurie Campbell) lead to habitat degradation.

156 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

• Heath Star Moss Campylopus introflexus, an • Encourage studies to investigate the effects of introduced species from the southern hemisphere acid deposition. first discovered in Britain in 1941, has spread • Minimise disturbance from activities such as rapidly over heathland throughout the country and off-road cycling or use of motor bikes or 4-wheel threatens native mosses and liverworts. drive vehicles, especially at fragile higher altitude sites. A small amount of localised ground 6. Strategic Actions disturbance is beneficial to some species.

6.1 Recent and current activity • Raise public awareness of upland heathland through guided walks, talks, publications, • The Linking the Ling Project, led by the press releases, and environmental education Heather Trust has worked with landowners on opportunities. demonstration sites in Nithsdale, and uses these to promote good management practice. • Raise landowner awareness of the importance of upland heathland. • The Black Grouse Recovery Project, led

by RSPB, has heathland restoration and UPLAND HEATHS enhancement as an important prescription for key Black Grouse leks. Work undertaken in both Galloway and Nithsdale on upland heaths. • SNH’s Moorland Management Scheme provided funding for the management of designated sites. This is now incorporated into the Scottish Rural Development Programme. • The Langholm Moor Demonstration Project, an ambitious and innovative 10-year moorland restoration project that aims to integrate grouse, raptors, biodiversity and other land use interests was begun in 2007. It is supported by The Buccleuch Group, SNH, The Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust, RSPB and Natural England.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Restore, extend and enhance upland heaths as part of upland mosaics and transitions of semi-natural and natural habitats appropriate to soils and climate. An upland heathland mosaic with grassland, scrub, flower-rich areas, boggy pools, Sphagnum lawns, flushes, wet peat and seepages will benefit a wide range of invertebrates and birds. Maintain as much Heather provides nectar for many bees, hover-flies and in this case structural diversity as possible. a robber-fly. Wanlockhead, August 2007. (Peter Norman) • Identify opportunities for restoration in Forest Design Plans and restocking proposals. GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND HABITATS GRASSLAND & HEATHLAND • Encourage measures that reverse habitat fragmentation. • Use demonstration sites to provide advice on best management and restoration practices for upland heaths. Promote advice on good muirburn practices.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 157 158 NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS documentary evidence datingthisfarback israrely can betracedbacktoatleast 1600.InScotland, England, woodsareconsidered tobeancientifthey likely tosupportspecialised woodlandspecies.In wooded formanycenturies, andarethereforemost woods growonsitesthathave beencontinuously are themostimportanttypeofnativewood. These From abiodiversityperspective, standing trees. have demonstratedduringtheirhistory, withoutany is possibleforwoodstosurvivetemporarily, asmany are asmuchapartofwoodlandthetrees,andit trees. The soils,bacteria,fungi,plantsandanimals native woodsaremuchmorethansimplygroupsof have not been plantedby man. However, semi-natural from naturalregenerationorvegetativeregrowth;they Semi-natural woods native Britishwildlifeoverthelast10,000years. not considerednativeastheyhaveevolvedwith naturally inBritainpriortothelasticeage,theyare such asNorwaySpruceandSilverFiroccurred and highlydependentonthishabitat. Although trees many centuries,sometimesbecominghighlyadapted associated withthemhasevolvedover greatest valueforbiodiversitybecausethewildlife species oftreesandshrubs. These woodsareof those thatarestillcomposedpredominantlyofnative have beenmodifiedbypeople,nativewoodsare the influenceofman. AlthoughallwoodsintheUK the originalnaturalwoodlandcoverofanareabefore Native tree 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Plans. conjunction withtheindividualHabitat Action to allwoodlandtypes,andshouldbereadin of theslope.Thefollowinginformationapplies birches onthehighergroundand Ash atthebase especially onslopingground,butoftenwith other. Oaksarecommoninmanylocal woods, in closeproximityandintergradewitheach trees andstandsofallwoodlandtypescanoccur woods arecomposedofmixedbroadleaved birch woods,andscrubwoods.Inreality, most & Galloway:wetwoods,oak Ash woods, the maintypesofnativewoodlandinDumfries There areseparateHabitat Action Plansforall Habitat Description andshrubspeciesarethosethatformed arethosethathavegrownup ancient woods NATIVE WOODS

Broadleaved andMixedPlantations Action Plan). of itisidentifiedonlyas‘Mixed Broadleaves’.(See most ofthisisunlikelytobesemi-natural,and60% approximately 2,500haofbroadleavedwoodland,but Forestry CommissionScotlandownsandmanages 2% oftheregion)which5,000haissemi-natural. about 12,000haofbroadleavedwoodland(lessthan is notaccuratelyknown. There isthoughttobe of semi-naturalnativewoodsinDumfries&Galloway the landcoverofScotland. The fullextentandquality Native woodscurrentlyaccountforonlyaround2%of 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext common inmostmodernwoods. though ahistoryofremovalmeansthatitisnot important naturalcomponentofallnativewoods, Decaying wood wood. invertebrates thatarerareinthemainpartof are oftenmorealkalineandcontainplants natural pondsinBritain;andground-water seepages left byupturnedrootplatesaresomeofthemost diversity; woodlandponds and makeavitalcontributiontotheirecological rock outcropsareintegralpartsofthesewoods valuable forbiodiversity:Openareasassociatedwith habitats, whichalthoughsmallinextent,areoften Within nativewoods,thereareanumberofsub- understorey isfrequentlypoorlyrepresented. layer isoftenwelldevelopedbutthefieldand developed. Inuplandwoods,forexample,theground woods oneormoreofthelayersmaynotbewell and acanopyoftreeboughsleaves.Insome growing woodyshrubssuchasHazelandHawthorn; and ferns;ashrublayerorunderstoreyoflow mosses andotherplants;afieldlayerofwildflowers Most woodsconsistofagroundlayerleaflitter, research. through localecological,archaeologicalandhistorical the bestwayofassessingageawoodis (c1860), areconsideredtobeancient.However, (1747-1755) andtheFirstseriesofOrdnanceSurvey shown onGeneralRoy’s MilitarySurveyofScotland available, soallpresentdaywoodsthatwerealso , bothstandingandfallen,isan Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership createdinthehollows NATIVE WOODS

2. Dumfries & Galloway Status aemula, found in Carstramon Wood. There is also a wide range of mosses and liverworts in the region’s 2.1 Recent Trends native woods. Since the Forestry Commission’s review of policy for broadleaves in 1985, the conservation and 3.3 Flowering Plants (very high importance) management of native woods has become more The field layer of native woods typically flowers in important. In recent years approximately 200ha of spring, before the canopy comes into full leaf and new broadleaf planting has taken place annually restricts light levels. Ungrazed and lightly grazed together with 150ha of restocking, mainly as broadleaf native woods are particularly notable for Bluebells element within commercial woodlands. Hyacinthoides non-scripta, which occur in a profusion seldom encountered beyond the British Isles. Wood 2.2 Current Distribution Anemone Anemone nemorosa, Dog’s Mercury Dumfries & Galloway’s native woods are concentrated Mercurialis perennis and Wild Garlic Allium ursinum in the main river valleys, especially the Cree, Fleet, can also grow in profusion depending on local Dee/Ken and . conditions. Though such species are widespread and common, they are an important component of native 3. Importance for Associated Species woods and require conservation. A few less common species also occur, including Early Dog Violet Viola 3.1 Fungi and Lichens (very high importance) reichenbachiana at some of its few Scottish localities. Most trees are Distinctive flush vegetation dominates woodland dependent on seepages with Opposite-leaved Golden Saxifrage mycorrhizal Chrysosplenium oppositifolium typical in Dumfries & associations with Galloway. The understorey is not noted for a high fungi, so it is no diversity of flowering plants, but a few grow on the surprise that fungi trees themselves, including Atlantic Ivy Hedera helix attain their greatest subsp. hibernica, native in Scotland only in the south diversity in woodland. west. They also play an essential role in the 3.4 Invertebrates (very high importance) decomposition of plant litter and in nutrient Native, especially ancient, woods have the richest recycling. Though invertebrate fauna of any habitat in Dumfries & fungi are widely Galloway. Due to the long history of woodland distributed in all native exploitation many species have extremely restricted Chanterelle Cantharellus cibarius, woods, some species one of the best known woodland distributions and some are very rare indeed. that are restricted to mushrooms. Holy Linn, particular types. A September 2006. Invertebrate species that rely on decaying wood are (Peter Norman) number of rare fungi now some of the most threatened in Britain. More have been recorded in the native woods of Dumfries than 700 species of flies and a similar number of & Galloway, including Rimbachia bryophila recorded beetles are dependant to some extent on deadwood on moss in Carstramon Wood in 1993. However, few in the UK. For example, in Dumfries & Galloway the mycological surveys have been undertaken and a hoverfly Criorhina floccosa is found in wet rotting number of other species probably await discovery. Wych Elm, Sycamore and Beech; the larvae of a nationally scarce soldier beetle Malthodes guttifer 3.2 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) develops in decaying wood; fungal and epiphytic growth on both sound and decaying timber provides WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE Ferns are often abundant in native woods, notably a habitat for invertebrates such as fungus gnats; and Hard Fern Blechnum spicant, Male Fern Dryopteris fallen dead wood on the ground provides shelter filix-mas Lady Fern Athyrium filix-femina and and overwintering sites for adult ground beetles Common Polypody Polypodium vulgare. Wilson’s and woodlice, as well as essential habitat for the Filmy Fern Hymenophyllum wilsonii is rare, restricted developing larvae of saproxylic invertebrates such as to shaded woodland, often in ravines/cleughs, a many rove and longhorn beetles. Fallen dead wood similar habitat to Hay-scented Buckler fern Dryopteris

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 159 on groundwater seepages and in streams supports other habitats, whilst Leisler’s Bat Nyctalus leisleri, a varied fauna of flies, including the nationally rare found in woods in the Cree valley, is virtually absent Lipsothrix errans cranefly. from the rest of Scotland. The essential habitat requirement appears to be holes and crevices for Woodland seepages are extremely important for roosting, best created by the retention of standing a very large number of decaying wood. specialist invertebrates. Although of only moderate 3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium pH, the water in seepages is importance) sufficiently rich in calcium to A number of reptiles and amphibians are found within support diverse communities native woods, particularly in woods with extensive of molluscs, found amongst open spaces. Amphibians breed in woodland ponds the vegetation and in that are at least partly unshaded. saturated leaf litter. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social 3.5 Birds (very high Importance of Biodiversity importance) Buzzard (Paul McLaughlin) Lowland native woods • Landscapes are significantly enhanced by support possibly a greater diversity of bird species native woods, which soften open hillsides and than any other habitat, although few, if any, are plantations. restricted to this habitat. Typical species include Chiffchaffs Phylloscopus collybita, Sparrowhawks • Native woods are part of our cultural heritage and Accipiter nisus, Buzzards Buteo buteo, Tawny Owls have a long association with landscapes. This is Strix aluco and Green Woodpeckers Picus viridis. reflected in many local place names in Gaelic, Scots, Welsh as well as English, and in songs 3.6 Mammals (very high importance) and paintings. Most British mammals evolved in wooded habitats, • Archaeological relics dating back to prehistoric so it is no surprise to find that woodland remains very times, and sometimes more recent features such important for them. Badgers Meles meles, Roe Deer as deserted shielings or ruined croft houses are Capreolus capreolus, Fallow Deer Dama dama and often found within native woods. Those woods even Red Deer with a coppice history have been part of the local Cervus elaphus landscape for centuries. They and the woodbanks are essentially which define them will be amongst the oldest woodland historical monuments in some areas. animals, • A number of native woods are managed as nature although they reserves and/or have footpaths and interpretation, are now also providing a valuable recreation and tourism found in more resource. open habitats. Red Squirrels • Upland woods can often provide valuable Sciurus vulgaris have Fallow Deer (Paul McLaughlin) shelter for sheep and cattle and can give good moved into some grazing. However, grazing pressure needs to be conifer plantations, but are still found in native woods. carefully managed to avoid risking the survival or In the long-term, they are likely to be displaced from ecological value of the woods. this habitat by Grey Squirrels. Unless an effective NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE control measure can be found for the greys, native 5. Factors affecting the Habitat woods cannot be managed to retain their Red Squirrel populations. • The native woods of Dumfries & Galloway are generally long and narrow, concentrated All bats feed in and around trees. Some, such as in the river valleys and in strips at the coast. the Brown Long-eared Bat Plecotus auritis are so This produces a greater edge effect than the dependent on woodland that they are rarely found in national average.

160 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership • Overgrazing by sheep, deer and rabbits leading • A large mixed upland native wood is being to change in the woodland structure, ground flora created by Borders Forest Trust at Carrifran in impoverishment and difficulties for regeneration. the Moffat Hills. • Air pollution affects lichen and bryophyte • Conservation organisations such as RSPB and communities, though this is localised in Dumfries Scottish Wildlife Trust own and manage a & Galloway. number of native woods. RSPB have begun to create 371ha of new native wood at Barclye, • Invasive species such as Rhododendron, Cherry adjacent to Wood of Cree. Laurel, Snowberry, Sycamore, Beech and other species leads to changes in the composition of • Cree Valley Community Woodlands Trust the woods and the ground layer and threatens has been working since 1996 to restore and link woodland regeneration. fragments of native woodland in the Cree valley. • Management of native woods for game can • The South West Community Woods are be compatible with high biodiversity, but the strongly orientated to native trees and woods. strawing of rides, use of release pens and introduction of exotic trees and shrubs can 6.2 Other recommended actions all be damaging. The higher the number of pheasants in a wood, the greater is the chance of • Expand native woods through natural damage. regeneration wherever possible. • Ditching and other drainage measures, including • Where natural regeneration is not feasible, the loss or dredging of woodland ponds reduces maintain genetic integrity by careful selection of biodiversity value. planting stock. • Nutrient enrichment leading to changes in soils • Maintain existing native tree species and ground flora may occur from spray drift or composition, including birches, willows and runoff from adjacent agricultural land. shrubs such as Hawthorn. • In some cases, unsympathetic forest • Maintain a high structural diversity with trees management, where felling rates, choice of of different ages and sizes, to ensure that there broadleaf species planted, or methods of working will be a continuity of habitat availability. A variety do not yet reflect published guidelines. of aspects and degrees of exposure and shading should also be retained to provide a range of • Clearance of dead wood, an essential microclimates. component of woodland ecosystems, on the grounds of safety or neatness reduces • Implement local integrated strategies for biodiversity value. management of deer and feral goats. • Abandonment of practices such as coppicing • Ensure that proposals for new non-native may in some areas lead to a reduction in plantations avoid native woodland and areas structural diversity within the woods. that could potentially be used to link native woods. 6. Strategic Actions • Survey the native woodland resource in Dumfries & Galloway using standard methods. 6.1 Recent and current activity Focus on neglected, un-recorded, moribund and small woodlands (less than 2ha). Identify sites • Forestry Commission Scotland is involved where restoration is possible. with many native woodland projects, including

managing grazing to assist natural regeneration, • Research the possibilities for reviving the WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE removal of Rhododendron and the restoration of economic value of producing timber from native plantations on ancient woodland sites (PAWS). woodlands, with particular attention to local markets. • Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) carries out monitoring of designated woods and works with • Raise awareness of the importance of native their owners on subsequent management. woods, through guided walks, open days, illustrated talks and publicity.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 161 162 NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE WET WOODS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T many ofthetrees areshort-livedspecies. carr. Deadwood composed primarilyofwillows or Alder isoftentermed those onmiresasbogwoods, whilstwoodland to riversandlochsarereferred toasriparianwoods, relatively stable.Wet woodsimmediatelyadjacent and drierwoodland,butin some locationsitcanbe successional stagebetweenopenwetlandareas Wet woodlandoftenrepresentsatransient peaty tomineralsoils. a widerangeofsubstratesfromacidtobase-rich,and be seasonallyfloodedorconstantlywet,andoccur on species suchaswillows,birchesand Alder. They may wooded areaswhendampgroundiscolonisedby on floodplainsandassmallpatcheswithinlarger Native wetwoodsarefoundbesideriversandlochs, 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics Woods Also seegeneralinformationonalltypesofNative 1. Lead Partner:ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: Expandby440ha2012. Expand nativewetwoods. Priority Action (NWW2) Lead partner:ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: Restore190haby2012. habitats ofhighbiodiversityvalue. Restore nativewetwoodsonforestedsites,givingprioritytositesthatconnectwetlandorwoodland Priority Action (NWW1) Habitat Description Dense birchesandwillowsatLochaberLoch. August 2007. canbefrequent inallofthese,as NATIVE WETWOODS (Peter Norman) important areaforthishabitat. but Dumfries&Gallowayisprobablythenextmost 35,000ha. MostofthisoccursintheHighlands, woodland resourceoftheUK,totallingapproximately Scotland isestimatedtohavearoundhalfofthewet 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext shade oftenresultsinlittlevegetation. in andaroundthewatercourse,althoughlevelof exceptionally diversefaunainthemudanddetritus woods. These areexploitedbyanimportantand of branchingrunnelsor woodland floorisoftenabundant.Extensivenetworks other habitats,anddecayingorganiclitter Floods alsowashinlargequantitiesofmaterialfrom may extendsomewayupthetrunksoftrees. be periodicallyenrichedwithnutrientfromsilt. This In seasonallyfloodedwoods,the 2ha. fragmented. Few, ifany, sitesextendtomorethan though notexclusivelyinthe lowlands,theyarehighly common acrossDumfries & Galloway, particularly, Though nativewetwoodsarewidespreadandfairly 2.2 CurrentDistribution they threatenmorevaluablewetlandhabitats. woods hasbeenclearanceofspreadingtreeswhere the onlysignificantmanagementofcarrandbog along rivers,particularlybyfisheriesbodies.However, two decades,withextensiveplantingofripariantrees Habitat losshasbeenpartiallyreversedinthelast 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership ditchesoccurinmanywet flood zone onthe may NATIVE WET WOODS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.3 Site Examples in Dumfries & Galloway. The nationally scarce Most lowland lochs in Dumfries & Galloway have at Spruce’s Bristle-moss Orthotrichum sprucei, a least a narrow fringe of wet native woodland, such as riverside epiphyte of Alder, Ash, and willows where at Castle Loch (SPA/SSSI/LNR). Other native wet occasionally inundated, has been recorded beside woods occur in river floodplains such as at Wood Cargen Water, near Dumfries. Flood moss Myrinia of Cree, and on the sites of silted-up lochs, such as pulvinata, a rare species in Scotland, is known only Ladypark Scottish Wildlife Trust reserve in Dumfries, from Kenmure Holms. Dowalton (SSSI) in the Machars and Barscraigh (LWS) in Dalbeattie Forest. Royal Fern Osmunda regalis, found in fen-carr woodland, declined heavily as a result of habitat loss 2.4 Associated Habitats and collecting in Victorian times. Though it is now recovering, it remains uncommon. A number of habitats occur in close association and/ or overlap with native wet woods, and the following 3.2 Invertebrates (very high importance) action plans may also contain relevant information: River Headwaters, Lowland Rivers and Backwaters, The number of invertebrates associated with Alder, Lowland Burns and Ditches, Eutrophic Lochs, birches and willows is very large, and wet woods Mesotrophic Lochs, Fens, Marshes, Raised Bogs, support many species which are rare in Britain. A snail WET WOODS NATIVE Native Woods, Scrub Woods. Leiostyla anglica associated with this habitat type is virtually endemic, being otherwise known only from 3. Importance for Associated Species a tiny area of western France. The association of dead wood with water provides specialised habitats 3.1 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) not found in dry woodland types. A large number of craneflies specialise in this habitat, including the Native wet woods have a well-developed moss and scarce Lipsothrix errans, the larvae of which probably liverwort flora. Typical ground bryophytes include live in submerged rotting wood. Standing dead wood Feather Moss Eurhynchium praelongum and Forest is also valuable for the larvae of species such as Star Moss Mnium Lunar Hornet Clearwing moths Sesia bembeciformis hornum. Blunt- that live within willow trunks. leaved Bog-moss Sphagnum palustre, Many invertebrates are associated with fungi, and wet Girgensohn’s Bog- woods are probably the most important single habitat moss Sphagnum for a range of fungus-feeding flies. Larvae of the girgensohnii and hoverfly Helophilus hybridus are often associated with Fringed Bog-moss wet, decaying organic litter, as are soldier beetles Sphagnum fimbriatum Malthodes dispar. A nationally scarce spider Maro are shade-tolerant sublestus, has also been recorded in fens and wet species found woods in . amongst birches and willows. On the trees Ditches and their margins support a special themselves, there fauna. Strongly shaded ditches with choked with are many epiphytic Blunt-leaved Bog-moss Sphagnum saturated organic mud provide the special habitat but species on willow. palustre. Killiegowan Wood, biodiversity is richest where some light penetrates to Alder is relatively Gatehouse of Fleet, February 2007. allow herb or aquatic plants to grow. Even quite small species poor, though (Peter Norman) wet seepages may support important invertebrates. a few notable species NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE have been recorded in other parts of Britain. 3.3 Fungi and Lichens (very high importance) In the flood zone there are several typical species Willow Gloves Hypocreopsis lichenoides is a small on exposed roots and tree bases enriched with silt but distinctive fungus that is no longer known in the from flooding, including Many-fruited Leskea Leskea wild in Britain, although herbarium collections remain. polycarpa, Kneiff’s Feather-moss Leptodictyon It grows on willow branches and was recorded near riparium and Blunt Feather-moss Homalia Dalry and Moniaive in the late 19th century. More trichomanoides. None are particularly common typical fungi include Blushing Bracket Daedaleopsis

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 163 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

confragosa and Alder Bracket Inonotus radiatus. 3.7 Flowering Plants (medium importance) Lichen diversity is greatest on old trees rather Native wet woods frequently contain species that are than the relatively young ones that comprise characteristic of the majority of wet woods. However, important fens and marshes. species do occur. Despite its name, Scotland is the These include European stronghold for Norwegian Specklebelly Marsh Marigold Pseudocyphellaria norvegica. It grows on moss- Caltha palustris, covered trees in woods and willow carr, and has been Wild Angelica found at a few sites in Galloway. Angelica sylvestris and Meadowsweet 3.4 Fishes (high importance) Filipendula ulmaria. Well managed riparian woodlands provide essential A number of scarce habitat in the life-cycle of various fish, especially Trout species also occur Salmo trutta. They assist in reducing the siltation of in Dumfries & spawning grounds, supply invertebrate and leaf-litter Galloway, including food, and provide shade and shelter. Elongated Sedge

NATIVE WET WOODS NATIVE Carex elongata, a 3.5 Mammals (high importance) nationally scarce Bird Cherry flowers. Caldons species found at Wood, May 2006. (Peter Norman) The combination of woodland and wetland provides a number of sites, ideal conditions for bats, supporting large quantities of particularly favouring Alder woods; and Sawwort invertebrate food. Trees also provide roost sites and Serratula tinctoria found in a range of wet habitats, shelter for bats foraging over water. All bat species including wet woods in the Dee and Urr valleys. make use of such conditions. Otter Lutra lutra dens, or holts, are frequently located in flood debris or in 3.8 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium mature bankside trees with root cavities such as importance) oaks and Ash, although non native species such as Sycamores are also used. Several of the commoner amphibians – Palmate Newts Lissotriton helvetica, Common Toads Bufo 3.6 Birds (medium importance) bufo, and Common Frogs Rana temporaria breed and overwinter in wet woodland, so long as the canopy A high density of breeding birds occurs in wet woods. is not so dense as to keep waterbodies in constant Mostly these are common woodland species including shade. Long-tailed Tits Aegithalos caudatus, Redpolls Carduelis cabaret and Willow Warblers Phylloscopus trochilus, the latter species now possibly declining 4. Environmental, Economic & Social nationally. Willow Tits Poecile montanus are certainly Importance of Biodiversity in rapid UK decline and Dumfries & Galloway is now their Scottish stronghold. They excavate new nest • Despite their relatively limited extent, native wet holes each year, so require dead wood and partially woods make a significant contribution to the decayed trees. Woodcocks Scolopax rusticola require landscape of the region. This is particularly the soft ground to probe for invertebrates, and are case in some farmland and upland areas where therefore often found in wet woods. they may constitute the majority or even the only native trees in the landscape. • Native wet woods are of fundamental importance

NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE to the health and productivity of freshwater ecosystems, capturing and recycling nutrients. In certain situations the input of leaves and other organic matter can provide 90% of a stream’s energy budget.

164 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

Fallen timber and pools are important invertebrate habitats. Killiegowan Wood, WET WOODS NATIVE February 2007. (Peter Norman)

• Riparian woods protect river banks and control • Removal of old, diseased or larger moss- erosion. covered trees and dead wood due to concerns over safety or hygiene. • Along with other natural riparian habitats, native wet woods ameliorate the effects of heavy rainfall • Invasive species, such as American Skunk and reduce the downstream risk of flash floods. Cabbage Lysichiton americanus, may have a They may also act as a buffer, intercepting localised impact. excessive nutrients and reducing the risk of water pollution. 6. Strategic Actions

5. Factors affecting the Habitat 6.1 Recent and current activity • The UK Forestry Standard recognises the • Clearance and/or coniferisation of wet woods importance of riparian management. for agriculture or intensive forestry have occurred in the past. • Riparian planting by Galloway Fisheries Trust and district salmon fisheries boards. • Fragmentation. By their nature, wet woods are small and localised. However, they would have 6.2 Other recommended actions often been linked to each other though semi- natural habitats such as wetlands. • Collate existing information to assess the current extent and distribution of native wet • Water pollution and nutrient enrichment from woods. agricultural run-off affects wet woods and species associated with them, especially bryophytes and • Consider opportunities for the creation of new invertebrates. native wet woods through natural regeneration, or if necessary planting. Avoid open semi-natural

• Lowering ground-water in wet woods results in WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE habitats that are likely to already have a high an invasion of Nettles and Brambles and loss of biodiversity value, and important archaeological biodiversity. sites. • Removal or major disturbance of flood debris, tidying of fallen wood from streams, ditching of streams, and drainage or interception of seepages is extremely damaging to bryophytes and invertebrates.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 165 166 NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE ASH WOODS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T ancient semi-natural woodsofthistype. There areestimatedtobe 40,000–50,000ha of the mostnortherlyexamples ofthistypeintheworld. Morecambe Bay. Those innorth-west Scotlandare districts suchastheMendips, Penninesandaround Britain, butareparticularly characteristicoflimestone Ash woodsarefoundthroughoutuplandareasof 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext could beconsidered Rowan andWych Elm.Indeed,somesmallwoods present inwoodlandofthistype,suchasBirdCherry, field layerflora.Othertreespeciesaregenerally allowing thegrowthofaflourishingandoftendiverse Canopy foliagetendsnottobeover-dense,thus Ash woods 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics Woods Also seegeneralinformationonalltypesofNative 1. Coppiced Ash. BackWood,ScaurGlen,May2008.(PeterNorman) Lead Partner:ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: Extendby210ha2015. have thepotentialtolinkexistingwoods,especiallyancientwoods. Expand native Ash woodsinareascurrently oflowbiodiversityandarchaeologicalimportance,butthat Priority Action (NAW2) Lead Partner:ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: Restore60haby2015. Restore plantationsonancient Ash woodlandsites. Priority Action (NAW1) Habitat Description mainlyoccuronneutraloralkalinesoils. elm woods NATIVE ASHWOODS . Native BirchWoods, ScrubWoods, MontaneScrub. Flushes, NativeWet Woods, NativeOakWoods, River Headwaters,Waterfalls, UplandSpringsand action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: or overlapwithnative Ash woods,andthefollowing A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Glenmaddie Wood Back Wood (SAC/SSSI)onCrawickWater; and Glen; Chanlockfoot(SAC/SSSI)inScaur SSSI); and includewoodsalongthe concentrated inthetributaryvalleysofRiverNith, The bestexamplesofupland Ash woodsare 2.3 SiteExamples in rivervalleys,particularlythepartsofNithsdale. These areconcentratedonsteepslopesorpoorsoils than 2ha)thatcontributesmarkedlytobiodiversity. large woods,butadiverserangeofsmallwoods(less more commonintheeastofregion. There arefew As aresultofsoilsandclimate Ash woodstendstobe 2.2 CurrentDistribution other woodlandtypes. woods, Ash woodshavereceivedlessattentionthan Despite recentrestorationandcreationofnative 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Stenhouse Wood (LWS) ontheEuchanWater. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership (SAC/SSSI)inShinnel Mennock Water (SAC/ NATIVE ASH WOODS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3. Importance for Associated Species 3.2 Flowering Plants (very high importance) Well-developed Ash woods tend to have a more 3.1 Fungi and Lichens (very high importance) diverse flora than upland oak and birch woods. Many native They are notable for displays of flowers, such as woods hold very Bluebells Hyacinthoides non-scripta, Primroses diverse lichen Primula vulgaris, Dog’s Mercury Mercurialis perennis, communities Common Dog Violets Viola riviniana, Wood Sorrels and the alkaline Oxalis acetosella, and Wood Avens Geum urbanum. bark of Ash A few less common species also occur, including and Wych Early Dog Violet Viola reichenbachiana at some of its Elm supports few Scottish localities. particularly important 3.3 Invertebrates (very high importance) lichens, Ash woods support a slightly different invertebrate including rare fauna to oak and birch woods. They can be especially species such

important for molluscs, which need calcium for ASH WOOD NATIVE as Biatoridium their shells, and ancient upland Ash woods include monasteriense some special species. Base rich seepages and on a single tree springs in Ash woods support a number of rare in Garlies Wood. species. Although of only moderate pH, the water in seepages is sufficiently rich in calcium to support There are diverse communities of molluscs, found amongst relatively few the vegetation and in saturated leaf litter. The fungi specifically Lichen and moss covered Ash trunk. snails Acicula fusca and Spermodea lamellata are associated with Glenmaddie Wood, June 2008. associated with this habitat type; all are at their (Peter Norman) Ash. The best extreme west European distribution. S. lamellata known is King is an indicator of ancient woodland. However, the Alfred’s Cakes Daldinia concentrica on dead trunks invertebrate fauna of woodland seepages is very and Shaggy Bracket Inonotus hispidus high up on poorly known, and more survey work is urgently mature trees. However, many other species are found required in order to better inform decision-making. in Ash woods on rotting wood or leaves. The caterpillars of the rare Barred Tooth-stripe moth Trichopteryx polycommata feed on Ash, though have also been recorded on privet. Ash is also one of the better trees for decaying wood (saproxylic) insects, especially flies. These species are now some of the most threatened in Britain.

3.4 Mammals (very high importance) There is little distinction between the mammal fauna of Ash woods and other kinds of native woods in Dumfries and Galloway; all are of very high importance for a wide range of species, especially bats. NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE

3.5 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) There is a wide variety of mosses, liverworts and ferns found in the region’s native Ash woods. Big Shaggy-moss Rhytidiadelphus triquetrus grows most typically in woodland on more calcareous substrates Common Dog Violet, Scaur Glen, May 2006. (Peter Norman) where it forms a conspicuous part of the flora.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 167 NATIVE OAK WOODS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.6 Birds (high importance) 6.2 Other recommended actions The bird fauna of upland ash woods is less • Expand native Ash woods through natural characteristic than other types, but all the typical regeneration wherever possible. Avoid open woodland species are present. semi-natural habitats that are likely to already have a high biodiversity value, and important 3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium archaeological sites. importance) • Where natural regeneration is not feasible, A number of reptiles and amphibians are found within maintain genetic integrity by careful selection of Ash woods, particularly in woods with extensive open planting stock. spaces. Amphibians breed in woodland ponds that are at least partly unshaded.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

NATIVE ASH WOOD NATIVE • In common with other types of native woods, Ash woods provide landscape, cultural heritage, archaeological, recreation and tourism benefits. • Mature upland Ash woods on fertile soils can often provide valuable shelter for sheep and cattle and can give good grazing. However, grazing pressure needs to be carefully managed to avoid risking the survival or ecological value of the woods.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• The native Ash woods of Dumfries & Galloway are generally concentrated in narrow river valleys. This produces a greater edge effect than the national average. • Other factors affecting Ash woods are similar to those affecting other types of native wood.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • Forestry Commission Scotland has completed a survey of the current distribution of Ash woods in Dumfries and Galloway, and this has identified Dog's Mercury often dominates the springtime ground flora of Ash potential areas for expansion and creation of new woods. Stenhouse Wood, May 2006. (Peter Norman) Ash woods. NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE • Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) carries out monitoring of designated woods and works with their owners on subsequent management.

168 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership common inthe westoftheregion. There arefew large As aresultof soilsandclimate,oakwoods aremore 2.1 CurrentDistribution 2. this type. 60,000–70,000ha ofancientsemi-naturalwoods the finestlandscapes. Thereareestimatedtobe District, and Argyll theyformimportantelementsof Scotland. InpartsofExmoor, Snowdonia,Lake Britain fromsouthernmostCornwalltonorth-west Upland oakwoodsarefoundinwesternandnorthern 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext wind andsaltexposure. influences. Thetreesareoftenstuntedandprunedby oak woodthathasbeenmodifiedbymaritime Coastal oakwoodsareessentiallyaformofupland ones tothosedominatedbymosses. communities throughgrassandBrackendominated degree ofgrazing,rangingfromBluebell-Bramble-fern layer variesaccordingtotheunderlyingsoiltypeand species. The rangeofplantsfoundintheground/field Rowan andHazelareoftenthemainunderstorey along withsomebirch.Varying amountsofHolly, predominance ofusuallySessileOakinthecanopy, leached brownearthsoilsandarecharacterisedbya woods low altitudesarebestconsideredas UK, allofthoseinDumfriesandGalloway, evenat Although thereareothertypesofoakwoodinthe 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics Woods. Also seegeneralinformationonalltypesofNative 1. Lead Partner:ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: Expandby300ha2015 that havethepotentialtolinkexistingwoods,especiallyancientwoods. Expand uplandnativeoakwoodsinareascurrentlyoflowbiodiversityandarchaeologicalimportance,but Priority Action (NOW2) Lead Partner:ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: Restore250haby2015. Restore plantationsonancientoakwoodlandsites. Priority Action (NOW1) Dumfries &Galloway Status Habitat Description . These arefoundonacidic,oftenshallow, NATIVE OAKWOODS upland oak . Coastal oakwoodsinclude wood pasture,ratherthanwoodland. Beattock isdominatedbyoaks,buthasahistoryof in theDee-Kenvalley. Lochwood Hannaston Wood the Fleetvalley;andAirdsofKellsWood Wood valley; KilliegowanWood Woods (LWS) andBlackcraigWood of Cree(SAC/SSSI), examples ofuplandoaktypewoods,including Though atloweraltitude,therearemanyothergood (SAC/SSSI) alsohasareasofuplandbirchwood. upland nativeoakwoodland.Nearby Glentrool probablyprovidethebestexamplesof andGlenheadWoods (SAC/SSSI)in 2.2 SiteExamples few onthecoast. are most frequent intheCreeandFleetvalleys,witha valleys, contributesmarkedlytobiodiversity. These concentrated onsteepslopesorpoorsoilsinriver woods, buttherangeofsmallwoods(lessthan2ha), Native BirchWoods, ScrubWoods, MontaneScrub. Flushes, NativeWet Woods, Native Ash Woods, River Headwaters,Waterfalls, UplandSpringsand action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: or overlapwithnativeoakwoods,andthefollowing A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.3 Associated Habitats Gibb’s HoleWood at Carsluith,Heughwood Though fungi arewidelydistributedinall native 3.1 Fungiand Lichens(veryhighimportance) 3. Importance for Associated Species (SAC/SSSI)andCardonessWood (LWS) in (SSSI),andOaksofKirkconnell (LWS) at Almorness. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Holm Wood (SSSI)atSouthwickand (SAC/SSSI), Ravenshall Wood (SSSI),near (LWS) Camer Caldons Wood intheCree Carstramon (SSSI), (SSSI) Wood 169 NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE OAK WOODS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

woods, there are some species that are restricted to Hylocomiastrum umbratum is found in hilly districts of oak, such as Beefsteak Fungus Fistulina hepatica, western Britain where it occurs on the ground in open Oak Milk-cap Lactarius quietus and Hen of the Woods woodland, in turf and amongst rocks and scree. It is Grifola frondosa. uncommon in Dumfries & Galloway.

Greater Whipwort Bazzania trilobata is a classic liverwort of oak woods in western Britain: it can be an abundant component of the ground layer in the most humid wooded valleys, but is restricted to the rockiest sections of less humid woods. As well as growing on the ground and on rocks, it can colonise logs or grow on tree trunks but it is seldom found away from woods. Trunk Pawwort Barbilophozia attenuata is found on decaying tree stumps and the trunks of acid- barked trees.

NATIVE OAK WOODS NATIVE Beefsteak Fungus Fistulina hepatica. Holy Linn, September 2006. Rarer liverworts include Deceptive Featherwort (Peter Norman) Adelanthus decipiens, typical of the best Atlantic oakwoods in western Scotland. It has been recorded Wet and mossy upland oak woodland is an just once in Dumfries & Galloway, at Bargaly Glen exceptionally rich lichen habitat. The moss forms a in 1975. Outside of Britain it is known only in France base on which the rare, but conspicuous ‘Lobarion’ and Spain. Brown Scalewort Radula aquilegia is a lichen community is found, including Tree Lungwort liverwort that is endemic to Europe, with its world lichen Lobaria pulmonaria. Though internationally headquarters in the west of Britain. There are several rare lichens are not as plentiful as in the Atlantic oak historical records from the area, most woods further north, a few examples of such lichens recent of which was in Hannaston Wood in 1975. have been recorded from several Galloway oak Hutchins’ Hollywort Jubula hutchinsiae has been woods. recorded in damp shady woodland at Chlenry Burn, and Jamesoniella autumnalis has been found on 3.2 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) decaying wood. The mosses, liverworts and ferns found in the region’s native woods show a similar distribution to 3.4 Invertebrates (very high importance) lichens. Upland oak woods, though generally not as Acidic oak woods have a number of invertebrates diverse and rich as those in the west Highlands, are in common with birch woods. The soldier beetles particularly important. Malthodes flavoguttatus and M. fuscus are most frequently found here, whilst the Hollowed Glass Snail Little Shaggy-moss Rhytidiadelphus loreus is a Zonitoides excavatus is the only British snail that common species of acidic upland woodland where avoids base-rich habitats. It is usually found in the leaf it forms conspicuous stands. Shaded Wood-moss litter of poorly drained places in old established birch and oak woods.

Different species typically exploit different sub- habitats of native oak woods. A wide range of invertebrates occur on the leaf litter of the ground

NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE layer, including the common ground beetles Abax parallelepipedus, Agonum assimile and Calathus piceus.

The canopy holds important invertebrates that are rarely seen at lower levels. The Great Prominent moth Peridea anceps appears restricted to larger native Little Shaggy-moss Rhytidiadelphus loreus carpeting boulders. woods in Dumfries & Galloway, so far recorded only Hannaston Wood, February 2008. (Peter Norman) in Kirkcudbrightshire. Its caterpillars are associated

170 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P with the oak canopy. Purple Hairstreak Neozephyrus 4. Environmental, Economic & Social quercus butterflies, near the northern edge of their Importance of Biodiversity range in Dumfries & Galloway, pupate on the ground but spend most of their adult lives in the oak canopy. • In common with other types of native woods, oak woods provide landscape, cultural heritage, 3.5 Birds (very high importance) archaeological, recreation and tourism benefits. Upland oak woods, especially those with a poorly developed understorey have a very characteristic 5. Factors affecting the Habitat bird fauna. The typical species are Pied Flycatchers Ficedula hypoleuca, Redstarts Phoenicurus • The native oak woods of Dumfries & Galloway phoenicurus, Tree Pipits Anthus trivialis and Wood are generally small in extent and concentrated Warblers Phylloscopus sibilatrix. on steep slopes in the river valleys or on the coast. This produces a greater edge effect than 3.6 Mammals (very high importance) the national average. There is little distinction between the mammal fauna of oak woods and other kinds of native woods • Other factors affecting oak woods are similar to in Dumfries and Galloway; all are of very high those affecting other types of native wood. OAK WOODS NATIVE importance for a wide range of species, especially bats. 6. Strategic Actions

3.7 Flowering Plants (high importance) 6.1 Recent and current activity The field layer of upland native oak woods is • Forestry Commission Scotland is involved with typically not as varied as other woodland types, being many native oak woodland projects, including dominated by non-flowering plants. Ungrazed and managing grazing to assist natural regeneration, lightly grazed native woods at lower altitudes have removal of Rhododendron and the restoration of the greatest range of species, including Bluebells plantations on ancient woodland sites (PAWS). Hyacinthoides non-scripta, Wood Anemones • Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) carries out Anemone nemorosa and Wood Sorrels Oxalis monitoring of designated woods and works with acetosella. their owners on subsequent management. • Conservation organisations such as RSPB and Scottish Wildlife Trust own and manage a number of native oak woods. RSPB have begun to create 371ha of new native wood at Barclye, adjacent to Wood of Cree. • Cree Valley Community Woodlands Trust has been working since 1996 to restore and link fragments of native woodland in the Cree valley. Most of these woods are of native oak.

6.2 Other recommended actions

Bluebells at Carstramon Wood. May 2004. (Peter Norman) • Expand native oak woods through natural regeneration wherever possible. Avoid open NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE 3.8 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium semi-natural habitats that are likely to already importance) have a high biodiversity value, and important A number of reptiles and amphibians are found within archaeological sites. oak woods, particularly those with extensive open • Where natural regeneration is not feasible, spaces. Amphibians breed in woodland ponds maintain genetic integrity by careful selection of that are at least partly unshaded, though the more planting stock. acidic conditions of oak woods may limit species composition in comparison to Ash woods.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 171 172 NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE BIRCH WOODS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T in theScottish Highlands,inotherupland areasthey can allbefound. Though birchwoodsareextensive Cherry, BirdCherry, Hazel,Hawthornand Blackthorn oaks, Rowan, Aspen, Ash, Alder, Goat Willow, Wild there maybefewothertrees. Onmorefertilesites, dominant inthecanopy, andonthepoorest soils infertile soils.Birches,especially DownyBirch,are Upland 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics Woods. Also seegeneralinformationonalltypesofNative 1. Lead Partner:ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: Expandby430ha2015. Expand uplandnativebirchwoodsinareascurrentlyoflowbiodiversityandarchaeologicalimportance. Priority Action NBW2 Lead Partner:ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: Restore20haby2015. Restore plantationsonancientbirchwoodlandsites. Priority Action (NBW1) Habitat Description birch woods Caldons Wood,Glentrool.May2006.(PeterNorman) aretypicallyfoundonacidic, NATIVE BIRCHWOODS broadleaved woodlandinScotlandisuplandbirch. extensive inthenorth,andnearlyhalfofall throughout uplandBritainbutaremuchmore a considerablylargerareathanthis. They occur more recentsemi-naturalbirchwoodlandoccupies of ancientsemi-naturaluplandbirchwoods,but In Britain,thereareestimatedtobe15–25,000ha 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext woods. other habitats,suchasnativewetwoodsandscrub other broadleaves.Birchesalsooccurcommonlyin often occuraspatchesinamosaicwithoaksand upland birch,aswelloak. Caldons Wood (SAC/SSSI)inGlentroolhas areasof 2.3 SiteExamples woods. are uncommonintheregionandtherefewlarge woods intheregionisnotaccuratelyknown,butthey The fullextentandqualityofsemi-naturalnativebirch 2.2 CurrentDistribution grazing pressureisreduced. in regeneratingandcolonisingnewgroundwhere the uplandvalleysbirchisbeinglocallysuccessful birch woodlandhaverecentlybeenplanted,andin gradually becomemoreimportant.Newareasof and managementofnativebirchwoodshas of policyforbroadleavesin1985,theconservation However, sincetheForestryCommission’s review weeds withincommercialwoodsandplantations. Until quiterecently, bircheswereoftenviewedas 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership NATIVE BIRCH WOODS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.4 Associated Habitats A number of habitats occur in close association and/ or overlap with native birch woods, and the following action plans may also contain relevant information: River Headwaters, Waterfalls, Upland Springs and Flushes, Native Wet Woods, Native Oak Woods, Native Ash Woods, Native Birch Woods, Scrub Woods, Montane Scrub.

3. Importance for Associated Species

3.1 Fungi and Lichens (very high importance) There is a distinctive and substantial mycota in upland native birch woods. Probably the best known of all British fungi, Fly Agaric Amanita muscaria, is usually associated with birches, and the Birch

Polypore Piptoporus betulinus is also well-known. BIRCH WOODS NATIVE There are also many brittlegills Russula, milk-caps Lactarius and webcaps Cortinarius. Hoof Fungus Fomes fomentarius was formerly found almost entirely on birches, but in recent years has spread Yellow-horned Moth, a birch specialist. Caldons Wood, March to other trees. 2007. (Peter Norman) Many native birch woods also hold 3.3 Mammals (very high importance) very diverse lichen Hoof Fungus Fomes fomentarius on There is little distinction between the mammal fauna communities. birch. Caldons Wood, March 2007. of birch woods and other kinds of native woods (Peter Norman) in Dumfries and Galloway; all are of very high 3.2 Invertebrates (very high importance) importance for a wide range of species, especially Upland birch woods have a number of invertebrates in bats. common with upland oak woods. The soldier beetles Malthodes flavoguttatus and M. fuscus are most 3.4 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) frequently found here, whilst the Hollowed Glass Snail There is usually an abundance of mosses and Zonitoides excavatus is the only British snail that liverworts in birch woods, though rarer species are avoids base-rich habitats. It is usually found in the more usually associated with adjacent oak woods. leaf litter of poorly drained places in old established birch and oak woods. Birches are bettered only by 3.5 Birds (high importance) willows and oaks in terms of the number of larger Typical species of upland birch woods include moths they support. Although birch-specific moths Redstarts Phoenicurus phoenicurus, Tree Pipits occur on birch within other habitats, birch woods have Anthus trivialis, Redpolls Carduelis cabaret and a characteristic moth fauna, including Yellow-horned Willow Warblers Phylloscopus trochilus. Achlya flavicornis, Scarce Prominent Odontosia NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE carmelita and the day-flying Orange Underwing 3.6 Flowering Plants (medium importance) Archiearis parthenias. The field layer of upland native birch woods is typically not as varied as other woodland types, being Invertebrate species that rely on decaying wood are dominated by non-flowering plants. now some of the most threatened in Britain. More than 700 species of flies and a similar number of beetles are dependant to some extent on deadwood in the UK and birch, which rots quickly, supports many species. Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 173 SCRUB WOODS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium importance) A number of reptiles and amphibians are found within birch woods, particularly those with extensive open spaces. Amphibians breed in woodland ponds that are at least partly unshaded, though species composition may be limited in acidic conditions.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

• In common with other types of native woods, birch woods provide landscape, cultural heritage, archaeological, recreation and tourism benefits. Birch wood at Slogarie, near Laurieston. February 2008. • Birch is used mainly for firewood at present and (Peter Norman) is often regarded as worthless for timber because NATIVE BIRCH WOODS NATIVE of the poor form of many present-day birchwoods. 6. Strategic Actions The latter is at least partly due to lack of tending and to browsing, which results in twisted coppice 6.1 Recent and current activity stems. Improvements in form can be expected • Under Forestry Commission policy, native birch with good management, at least with Silver Birch woods within conifer plantations are retained on the better sites. Good quality birch timber is during felling. in fact strong and versatile and can be sawn for general use. Straight birch stems make excellent 6.2 Other recommended actions turnery wood. Other potential uses could be developed if a sufficient supply of good quality • Expand native birch woods through natural birch was available. regeneration wherever possible. • Where natural regeneration is not feasible, 5. Factors affecting the Habitat maintain genetic integrity by careful selection of planting stock. • Birch woods rarely attract the same level of interest from the public and land managers as other types of woodland, such as oak woods. • Virtually no commercial use is currently made of birch products. • Other factors affecting Birch woods are similar to those affecting other types of native wood. NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE

174 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership is aspecialised andrareformofscrubwoodland. form densewoods ofitsown;and shrub withinnativewoodland but Hazel usuallyoccursasa scattered understorey on agriculturallandandis often singlespecies; and/or Blackthorn;Gorsescrub usually occurs Thorn scrub of avarietyspeciesandtakeforms. woods orontheedgeofwoods.Itcanbecomposed Scrub woodlandcanoccurinisolatedpockets,within coast andclosetothetopsofhills. mostly ungrazed,occurringanywherebetweenthe relatively densesemi-naturalscrubwoodlandthatis concerned withscrubintheremainingsituations– modified formashedgerows. Thisactionplanis near mountaintops.Scrubalsooccursinahighly- parklands; andmontanescrubabovethetreeline woods; scrubpastureongrazedgrasslandsandin wet scrubonfens,raisedbogsandaspartof scrub isfoundonshingle,dunesandcoastalslopes; Scrub growsinarangeofdifferent situations.Coastal hundreds ofyears. sometimes for decades, it canpersist certain situations woodland, butin habitats and between open a transitionstage scrub occursas stands, Much impenetrable dense, sometimes often growingin less than5mtall, trees, usually shrubs andsmall are composedof Scrub woods 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:ScottishNaturalHeritage/Dumfries&GallowayEnvironmentalResourcesCentre. Promote thevalueofscrubwoodlandforbiodiversity. Priority Action (SW1) Habitat Description isusuallycomposedofHawthorn Juniper scrub,Tynron, February2007. SCRUB WOODS Hazel scrubcan Juniper scrub (Peter Norman) with acanopycoverof50%ormorewereincluded. this actionplan(butnotbirchor Alder scrub). All areas willow scrub,aswellthescrubtypesincludedin This includescoastalscrub,montanescrubandwet Britain in1990,ofwhich200km there wasveryapproximately900km definitions andboundaries. Thebestestimateisthat abundance ofscrubinBritainduetoimprecise There islittleinformationonthedistributionand 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext scrub woods. and maturetreesfrequentlyoccurascomponentsof some scrub.Otherspecies,suchasElder, DogRose grow justashighandevenmoreimpenetrablethan technically cannotformscrub, Although brambleisnotawoodyspeciesand entirely ofHazelscrub. an unusualwoodinalocal context,consistingalmost woods. BanksofDervaird (LWS), is near Glenluce, There aremanyexamples ofGorseandthornscrub 2.3 SiteExamples valley. uncommon, thelatterbeingrestrictedtoNith type intheuplands. also widespread,perhapsbeingthemostfrequent and someuplandfringeareas. especially extensiveonmanycoastalpeninsulas type ofscrubwoodlandinDumfries&Galloway, being Gorse scrubisthemostwidespreadandabundant 2.2 CurrentDistribution the uplands. result ofareductioninstockingdensity, particularlyin that itmayhaveincreasedinthelast10yearsasa in Dumfries&Galloway. Anecdotal evidencesuggests No detailedinformationisavailableonrecenttrends 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Wood SSSI), Dumfries &GallowayStatus aretheonlylocal examplesofthistype. Beuchan Juniper Wood Hazel andJuniperwoods Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Tynron JuniperWood Bramblethicketscan Thorn scrub 2 wasinScotland. andKeirJuniper 2 ofscrubin is (SAC/ are 175 NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS SCRUB WOODS 2.4 Associated Habitats 3.2 Birds (high importance) A number of habitats occur in close association and/ A number of species of birds nest commonly in or overlap with scrub woods, and the following action scrub woods. These include Dunnocks Prunella plans may also contain relevant information: Coastal modularis, Common Whitethroats Sylvia communi, Shingle Beaches, Coastal Sand Dunes, Coastal Lesser Whitethroats Sylvia carruca, Willow Warblers Cliffs and Slopes, Raised Bogs, Native Wet Woods, Phylloscopus trochilus, Bullfinches Pyrrhula pyrrhula, Native Woods, Montane Scrub, Wood Pastures and Linnets Carduelis cannabina and Yellowhammers Parklands, Traditional Field Boundaries, Roads and Emberiza citrinella. Several of these are in national Verges. decline. Other species, such as Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix and Long-eared Owls Asio otus use some types 3. Importance for Associated Species of scrub at certain times of the year as part of a wider habitat mosaic. 3.1 Invertebrates (very high importance) Several scrub 3.3 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) species are Scrub is an important habitat for mosses and SCRUB WOODS amongst the most liverworts. Elder is the pre-eminent species for important nectar- epiphytic mosses and liverworts, unsurpassed by bearing plants for any other tree in Britain, with species such as Wood invertebrates in Bristle-moss Orthotrichum affine found commonly Britain. As a group, only in association with this species. Hazel woods, their importance especially where long established can also support is matched only notable bryophyte communities. by the umbellifers Hawthorn Shieldbug, one of many (many of which invertebrates dependent on scrub. 3.4 Flowering Plants (medium importance) Minnigaff, May 2007. (Gavin Chambers) often grow in A number of close association). uncommon Hawthorn, Blackthorn and Ivy are especially valuable, flowering but bramble thickets in open, sunny situations are plants are also very valuable for invertebrates. associated with scrub woods There are also many invertebrates that feed on in Dumfries the leaves, flowers or other parts of scrub species. & Galloway, Willows, Blackthorn, Hawthorn, Hazel and Bramble though the each host more than 200 different UK species. Gorse majority of these and Juniper support many fewer species, but Juniper are restricted Broom, a colourful component of many hosts several species that are specific to it alone, and scrub woods. Kate's Wood, Balmaclellan, to coastal May 2005. (Maggi Kaye) are nationally rare. Moths and beetles are the most scrub. Western numerous of the groups represented. Gorse Ulex gallii is widespread in the lowlands of Kirkcudbrightshire, and sometimes forms dense patches. It is rare elsewhere in Scotland. Greater Broomrape Orobanche rapum-genistae is associated with Gorse and Broom. It suffered a dramatic national decline in the nineteenth and early 20th centuries and in Scotland is now largely restricted to the Nith valley. NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE

3.5 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium importance) Scrub woods with open areas are utilised by reptiles such as Adders Vipera berus, Slow Worms Anguis fragilis and Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara. Open grassy or rocky areas are used for basking, whilst the Long Tailed Tits build their nests in dense scrub. (Gordon McCall)

176 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership scrub provides shelter. This shelter is also valuable, 5. Factors affecting the Habitat in some locations, for amphibians such as Great Crested Newts Triturus cristatus. • Scrub is rarely deliberately managed as a habitat in its own right. Rather it is allowed to expand when management of open habitats is reduced or abandoned, or cleared when management of open habitats is initiated or intensified. • Unmanaged scrub can encroach on more valuable biodiversity habitats and archaeological sites. Open, patchy scrub woods tend to support a greater biodiversity than dense thickets, but without low intensity management there is a tendency for open areas to be lost.

• Juniper woods have suffered from overgrazing SCRUB WOODS and burning, diminishing its range.

Fiery Milkcap Lactarius pyrogalus is associated only with Hazel (Peter Norman) 6. Strategic Actions

3.6 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) 6.1 Recent and current activity There are interesting fungi species associated with • Scottish Natural Heritage, in association with Hazel, Juniper and willow scrub, though less so with the site’s owner, support the management of Blackthorn, Hawthorn or Bramble. Elder supports Tynron Juniper Wood with the aim of regenerating a good lichen flora, whilst Blackthorn scrub on the Juniper, or restocking by planting where coast often has spectacular arrays of beard lichens regeneration is not successful. Usnea spp. Hazel is even more important for lichens, with a number of rare specialist species recorded in Scotland. However few studies of Hazel lichens have 6.2 Other recommended actions been completed in Dumfries & Galloway. • Survey current local distribution, extent and value of scrub woods. 3.7 Mammals (low importance) • Assess where expansion of scrub would Many mammals, including Badgers Meles meles, be most desirable. The final decision should Foxes Vulpes vulpes, Rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus be made on a site by site basis but particular and various deer, make use of scrub woods but these locations, such as the edges of native woods may are common species and scrub is not a critical habitat be preferable. Avoid open semi-natural habitats component for any of them. that are likely to already have a high biodiversity value, and important archaeological sites. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

• Extensive areas of Gorse scrub form a distinctive landscape in parts of Dumfries & Galloway, especially during the main spring flowering period, NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE and this contributes to the image of the region to tourists.

Hazel scrub wood. Carlinstane Bank, Scaur Glen, May 2008. (Peter Norman)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 177 178 NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS MONTANE SCRUB utilisation ofmontane scrubinDumfries &Galloway There isvirtually noevidenceofthemanagement or 2.1 RecentTrends 2. though severalrestoration projects areunderway. bushes survive in the Southern Uplandsand Cumbria, 0.5ha. ElsewhereinBritainonlyafewscattered in theScottishHighlands,biggestnomorethan A fewsmalldiscretestandsofmontanescruboccur in Norway, Sweden, FinlandandCzechRepublic. on severalEuropeanmountainranges,mostnotably Montane scrubisarareEuropeanhabitatbutfound 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext grazed steeprockyslopesorboulderfields. today, mostlyonungrazedledges,butrarelylightly small remnantsofmontanescrubsurviveinBritain elevations inshelteredgullies.However, onlyafew enough topreventitentirely. Italsooccursathigher growth oftallwoodyspeciesbuttheyarenotsevere conditions andshortgrowingseasonrestrictthe in anenvironmentwherelowtemperatures,windy the uplandsbetweenwoodlandandmossheath, trees andshrubs.Itoccursinatransitionzone Montane scrubconsistsoflow-growing,crooked 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:ForestryCommissionScotland/BordersForest Trust. Target: Establishatotalofatleast40hain2locationsby2015. Establish areasofmontanescrubinDumfries&Galloway. Priority Action (MS1) Dumfries &Galloway Status Habitat Description Planting montanescrubatFirthHope,Carrifran.March2008. MONTANE SCRUB (Borders ForestTrust) Montane scrubisbeingcreatedat Coomb (SAC/SSSI)andontheMerrick Tiny remnantsofmontanescruboccurat 2.3 SiteExamples Moffat andGallowayHills. A fewremnantsofmontanescrubarefound inthe 2.2 CurrentDistribution in Scotland,inspiredbyexamplesfromEurope. However, interestinthishabitathasbeenincreasing in recentdecades,presumablyassolittleofitexists. Native Woods. Grasslands, UplandHeaths,MontaneMoss-heaths, plans mayalsocontainrelevantinformation: Acid overlap withmontanescrub,andthefollowingaction A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.4 Associated Habitats SSSI). montane willow, thoughfewifanyof thesehaveyet and beetles,have beenrecordedasspecialists on A numberofinvertebrates, includingsawflies,moths 3.2 Invertebrates(highimportance) habitat. become morewidespread with expansionofthis occasionally foundinmontanescrubandmay restricted intheuplandstoungrazedledges,are and Globeflower Plants suchasWood Cranesbill birches, shouldnotalsoformpartofthishabitat. communis, aswellstuntedtreessuchoaksand why otherwoodyspeciessuchasJuniper Willow Salixmyrsinites.However, thereisnoreason leaved Willow herbacea a mixtureofwillows,includingDwarfWillow Most remnantareasofmontanescrubconsist 3.1 FloweringPlants(highimportance) 3. Importance for Associated Species , DownyWillow Salix myrsinitesand Trollius europaeus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Salix lapponum, Geranium sylvaticum Carrifran Whortle-leaved , usuallynow (SSSI). White Dark- Juniperus Salix (SAC/ MONTANE SCRUB

been recorded in Dumfries & Galloway. Pontania 6. Strategic Actions herbacea has been noted as a gall on Dwarf Willow in the Moffat Hills. 6.1 Recent and current activity • The National Trust for Scotland has erected a 3.3 Birds (medium importance) fenced exclosure at Grey Mare’s Tail to prevent Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix would benefit from areas grazing of existing montane willows. of montane scrub. Other birds, including Ring Ouzels Turdus torquatus and other thrushes, Whinchats • Borders Forest Trust has designed areas of Saxicola rubetra, and finches would be likely to nest montane scrub into their Carrifran Wildwood within the scrub. Project. • Forestry Commission Scotland and Cree 3.4 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) Valley Community Woodlands Trust have Due to the rarity of this habitat in the UK, few studies initiated a montane scrub project in the Galloway have been completed on fungal associations. Hills as part of Highland Birchwoods’ Action Research from elsewhere in Europe suggests that for Mountain Woodlands Project. This involves

there may be a number of species restricted to this propagating and planting out Downy Willow and SCRUB MONTANE habitat. Juniper above the conifers on Merrick.

3.5 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) 6.2 Other recommended actions Adders Vipera berus and Common Lizards Zootoca • Incorporate montane scrub into management of vivipara would be likely to occur in montane scrub. existing forests.

3.6 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) As with fungi, little research has been completed on the importance of montane scrub in Dumfries & Galloway for mosses.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

• Montane scrub could be used to soften the upper edges of conifer plantations, bringing visual improvements to upland landscapes. • In such situations as above it would also shelter the plantation, increasing growth rates and reducing windthrow. • Montane scrub would help prevent erosion, reduce leaching of soil nutrients, and contribute to a reduced risk of flooding in the catchment.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Current environmental and grazing conditions WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE are unlikely to result in the expansion of montane scrub. Juniper, including dwarf forms, is a natural component of montane scrub. (Peter Norman)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 179 180 NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS VETERAN TREES large numberof average quantitiesof have greaterthan trees typically trees. Veteran identifies veteran more usually characteristics of lessprecise feature andarange to detectsucha it israrelypossible decrease. However, to progressively main trunkbegins annual ringsinthe of successive when theareas becomes aveteran Technically, atree 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. characteristics ofallveterantrees. Trees thatareold trees. Sizeand agearethereforenotnecessarily particular history ofmanagementinrelatively young trees. However, thesefeaturescanalsoresultfroma characteristics andmanyveterans arelarge,old Old agetendstoproducemany oftheabove trees, makingthemlesssusceptible towind-throw. not killed.Indeeddecaydecreasesthebulkofveteran bulky heartwoodisaffected andthelivingtissuesare such decaycansurviveformanyyearsasonlythe bodies ofheart-rottingspecies. Ancient treeswith as fernsandlichens;frequent vessels; alargenumberof damage extendsfromthebarktoconductive sap runswherestress,wind,droughtorcollision of water;areasdamagedandlostbarkincluding trunk andbranches,oftenwithnaturallyformedpools Lead: Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: Arrange 1trainingcourseby2009. Raise awarenessoftheimportanceandmanagementveterantreesamongstcountrysidestaf Priority Action (VT2) Lead: Dumfries&GallowayEnvironmentalResourcesCentre/Woodland Trust. veteran trees. Establish aveterantreeprojecttorecruitandtrainvolunteers,inorderidentify Priority Action (VT1) Habitat Description hollows, holesandcavities dead anddecayingwood Heavy-branched veteranbirch.Holm epiphytic plants Farm, Creevalley, May2006. VETERAN TREES fungal fruiting (Peter Norman) such inthe ; a remain extremelyvulnerable. and adesireforincreased‘tidiness’. They therefore danger fromtreeswithdeadanddecayingwood, has beenmatchedbyanincreasedperceptionof recognised inBritainsincethe1990s.However, this The valueofveterantreeshasonlybecomewidely 2.1 RecentTrends 2. as HawthornandHazeltobecomeveterans. introduced, anditispossiblefor Veteran treescanbeofanyspecies,bothnativeand event. Very oftensuchtreeshaveindividualnames. cultural heritage,oftenaspecificpersonorhistorical ancient trees,butareassociatedwithsomeaspectof Heritage Trees trees, butonedoesnotautomaticallyfollowtheother. considerable overlapbetweenancientandveteran in relationtoothersofthesamespecies. There is years old.Mostancienttreesalsohavealargegirth ancient at100yearsold,butoaksnotuntil300 ancient trees.Forexample,birchesmaybecome in relationtoothersofthesamespeciesaretermed Massive multi-stemmed oak.High Ardwall, GatehouseofFleet, Dumfries &GallowayStatus neednotnecessarilybeveteranor Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership , surveyandpublicise scrub speciessuch April 2007.(Peter Norman) f. VETERAN TREES

2.2 Current Distribution 3.2 Invertebrates (very high importance) Veteran trees have been recorded throughout Veteran trees in Britain are the most important Dumfries & Galloway, but the current distribution is in Europe for invertebrates, including many rare imprecisely known. A number are likely to occur on species. Even a single tree can be very important. long-established private estates. Few surveys have been completed in Dumfries & Galloway, but a few typical species have been 2.3 Site Examples identified. Lochwood (SSSI) near Beattock contains one of the best collections of veteran trees in Britain. Nearby Most invertebrates Raehills Estate also contains important examples. A associated with sample survey of the Fleet Valley National Scenic veteran trees require Area in 2005 identified more than 200 potential decaying wood, but veteran trees. very often this needs to be of a particular 2.4 Associated Habitats stage of decay or in

a specific part of the VETERAN TREES A number of habitats occur in close association tree. For example, and/or overlap with veteran trees, and the following the nationally scarce action plans may also contain relevant information: cranefly Ctenophora Traditional Field Boundaries, Wood Pastures and pectinicornis is Parklands. associated with rot Short, stubby veteran Alder holes in large broad- with holes through the trunk. 3. Importance for Associated Species leaved trees, especially Glenmaddie Wood, Sanquhar, June 2008. (Peter Norman) Beech. Larvae often 3.1 Fungi and Lichens (very high importance) occur in shattered ends of trunks and have been Fungi are critical in the ecology of almost all of the found in rotten boughs, but only those that have fallen wildlife associated with old trees and some are from at least 10m high. It is widespread in southern themselves rare Britain but scarce in the west and north. The larvae of and restricted to the hoverfly Xylota sylvarum develops in wet decaying only the oldest of roots of broad-leaved trees, ascending up the trunk trees. It is fungi to pupate beneath the bark, and in rot holes. It is which cause widespread in old woods and wood pastures. The the decay and larvae of the soldier beetle Malthodes marginatus hollowing on which develops in decaying wood or beneath bark on dead the other wildlife timber, whilst the adults are mainly predatory on depends. The insect larvae but also feed on decaying timber. The decay of heartwood hoverfly Criorhina berberina lays its eggs around and hollowing are the base of stumps and on the underside of leaves a perfectly natural next to stumps. The larvae develop in the heart rot part of the ageing of roots, whilst adults feed at Hawthorn blossoms. It process of the tree, is mainly associated with ancient woods and wood probably prolonging pastures. its life, and are Sulphur Polypore Laetiporus sulphureus. not necessarily a Knockman Wood, June 2004. Sap runs, are often small and inconspicuous but (Peter Norman) sign of ill health. highly important for invertebrates. They should not be WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE Oak Polypore Piptoporus quercinus is restricted viewed as a sign of ill-health. to veteran oaks. It was discovered at Lochwood in 2005, the first and so far only location in Scotland for 3.3 Mammals (very high importance) this internationally rare species. The rare Beeswax Due to the presence of numerous deep narrow Bracket Ganoderma pfeifferi is restricted to old Beech crevices, veteran trees probably constitute the trees, and was recorded in Glencairn Parish 2000. single most important breeding habitat for bats in Some slow-growing lichens are only found on the Dumfries & Galloway. All species use veteran trees, bark of very old trees.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 181 but some, such as Noctules Nyctalus noctula rarely • Limited knowledge amongst tree surgeons, roost in buildings or other non-tree sites. Though little statutory agencies and even conservation research has been completed, veteran trees are also organisations of the importance of veteran trees likely to be used by many bats as hibernation sites. and their management. • A public perception that all trees with dead and 3.4 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) decaying wood are of little biodiversity value, A wide range of epiphytic mosses is found on veteran aesthetically offensive and potentially dangerous. trees. Park Yoke-moss Zygodon rupestris is closely Such perceptions frequently result in pressure to associated with veteran trees, whilst Marble Screw- remove veteran trees. moss Syntrichia papillosa is most typically a species of mature trees, although rarely it also grows on walls, 6. Strategic Actions stones or tarmac. It is an infrequent plant throughout Britain and Ireland. 6.1 Recent and current activity

3.5 Birds (high importance) • The Woodland Trust runs an Ancient Tree

VETERAN TREES The hollows, holes and cavities in the trunks and Hunt that encourages volunteers to find and branches of veteran trees are used as nest sites by collect information on ancient trees for a national many species of birds, notably Barn Owls Tyto alba, database. Only a few have so far been recorded Redstarts Phoenicurus phoenicurus and Spotted from Dumfries & Galloway. Flycatchers Muscicapa striata. Furthermore, the quantity of dead and decaying wood allows those 6.2 Other recommended actions species that excavate their own nest hole, such as • Produce, or contribute to the national production, woodpeckers, to utilise veteran trees. of an illustrated field guide to identify the various forms of veteran trees and the history and 3.6 Flowering Plants (low importance) ecology that has led to their current form. Apart from the fact that the veteran trees are flowering plants themselves, very few flowering plants are directly dependent on them.

3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) Although all native reptiles and amphibians may occasionally be found in or on veteran trees, the habitat is of low importance for this group.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

• All veteran trees are of historic interest. They are as much a part of Dumfries & Galloway’s heritage as its castles and churches. • A number of veteran trees have been the subject of paintings by local artists.

NATIVE WOODLAND HABITATS NATIVE • Decaying trees play a critical ecological role, releasing nutrients into woodland ecosystems.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Poor knowledge of veteran tree distribution, history and biodiversity value in Dumfries & Galloway. Fat-trunked veteran oak. Boreland Hills, Gatehouse of Fleet, October 2004. (Peter Norman)

182 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership Most treesare harvestedat40-70years old,before ground flora. Thisismostmarkedatthe forestedge. reach theforest floorandsomere-establishment of deciduous larchplantations), allowingmorelightto higher, sometimesmoreopen high foreststage(30-70yearsold)resultsin a Some plantationsarethinned atthisstage. The almost totalabsenceofground floraandunderstorey. light fromreachingtheforestfloor, resultinginan old) thetreesformadensecanopypreventingmost are present.Duringthe plantations whereremnantsoftheprevioushabitat richest forbiodiversity, especiallyinfirstrotation are approximately0-12yearsold),is described asthe The earlyyearsofforestgrowth,sometimes used alternativeestablishmenttechniques. planting, althoughmorerecentplantationsmayhave a networkofditchesanddeepploughedpriortotree plantations areongroundthathasbeendrainedby edge, ormorerarelyscatteredthroughout.Most a varietyofnativetreesandshrubsonthe scale, speciescompositionmaybemoremixed,with Spruce. At theforest Spruce orNorway native larches,Sitka species, typicallynon- by standsofsingle trees, oftendominated or mainlyofconiferous are composedwholly game functions. They have landscapeand lowlands mayalso though afewinthe is timberproduction, most coniferplantations The primarypurposeof 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead: ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: 100haofnewlong-termretentionby2015. Expand areasoflong-termretentionwithinconiferplantations. Priority Action (CP2) Lead: ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: CompleteforesthabitatnetworkstudyforDumfries&Gallowayby2012. Identify coniferplantationsthatcouldbeconvertedtobroadleavesaspartofaforesthabitatnetwork. Priority Action (CP1) Habitat Description CONIFER PLANTATIONS pre-thicketstage(whenthetrees thicket stage(10-30years Forest trailinDalbeattieForest. canopy (especiallyin August 2006.(PeterNorman) perhapsthe forest value forbiodiversityisofhighimportance. plantations intheregion,theirexistingandpotential 10% ofallUKplanting.Giventheextentconifer (23% oftheregion)plantedwithconifers,almost Dumfries &Galloway, withapproximately145,000ha are themostwidespreadandabundantofhabitatsin Along withimprovedgrasslands,coniferplantations by coniferplantations,with993,000hainScotland. Approximately 1,516,000ha(7%)ofBritainiscovered 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext and landscapepurposesinsomelocations. beyond this age is now beingpractised for biodiversity of trees.Long-termretention restocked forasecondandsubsequentrotation forestry isincreasinglybeingused. The siteisthen using clearfellmethods,thoughcontinuouscover reaching maturity. Harvestingisfrequentlycarriedout of nativeScot’s Pinesoccur. Only intheScottishHighlands dosemi-naturalwoods for atinynumberofJunipers, areofplantationorigin. uplands. All ofDumfries &Galloway’s conifers,except Conifer plantationsarewidespread, especiallyinthe 2.2 CurrentDistribution recreate formerhabitats,especiallyraisedbogs. instances, coniferplantationshavebeenremovedto encouragement ofunderstoreyvegetation.Insome trees, moresensitivetreatmentofwatercoursesand glades, retentionofoldstandswithdeadanddying tree speciesandages,managementofrides needs throughthecreationofagreaterdiversity planned totakeaccountofnatureconservation has promptedmanysecondrotationforeststobe given tothebiodiversityofconiferplantations. This In thelast20yearsincreasingattentionhasbeen 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership ofmatureconifers 183 FOREST HABITATS CONIFER PLANTATIONS 2.3 Site Examples Pine Martens Martes martes were reintroduced to Extensive examples of conifer plantations are found Dumfries & Galloway in the 1980s. Since then, the at Eskdalemuir, Forest of Ae, Mabie Forest, extensive conifer plantations of the region have Dalbeattie Forest and in . enabled their population to expand and increase, although they are rarely seen. A variety of other 2.4 Associated Habitats mammals have successfully adapted to conifer plantations. These include Badgers Meles meles, A number of habitats occur in close association and/ Roe Deer Capreolus capreolus and Red Deer Cervus or overlap with conifer plantations, and the following elaphus. action plans may also contain relevant information: River Headwaters, Exposed River Shingle, 3.2 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) Native Woods, Broadleaved and Mixed Plantations, Forest Roads and Rides, Forest Ponds. Conifer forests, even fairly recent ones, provide good habitats for larger fungi. If the total number of species is lower than native woods, then this is almost certainly due to the fact that plantations tend to be monocultures. Species such as CONIFER PLANTATIONS the Saffron Milk- cap Lactarius deliciosus are even able to survive in the dense thicket stage, though rarer fungi tend to be associated with more mature trees. For example,

The region's conifer forests may offer a last refuge for Red the nationally Squirrels. Loch Ken 2007. (Gordon McCall) rare Fayodis bisphaeriga and 3. Importance for Associated Species Rhodocybe gemina Herald of Winter Hygrophorus hypothejus have been found in is restricted to pinewoods. Torrs Warren, 3.1 Mammals (very high importance) association with pine November 2007. (Peter Norman) The natural habitat of Red Squirrels Sciurus vulgaris and other conifers in in Dumfries & Galloway is native broadleaved Kirkcudbrightshire, and Galerina stylifera in the Forest woodland, but they also occur in low densities in of Ae. Some species, such as Pholiota flammans conifer plantations from the thicket stage onwards. recorded at Kirroughtree, are more usually found in However, introduced Grey Squirrels are better able Caledonian Pine Woods, whilst Melanotus proteus, to compete for food and will eventually replace them an uncommon fungus of pine stumps, is from a in native woods. Large conifer plantations with few predominantly a tropical/sub-tropical genus. A number large-seeded broadleaves might provide the only of species, such as the Larch Bolete Suillus grevillei, long-term prospect for the survival of Red Squirrels have been introduced into Britain as a result of the FOREST HABITATS in Dumfries & Galloway, although even here changes creation of conifer plantations. to species composition and age structure will be required. Microfungi, including mycorrhizal species that are essential for the growth of most British plants, are less Insect food for bats is usually plentiful in conifer common in conifer plantations, often lost through soil plantations, but the harvesting of the trees prior disturbance during initial ploughing or subsequent use to maturity limits the availability of holes, even in of heavy machinery. the high forest stage. Special provision has to be made for them, usually with boxes. More long-term retention of conifers, including retention of standing dead-wood, would increase their prospects.

184 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership The poor qualities of conifer bark, the lack of 3.4 Invertebrates (medium importance) deadwood and old trees, excessive shade, and a lack Large, dense stands of conifers of uniform age are of ecological continuity due to the clearfelling system not of great interest for invertebrates. Those that do make most conifer plantations poor in lichen diversity. occur are either recent arrivals to Britain or common generalists that have spread from native plants. 3.3 Birds (high importance) However, given their extent in Dumfries & Galloway, Several birds, including Short-eared Owls Asio their overall total contribution to invertebrate flammeus and Grasshopper Warblers Locustella biodiversity in the region is not insignificant. A few naevia favour the pre-thicket stage of the conifer nationally scarce species, such a ground beetle plantations. Second rotation forests have not so far Trechus rubens, also occur. provided the same benefits for these species as the original plantings. A number of new invertebrate Conifer plantations, especially in the high forest species have stage, are the favoured habitat for a number been attracted of species, including Song Thrushes Turdus to the canopy philomelos, Coal Tits Periparus ater, Willow Warblers of conifer Phylloscopus trochilus, Goldcrests Regulus regulus, plantations, CONIFER PLANTATIONS Siskins Carduelis spinus and Common Crossbills including several Loxia curvirostra. Only the latter species is restricted hoverflies. to conifers, the others also occurring in a range of For example, other habitats. Chaffinches Fringilla coelebs are very Eupeodes common in conifer plantations and given the extent of lundbecki, this habitat in Dumfries & Galloway, regional numbers although may well be significant in a UK context. A number of common in birds of prey also nest in plantations at this stage, Europe, was and even more so in areas of long-term retention. recorded at These include Buzzards Buteo buteo, Sparrowhawks one of its first Accipiter nisus, Goshawks A. gentilis and Long-eared locations in the The caterpillars of Red-necked Footman moths feed on lichens growing on conifers. Owls Asio otus. UK at Tynron in Glenwhan, July 2005. (Richard Mearns) 1984. Other recent Dumfries & Galloway has many forest edge habitats colonists include Eriozona erratica, E. syrphoides, which should offer potential for the foraging of Melangyna compositarum, Parasyrphus lineola, and Black Grouse Tetrao P. malinellus. The latter was new to science when tetrix. Merlins Falco discovered in 1952. Although most are predators of columbarius will also nest aphids and other canopy species, they also require on the forest edge, so the presence of flowers at ground level. long as there is suitable adjacent open ground The importance of dead and decaying wood is usually for hunting. Practical associated with broad-leaved trees, but it is also of conservation measures importance in long-term retention conifers. The

within conifer forests longhorn beetles Rhagium bifaciatum favours dead FOREST HABITATS have resulted in dramatic and decaying pine, though it also occurs on other improvements in the trees. number of Barn Owls Tyto alba. Barn Owl, The Hairy Wood Ant Formica lugubris is regularly (Paul McLaughlin) recorded in conifer plantations in the Highlands. There Dumfries & Galloway supports almost the entire is a pre-1970 record from the Machars. Although it is Scottish population of Nightjars Caprimulgus now probably extinct, there is an outside possibility europaeus, which nest and feed in forest clearings, that a population may still exist in local forests. including areas of clearfell. Forest restructuring may be able to provide suitable habitat continuity for these birds.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 185 3.5 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Although numbers of species and quantity of plants Importance of Biodiversity can be high, conifer plantations support a poor quality moss and liverwort flora, composed almost entirely of • Though conifer plantations are rarely common species. Important species occur only where economically profitable without state aid, they plantations contain remnants of former habitats, such continue to provide economic and employment as native woods or bogs, or sometimes on decaying benefits to Dumfries & Galloway. large stumps or logs. One species of interest, Ostrich- • The softwood timber produced in the plantations plume Feather-moss Ptilium crista-castrensis is is generally of low quality but does supply a perhaps most typically a plant of northern Scottish number of markets, typically for pulpwood. pinewoods, where its growth can be quite luxuriant, but it has also been found, rarely, in pine plantations • Given the extent of conifer plantations in Dumfries in Dumfriesshire. & Galloway, they make an important contribution to carbon sequestration. However this is rather 3.6 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) limited in comparison to the totals for peatlands, Conifer plantations in Dumfries & Galloway support semi-natural habitats and seas. virtually all of the region’s reptile and amphibian

CONIFER PLANTATIONS • Conifer plantations are well suited to outdoor species, but most occur at very low density within the recreation activities such as mountain-biking trees. The most important areas tend to be localised and paint-balling that may cause damage to less open spaces, such as forest ponds or forest roads, or robust habitats. transient habitats such as clearfell areas. 5. Factors affecting the Habitat 3.7 Flowering Plants (low importance)

Rare plants associated with Caledonian pinewoods • Uniform age and species composition of have been recorded in conifer plantations outside of forests has not benefited biodiversity. the Highlands, including the Borders and Cumbria, but few, if any, are known from Dumfries & Galloway. • There is the prospect of shorter rotations as As a result, the flora of conifer plantations generally timber processing becomes more efficient and consists of common and widespread flowering plants. timber markets change, which may impact on species associated with more mature trees. Following clearfelling there can be rapid • Removal of stumps for use in biomass power recolonisation of flowering plants from adjacent or stations is likely to reduce fungal and bryophyte buried seed sources. However species tend to be diversity of planted conifer plantations. opportunists, with little, if any recolonisation of pre- plantation flora. • Wind and fire damage can open up clearings in forests and encourage biodiversity associated 3.8 Fishes (low importance) with the catastrophic events that occur in natural ecosystems. No species of fish are strongly associated with conifer plantations. Indeed, poorly planned forests can exacerbate acidification of adjacent watercourses, severely depleting fish populations. FOREST HABITATS

186 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • The management and expansion of conifer plantations in the UK is regulated by the government through the Forestry Commission. Grants are paid where the management or creation of plantations is in accordance with UK forestry policy. This is set out in a series of publications: The UK Forestry Standard defines and applies government commitments to sustainability and biodiversity and this is augmented by a series of guidelines on biodiversity, landscape, water, archaeology and Eyed Ladybird, a conifer specialist. Kirkconnel, August 2007. (Greg Baillie) recreation. • UK forestry policy addresses problems of uniform

species cover, stipulating inclusion of a minimum CONIFER PLANTATIONS proportion of minor conifer species together with open space and broadleaves. These elements are likely to comprise 20-30% of new and second rotation forests. The policy also provide guidance on continuous cover silvicultural systems and the identification of long term retentions to produce old trees. • Local forest strategies, termed Forest Frameworks, have been developed by Forestry Commission Scotland, Scottish Natural Heritage and Dumfries & Galloway Council for Galloway and Lockerbie-Langholm to guide the location of new forests.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Direct any new conifer plantations towards areas of low conservation value, such as derelict industrial, low grade arable, and improved pasture, which will result in a net gain for biodiversity. Avoid semi-natural open habitats and native woods of a high conservation importance. • Where feasible, restore high biodiversity

habitats damaged by conifer planting. FOREST HABITATS • Identify locally, as well as nationally and internationally important habitats and species within and around conifer plantations and ensure actions for them are included in forest plans. • Develop systems to monitor the biodiversity value of conifer plantations, for example by assessing critical habitat features and selecting key or indicator species.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 187 188 FOREST HABITATS BROADLEAVED & MIXED PLANTATIONS ecosystem. grow trees,butmaynever acquire afullwoodland Plantations onhighlyimproved agriculturalsoilsmay modified duringtheperiod thatthewoodwasabsent. woodland typesoilthathas beenleastdisturbedand with thebestchanceofdoing soarethosewitha may notdosoformanyhundredsofyears. Those inter-relationships ofsemi-naturalancientwoods,and none haveyetacquiredthecomplicatedecological difficult todistinguishfromthem,butitislikelythat characteristics ofsuchwoodsandcanbecomemore plantations mature,theytakeonmanyofthe with semi-naturaland/orancientwoods. As Plantations ofnativetreesshouldnotbeconfused ground inthelowlands. with conifers,andoccurprimarilyonmorefertile native andnon-nativebroadleavedtrees,oftenmixed of semi-naturalwoods. They arecomposedbothof open groundorinsomecasesbyunder-planting wildlife conservation.Mosthavebeenplantedon game cover, timber, landscapeandamenity, and created foranumberofpurposes,mostcommonly Broadleaved andmixedplantationshavebeen 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. BROADLEAVED &MIXEDPLANTATIONS Lead: ForestryCommissionScotland. Target: CompleteforesthabitatnetworkstudyforDumfries&Gallowayby2012. Identify suitablelocationsfornewbroadleavedplantationsaspartofaforesthabitatnetwork. Priority Action (BMP1) Habitat Description A mixedplantation,createdentirelyforrecreationatPowfoot Lakes. July2006.(PeterNorman) This areawillhavesubsequentlyincreased. 1998, themajorityofwhichwasplantationorigin. 3000km plantation origin.InScotland,therewasaround The majorityofBritain’s broadleavedtreesareof 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext Scot’s Pineand Sitka Sycamore, Ash, Beech, the 1930s,withoaks, designed landscapein was plantedontopofa at GatehouseofFleet Machars. CallyWoods largest woodlandinthe Kilsture Forestisthe interesting flora.Nearby, and Ash. Itsupportsan predominantly ofoaks is anoldplantation, (SSSI) atBladnoch Cotland Plantation 2.3 SiteExamples origins areusuallynotobvious. patchwork onagriculturalland,andtheirhistorical also widespread. They oftencompriseasinuous non-native Beech,Sycamoreandconifers,are native oaks,birches,elmsand Ash, oftenwith estates, housesorcastles,butsmallerwoodsof Larger plantationstendtobeassociatedwithprivate composed ofnativespecies,areplantedorigin. Most woodsinDumfries&Galloway, eventhose 2.2 CurrentDistribution a verynewformofplantation. wildlife andgamepurposes.Short-rotationcoppiceis timber value,buthavebeencreatedforamenity, state grantprogrammes.Fewhaveanysignificant been increasinginthelast20years,encouragedby The numberandareaofbroadleavedplantationshas 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus 2 ofbroadleavedandmixedwoodlandin

Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership flora. Drumlanrig, September characteristic sparseground 2006. (PeterNorman) Beech plantationwith BROADLEAVED & MIXED PLANTATIONS

and Norway Spruce the main trees. It supports Hawfinches Coccothraustes coccothraustes may good bird, bat, lepidoptera and fungi populations. occasionally be found in plantations that contain Other important policy woodlands include those at Beech, Cherry and Hornbeam. Drumlanrig, Kelhead and parts of Mabie Forest. 3.3 Mammals (high importance) 2.4 Associated Habitats The mammal fauna of broadleaved plantations is little A number of habitats occur in close association and/or different to semi-natural native woods - management overlap with broadleaved and mixed plantations, and practices are of more importance than tree species the following action plans may also contain relevant composition. Bats in particular require the retention of information: Native Wet Woods, Native Ash Woods mature and semi-mature trees with plenty of holes for Native Oak Woods, Native Birch Woods, Scrub roost sites. Woods, Veteran Trees, Conifer Plantations, Forest Roads and Rides, Forest Ponds, Wood Pastures and 3.4 Invertebrates (medium importance) Parklands. As a result of the poor colonising ability of woodland invertebrates, broad-leaved plantations lack the 3. Importance for Associated Species characteristic species of semi-natural ancient woods. Unless the plantation adjoins ancient woodland, 3.1 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) the invertebrates will generally be common species A number of non-native trees are important for that occur in a range of habitats. Nevertheless they fungi and lichens. In can occur in high numbers. A few species of more particular Beech is restricted national distribution are known from mixed & MIXED PLANTATIONS BROADLEAVED crucial for a whole plantations, including the larvae of the hoverfly array of fungi, Cheilosia longula that feeds only within fungi growing and Sycamore is under broadleaved and coniferous trees. important for lichens. The nationally rare 3.5 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium Golden Bootleg importance) Fungus Phaeolepiota The spiny underside of the edible Hedgehog Fungus. St. Ann's, Reptiles and amphibians are more influenced aurea was recorded in September 2006. (Peter Norman) by plantation structure than its age or species a mixed open plantation composition. Populations in open plantations can in Kirkcudbrightshire and from Mabie Forest, both in therefore be just as high as in native woods. 1993. 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) Plants generally take much longer to colonise plantations than animals, especially if the plantations are isolated from existing ancient woods. As a result, most plantations lack the typical species diversity associated with ancient woods, though long- established plantations may have acquired at least some of them.

3.7 Flowering Plants (low importance) FOREST HABITATS As with non-flowering plants, the best plantations for flowering plants tend to be the oldest ones that have been least disturbed. Chaffinch. (Paul McLaughlin)

3.2 Birds (high importance) A wide range of birds is found in well-managed plantations, including various thrushes, tits and finches. Though very rare in Dumfries & Galloway,

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 189 FOREST ROADS & RIDES

• The siting of pheasant release pens, especially if intensively stocked can lead to soil enrichment and loss of ground flora. • Climate change may affect tree species distribution throughout Britain. For example it has been suggested that conditions may become unsuitable for Beech in much of the south of England. Although not native to Scotland, in the future this tree may be more suited to environmental conditions in Dumfries & Galloway.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • New mixed plantations have been created at a Common Figwort tolerates shaded habitats in number of locations including Barfill Farm, near plantations. Dalry, July 2007. (Maggi Kaye) Crockeford. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social 6.2 Other recommended actions Importance of Biodiversity BROADLEAVED & MIXED PLANTATIONS BROADLEAVED • Implement the same management techniques for • Nature conservation is rarely the main reason broadleaved and mixed plantations as for native for the establishment or management of woods, wherever this does not conflict with other broadleaved and mixed plantations. Most fulfil a uses. Encouragement of a diverse species variety of other roles including landscape, timber and age structure, creation of open space, production, amenity, recreation, shelter and game retention of wet areas and decaying wood, cover. can all usually be incorporated into management whilst retaining the primary purpose of the • A survey by the Forestry Commission in 2003 plantation. found that 18% of the Scottish population had collected non-timber forest products in the • Consider planting Beech woods on ground preceding 12 months, mostly from mixed woods. of low biodiversity value. Do not plant Beech in 173 species were collected, mostly to eat or for existing semi-natural native woods. medicinal or craft uses. Most products were for personal use and the collecting was considered to be of social and cultural importance, but some collecting also resulted in a modest economic income.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

FOREST HABITATS • Management work, including felling and thinning, can be damaging to bird and bat populations and ground flora, if carried out at sensitive times of the year. • Creation of a dense shrub layer for pheasants in woods managed for game has sometimes been achieved by the planting of potentially invasive shrub species such as Rhododendron, Laurel and Snowberry. Mixed broadleaved plantation. Cally Woods, Gatehouse of Fleet, July 2007. (Peter Norman)

190 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership is theabundance oflight.However, thepresence of biodiversity, incomparisontotheinterior of theforest, The greatestphysicalasset ofroadsandridesfor ground andwetland(ditch) habitatscanalsooccur. predominantly coniferousforests. Grassland,bare shrubs andtreesfrequentlyoccur, evenin diverse thanthesurroundingplantation.Broadleaved ground andvegetatedhabitatsthatisoftenmore Both roadsandridesprovideamosaicofopen firebreaks. forest rides.Bothroadsandridesmayalsoserveas cut underpowerlinesprovideaverysimilarhabitatto by specialistoff-road forestryvehicles.Wayleaves are unsurfacedanddesignedforinfrequentuseonly stacking/loading areasmayalsobepresent. drainage ditches.Passing/turningplacesandtimber the groundsurface,andusuallyhaveassociated created bytheremovalofsoilandre-profiling use byheavytimbertransportvehicles. They are routes withmetalledsurfacesdesignedtosupport purposes offorestmanagement. coniferous andbroadleavedplantationsforthe Roads andrideshavebeenconstructedinboth 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead: Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership/ButterflyConservation/RSPB. Target: Arrange trainingcourseby2012. best tomanagethem. Raise awarenessofforestmanagerstheimportanceroadsandridesforbiodiversity Priority Action (FRR1) Habitat Description Forest roadwithgrasslandandscrubbyedge.PotterlandHill, FOREST ROADS&RIDES July 2007.(PeterNorman) Roads areaccess Rides often longintervalsbetweenboutsofdisturbance. trees alsoprovidesshelterfromwind,andthereare Workings. Plantations, ForestPonds,QuarriesandMineral Conifer Plantations,BroadleavedandMixed action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: overlap withforestroadsandrides,thefollowing A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.4 Associated Habitats all oftheregion’s largerforests. Forest roadsandridesarewidelydistributedthrough 2.3 CurrentDistribution or flailistheprincipaltool. increasingly mechanisedandthetractor-drawnswipe decades has,justlikeforestmanagement,become Maintenance ofroadsandridesintherecent 2.1 RecentTrends 2. the Pearl-borderedFritillary management ofsuitableforest roads. These include following afforestation throughthe creationand have beenretained species ofbutterfly conifers. A numberof aged singlespecies composed ofeven- where plantationsare plantation, especially than thatinthe of greaterinterest and ridesisgenerally fauna offorestroads The invertebrate 3.1 Invertebrates(highimportance) 3. Mabie, theGrayling and theDingy Skipper Dumfries &GallowayStatus Importance for Associated Species Hipparchia semele Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Erynnis tages atDalbeattie. that useopensunnyroadsandrides. Dunskey, August 2003.(MaggiKaye) Painted Lady, oneofmanybutterflies Boloria euphrosyne at Sandyhills , andhow at 191 FOREST HABITATS FOREST ROADS & RIDES Moths are less dependent than butterflies on sunlight, In upland areas, but the abundance of broadleaved shrubs, particularly several species have willows and birches, on forest roads and rides benefited from the provides important foodplants. Other invertebrates reduced grazing have been little studied, but sun-loving groups such pressure in forests, as bugs, bees, wasps and hoverflies are likely to compared to adjacent be more common here than in the shade of the sheep pastures. Bog forest. Predatory insects of other habitats, such as Asphodel Narthecium dragonflies from forest ponds, are often attracted to ossifragum often hunt in the sheltered conditions provided by roads flowers profusely and rides. and Heather Calluna vulgaris and Bog 3.2 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) Myrtle Myrica gale Roads and tracks through woods and plantations grows tall along provide an important microhabitat for fungi including forest rides. Heath rare tooth fungi. These species appear to have a Cudweed Gnaphalium preference for fruiting in bare mineral soils and forest sylvaticum, one of the Self Heal, often abundant on forest roads. Mark Hill, Colvend, July 2007.

FOREST ROADS & RIDES few native vascular tracks often offer a perfect habitat. Many other fungi (Peter Norman) also fruit along forest roads, though it is not clear plant species to exactly why this is the case. Common forest road benefit from the extensive afforestation programmes species include Orange-peel Aleuria aurantia and of the 20th century, grows on open woodland and Shaggy Ink-cap Coprinus comatus. forestry rides in areas of former heathland, though now appears to be in national decline and is locally rare.

In forests planted on bogs, once the canopy closes the only remnants of the original bog vegetation is usually to be found along rides, including Cranberry Vaccinium oxycoccus. Such plants provide a reservoir of seeds that can recolonise adjacent areas following harvesting, and are therefore valuable in any bog restoration projects. However, experience at Longbridge Muir and Moss of Cree suggests that this may be a very slow process.

3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium importance) Conical waxcap Hygrocybe conica on forest road. Mabie, August 2007. (Peter Norman) Wide roads and rides are a good habitat for Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara. Common Frogs Rana 3.3 Flowering Plants (medium importance) temporaria may also breed in ditches. The flora of roads and rides can be completely 3.5 Birds (medium importance)

FOREST HABITATS different to the forests through which they pass. A greater diversity of flowering plants is found on Birds of forest roads and rides are more typical of the lowland forest roads and rides than in the uplands. early stages of forests, rather than the more mature Bird’s-foot Trefoil Lotus corniculatus, Common Dog high forest stage. Species include Garden Warblers Violet Viola riviniana and Black Knapweed Centaurea Sylvia borin, Chiffchaffs Phylloscopus collybita and nigra are typical species, all of which are important Tree Pipits Anthus trivialis. Forests roads and rides for butterflies. Bird’s-foot Ornithopus perpusillus, a may also be important for hunting Sparrowhawks tiny localised plant of open grassland, has been found Accipiter nisus and owls, and for the ‘roding’ display thriving on the disturbance created along some forest flights of Woodcocks Scolopax rusticola. roads in the region.

192 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 3.6 Mammals (medium importance) In mature forests with sufficient bat breeding sites (caves, tree holes or bat boxes) for bats, linear features such as streams, roads and rides provide essential opportunities for feeding and movement of most species, especially if they link areas of semi- natural habitat. Indeed, forest roads and rides are the best places to locate bat boxes. They are also extensively used by feeding deer, and are ideal locations for deer control where required.

3.7 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) Stag’s-horn Clubmoss Lycopodium clavatum and Alpine Clubmoss Diphasiastrum alpinum occur sufficiently frequently on the forest roads and rides to be an important part of the flora at almost all altitudes. Neither species is common in Dumfries & Galloway. FOREST ROADS & RIDES Roadside ditches support a broad range of mosses Green Tiger Beetles Cicindela campestris benefit from open sunny and algae. rides. Balloch Wood, August 2006.(Peter Norman)

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

• Roads and rides are the most publicly accessible part of forests, frequently used by walkers and cyclists. High biodiversity adds to the interest and enjoyment of such forest users. • Game management can be compatible with management for biodiversity.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Blanket application of herbicides as a way of managing forest roads is detrimental to biodiversity, especially flora and invertebrates.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity

• The forest roads around Lochaber Loch in Mabie FOREST HABITATS Forest have been monitored for butterflies on a weekly basis by Forestry Commission Scotland during the summer for more than ten years, and management adjusted accordingly.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 193 194 FOREST HABITATS FOREST PONDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T elevations. forests atlower is locatedwithin of forestponds greatest density is likelythatthe the uplands,it forests arein Although most Galloway. Dumfries & Forest pondsarewidespreadwithinforestsin 2.2 CurrentDistribution features thanearlyforestponds. have tendedtomorenaturalcontoursand conservation andamenitypurposes. These ponds have beenconstructedinrecentyears,primarilyfor easier thaninthepast. As aresultnumberofponds that excavationofnewforestpondshasbeenmuch The increasedmechanisationofforestrymeans 2.1 RecentTrends 2. management regime. can alsobeaffected bythehistoricandcurrent conditions ofthesurroundinglandscape,butall and environmental by thegeological these areinfluenced aquatic plants. All of of marginaland shading andquantity quality, degreeof bank profile,water including size,depth, a rangeoffactors, ponds dependson value offorest pond, thebiodiversity As withanyother 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead: ForestryCommissionScotland/Dumfries&GallowayEnvironmentalResourcesCentre. Target: Map100andsurvey25forestpondsby2015. their locationandcarryingoutsamplesurveys. Assess thedistributionandecologicalimportanceofforestpondsinDumfries&Galloway Priority Action (FP1) Dumfries &GallowayStatus Habitat Description Dalshinnie Loch in MabieForest.July Forest pondatScreel. August 2004. FOREST PONDS 2004. (PeterNorman) (Peter Norman) Plantations, ForestRoadsandRides,FarmPonds. plans mayalsocontainrelevantinformation:Conifer or overlapwithforestponds,andthefollowingaction A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Forest andEarshaigPondsnearBeattock. near Glentrool, Wood Pond interest include Some pondsthatareknowntohavehighbiodiversity 2.3 SiteExamples Plantain scorpiodes edge offorestponds:Water Forget-me-not Myosotis A rangeofflowering plantsisfoundin,oronthe 3.3 FloweringPlants(medium importance) breed inforestponds. vulgaris Newt Triturus cristatus,SmoothNewtLissotriton bufo, CommonFrogRanatemporaria calamita With theexceptionofNatterjack Toads Epidalea importance) Amphibians (high 3.2 Reptilesand groups. surveys ofotherinvertebrate There havebeenfewer restricted UKdistribution. pulchellum, Damselfly Coenagrion populations ofVariable forest pondssupport Usually commonspeciesareinvolved,butseveral ponds thathaverecordedatleasttenspecies. ideal habitatfordragonflies,andtherearenumerous The shelteredenvironmentofmanyforestpondsis 3.1 Invertebrates(highimportance) 3. Importance for Associated Species andPalmateNewt , allnativeamphibians(Common Toad Bufo Alisma plantago-aquatica , Water MintMenthaaquatica which hasa near NewtonStewart, Dalshinnie Loch Penninghame Pond Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Lissotriton helvetica (LWS) inMabie dragonfly offorestponds. Common Darter, atypical andanumber , bymapping BorganPond Dunskey, August 2003. and Knockman , GreatCrested , Water (Mike Kaye) )

FOREST PONDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

of pondweeds Potamogeton spp. Forest ponds, 5. Factors affecting the Habitat especially in remote parts of the forest, are less frequently visited by botanists than more natural • Damage during forest operations can result ponds. from vehicle use, run-off or large amounts of brash or other debris falling into the pond. Such 3.4 Birds (medium importance) damage is now usually avoided through detailed Though there are planning of forest operations. no birds directly • A perception that forest ponds need to be dependent on, regularly ‘cleaned’ can result in damage. forest ponds, they are visited by many • Introduction of fish into fishless ponds has species, including occurred in ponds valuable for dragonflies. Such Grey Herons Ardea action is now illegal. cinerea, Mallards Anser platyrhynchos, Moorhens nest on most lowland forest 6. Strategic Actions FOREST PONDS Moorhens Gallinula ponds. (Gordon McCall) chloropus and a 6.1 Recent and current activity range of small birds. A number of these may breed. • A pond at Kirroughtree Forest Visitor Centre not only adds to visitor interest, but has been 3.5 Mammals (medium importance) constructed by Forestry Commission Scotland Larger forest ponds, especially where they connect to and Cree Valley Community Woodlands Trust watercourses, are used by aquatic mammals such as with platforms to enable educational groups to Otters Lutra lutra, Water Voles Arvicola terrestris and safely sample the aquatic life. Water Shrews Neomys fodiens. They are also used by terrestrial mammals for drinking. • Eskrigg, within Turnmuir Plantation at Lockerbie, is a former curling pond that is now managed as a 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) nature reserve by the Lockerbie Wildlife Trust. Aquatic algae form the basis of most pond food • Garrochar Ponds have been created on the chains, but have been little studied in Dumfries & site of a former curling pond within the Forestry Galloway. A number of aquatic and semi-aquatic Commission’s Balloch Wood at Creetown. mosses and liverworts also grow in ponds, and Though managed by the Balloch Community muddy pond edges tend to be most important for such Woods group primarily for amenity purposes, species. they have quickly become of high biodiversity value. 3.7 Fishes (low importance) • Contaminated groundwater (Acid Mine Discharge) Though many forest ponds support fish populations, issuing from the forest quarry at Craigenbay and some have been deliberately stocked, few has been successfully treated by Forestry of these are of conservation importance. The Commission Scotland using a series of four introduction of fish may seriously damage amphibian ponds that have a natural appearance and also and invertebrate populations. make a positive contribution to wildlife.

• A number of forest ponds have been surveyed for FOREST HABITATS 4. Environmental, Economic & Social their dragonfly populations. Importance of Biodiversity

6.2 Other recommended actions • Forest ponds contribute to local landscapes and provide a focal point on forest walks. • Carry out further pond surveys to identify ponds of high biodiversity value. Species • Accessible forest ponds have high educational groups likely to benefit from additional survey value. effort include dragonflies, water beetles, aquatic • Correctly designed, located and constructed bugs, amphibians and aquatic plants. ponds can assist with the treatment of pollutants from forest quarries or roads.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 195 196 FARMLAND HABITATS SHORT-ROTATION COPPICE around arablecrops. wider andlesssusceptible tochemicaldriftthanthose areas differently tothemaincrop. They tendtobe to operate,providingopportunities tomanagethese are normallyrequiredforthe harvestingmachinery the wintermonths(NovembertoMarch). usually low. Mechanical harvestingtakesplaceonlyin the establishmentperiod,subsequentinputsare preparation andherbicideusemayberequiredduring fields oflowlandareas. Althoughintensivesoil more economicaltogrowinthefertile,larger and soiltypes,butitproduceslargeryieldsis Short-rotation coppicecanbegrownonmostland are muchlesscommonlyusedthanwillows. needs tobereplanted.Poplarsarealsosuitable,but produce 8-10cropsover25-30yearsbeforetheplot 7-8 metreshigh. The cutwillowsthenregrowandcan fields andharvestedonrotationsof3to5yearswhen usually non-native,sterilewillowsthatareplantedin fuel inbiomasspowerstations. The speciesusedare stands offast-growingtreesforuseaswoodchip broadleaved plantation,designedtoproducedense Short-rotation coppiceisahighlyspecialisedformof 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Short-rotation coppiceatBarrasgateFarm,Cummertrees, August Lead: ForestryCommissionScotland/RegionalPriority Assessment Committee. detrimental impactonbiodiversity. to sitesimportantforLocalPriorityHabitatsorSpecies,wherethereislikelybeasignificant Ensure thatallgrant-aidedshort-rotationcoppiceinDumfries&Gallowayisnotlocatedonoradjacent Priority Action (SRC1) Habitat Description SHORT-ROTATION COPPICE 2007. (PeterNorman) Headlands extensive areasofshortrotationcoppicethantheUK. Scandinavia, havealongerhistoryandmore A numberofEuropeancountries,especially in 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext Traditional FieldBoundaries. Agriculturally ImprovedGrasslands, Arable Fields, action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: overlap withshort-rotationcoppice,andthefollowing A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.3 Associated Habitats planted beyondthisradius. 10ha perfarmispreferred. A fewareashavebeen farms withinthisarea,thoughaminimumextentof Lockerbie. Fieldstendtobescatteredonvarious is withina50-mileradiusofthepowerstationat Most oftheshortrotationcoppiceplantedtodate 2.2 CurrentDistribution Dumfries &GallowayandCumbriaby2012. the foreseeablefuture,withatargetof4,000hain has beenincreasingandthisislikelytocontinuein short-rotation coppiceintheregion. The areaplanted provided muchoftheimpetusforestablishment of abiomasspowerstationatLockerbiein2007has first cropswereestablished.Sincethen,theopening coppice hasbeenrapidsincearound2005,whenthe Encouraged bygovernment,interestinshort-rotation 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Warblers warblers areespecially common,especially Willow than inadjacentarableorgrassland fields.Migrant tits andwarblersarealllikely tobemoreabundant on whichtheyareusuallyplanted. Finches,thrushes, different birdcommunityfromarableandgrassland rapidly developintoascrub habitat,andattracta Once established,Short-rotationcoppiceplantations 3.1 Birds(mediumimportance) 3. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Importance for Associated Species Phylloscopus trochilus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership . SHORT-ROTATION COPPICE

Birds associated with increase. The number of different plant species also open farmland, such increases as the crop grows, especially at edge. geese, Lapwings Vanellus However, few scarce or threatened species have so vanellus, Golden Plovers far been recorded. Pluvialis apricaria, and Skylarks Pluvialis 3.5 Fungi and Lichens (low importance) apricaria can be displaced Rust caused by a number of fungi called Melampsora by planting, but in winter is the most important disease of short rotation Snipe Gallinago gallinago coppice. No species of high conservation value are and Woodcocks Scolopax known to favour this habitat. rusticola, prefer short rotation coppice crops 3.6/3.7 Non-flowering Plants & Reptiles and to arable and grass Several species of small bird, Amphibians fields nearby. Recently such as Dunnocks, nest in Little research has been so far carried out on the planted or cut short short rotation willows. (Gavin importance of short rotation coppice for the above rotation coppice can also Chambers) species groups. temporarily support Skylarks and Lapwings.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social COPPICE SHORT-ROTATION 3.2 Invertebrates (medium importance) Importance of Biodiversity As it matures the willow canopy attracts a diverse insect fauna. Bugs Hemiptera and beetles Coleoptera • Short rotation coppice has very low net carbon are most abundant, emissions. However, Blue Willow Beetle Phyllodecta • Short rotation coppice and well managed vulgatissima is the major conservation headlands can provide cover and insect pest of coppice food for game birds such as pheasants. willow and spraying for • Correctly sited and designed, short rotation this species can harm coppice can enhance the landscape. beneficial invertebrates. The sheltered headlands of mature crops 5. Factors affecting the Habitat attract butterflies in Peacock butterfly, one of the species that benefit from wide The recent creation of this habitat and its limited greater numbers than headlands.(Peter Norman) extent to date means that few land managers and surrounding arable and their advisors are familiar with good practice for grassland fields, especially whites, Meadow Browns maximising biodiversity potential. Maniola jurtina, Small Tortoiseshells Aglais urticae and Peacocks Inachis io. These are generalist species – few specialists have been recorded. 6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity 3.3 Mammals (medium importance) Little research has been carried out on small mammal • Advice and grants are available from Forestry populations, but plantations with a dense ground Commission Scotland. cover are likely to support large numbers of mice and HABITATS FARMLAND voles, and their mammalian predators. Rabbits and 6.2 Other recommended actions deer are excluded from plantations where they may • Do not provide grants and incentives for short pose a problem during the establishment phase. rotation coppice on land of high conservation value for species associated with open ground. 3.4 Flowering Plants (low importance) Recently planted or harvested short rotation coppice • Carry out research into the management of is dominated by annual plants, such as Groundsel headlands to increase the natural predators of Senecio vulgaris, Fat Hen Chenopodium album Willow Beetle and reduce the need for intensive and Creeping Thistle Cirsium arvense. With growth, spraying. the proportion of annuals declines and perennials Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 197 198 FARMLAND HABITATS AGRICULTURALLY IMPROVED GRASSLANDS AGRICULTURALLY IMPROVED GRASSLANDS underground drainage networkinthefield. ditch thatmay, ormaynot, belinkedintoanartificial prone towaterlogging oftenhaveasurrounding open drystone dyke. Those fieldsinlowlyingareasor this issometimescombined withahedgerowor by astockproofbarrier, usuallyawirefencebut Most agriculturallyimproved fieldsaresurrounded every fewyears. being ploughedandreseededorputtoanotheruse Leys areimprovedgrassfieldsthattemporary, season, buttheyareusuallygrazedatothertimes. from silageandhayfieldsduringthemaingrowing frequently bycattleand/orsheep.Stockisexcluded by storingdriedplantmaterial)orgrazing,most partial fermentation),hay(animalfodderthatismade storing greenplantmaterialthatispreservedby either forsilage(animalfodderthatismadeby Agriculturally improvedgrasslandsaremanaged rye grassesandclover. of plantspecies,oftenconsistingalmostexclusively This resultsinthedominanceofaverynarrowrange plants suchasdocksattheexpenseofotherplants. grasses andasmallnumberofcommonbroadleaved use inparticularstimulatesthegrowthofcompetitive and pesticideapplicationreseeding.Fertiliser heavily modifiedthroughdrainage,fertiliser, slurry Agriculturally improvedgrasslandshavebeen 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:RegionalProposal Assessment Committee/Scottish Agricultural College. range ofsitestodemonstratebestpractice. Increase biodiversityaroundtheperimeterofimprovedgrasslandfieldsbyprovidingandpublicisinga Priority Action (AGG1) Improved grasslandlandscapesarebrightgreen,eveninwinter. Habitat Description Goldilea, April 2006.(PeterNorman)

horses (2,650in2006). There isamuchsmaller, butincreasingnumberof sheep andanimportantelementofthebeefsector. third ofScotland’s totaldairyherd,15%ofbreeding sheep inDumfries&Galloway, representingalmosta cattle (roughly45%dairy/55%beef)and1,108,000 166,000ha. In 2006 there were approximately 432,000 Galloway, therespectiveareaswere48,000haand 922,000ha morethan5yearsold.InDumfries& of which322,000hawereunder5yearsoldand of agriculturallyimprovedgrasslandinScotland, area. In2006therewereapproximately1,244,000ha in theUKhasincreasedbyapproximately90% In thepast60yearsagriculturallyimprovedgrassland 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext Parklands. Traditional FieldBoundaries,Wood Pastures and Marshes, Lowland BurnsandDitches, Arable Fields, information: NeutralGrasslands, Acid Grasslands, the followingactionplansmay alsocontainrelevant overlap withagriculturallyimproved grasslands,and A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.3 Associated Habitats fringe. many examplesofimprovedgrasslandsintheupland Rhins, MacharsandSolwayplain,buttherearealso silage. Mostofthisisinthelowlands,particularly is improvedgrassland,managedeitheraspastureor land intheregionisfarmedandmajorityofthis habitat inDumfries&Galloway. Three quarters ofall improved grasslandisthemostcommon Agriculturally 2.2 CurrentDistribution pesticides. Rye Grassnowuncommon,andmoretargeteduseof number ofspeciesusedinseedmixtures,with100% entirely. There hasalsobeenanincreaseinthe slowed inthelastdecadeortwo,buthasnotstopped wetland toimprovedgrasslandhasdramatically The conversionofsemi-naturalgrasslandand 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership AGRICULTURALLY IMPROVED GRASSLANDS

3. Importance for Associated Species 3.2 Mammals (medium importance) Moles Talpa 3.1 Birds (high importance) europaea are found Few birds nest on improved grassland. Lapwings wherever the soil Vanellus vanellus may occasionally do so, though this is deep enough is usually limited to semi-improved pastures in the for them to burrow upland fringe; densely stocked lowland pastures and and feed primarily silage fields are rarely used. on earthworms. They are affected A wider range of species, including thrushes, Pied by deep ploughing. Wagtails Motacilla alba, Rooks Corvus frugilegus Rabbits Oryctolagus and Starlings Sturnus vulgaris, feed on invertebrates cuniculus and in agriculturally improved grasslands. The local Badgers Meles decline, to virtual extinction, of Choughs Pyrrhocorax meles also pyrrhocorax is probably linked to the loss of grassland commonly feed in invertebrates, especially those associated with dung. improved pastures. The decline of Brown Hares Lepus europaeus Rabbit (Paul McLaughlin) may be related to the increased use of chemicals and machinery on

improved grassland, but loss of mixed farms and IMPROVED GRASSLANDS AGRICULTURALLY increased stocking rates may also have had an impact (hares are known to avoid heavily stocked fields). However conclusive evidence for any of these theories is lacking.

3.3 Invertebrates (low importance) Species diversity of invertebrates in improved grassland is poor, but there may be high numbers of In improved pastures, Rooks feed on soil invertebrates such as leatherjackets. (Gavin Chambers) some invertebrates, including earthworms, ground beetles and cranefly larvae. Some flies, beetles and In winter a relatively small number of fields, usually other invertebrates are associated with dung, and the same ones each year, are used by feeding geese provide food for birds and bats. Ditches can be and swans, including Whooper Swans Cygnus very valuable for a wide range of invertebrates, but cygnus, Barnacle Geese Branta leucopsis, Greenland only where there is permanent or regular flowing or White-fronted Geese Anser albifrons flavirostris, standing clean water. Greylag Geese Anser anser and Pink-footed Geese Anser brachyrhynchus. For some of these species, 3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) such as Greenland Whitefronted Geese, there is No species of reptile or amphibian regularly uses evidence to suggest that the switch from feeding on agriculturally improved grasslands, unless they are in semi-natural grasslands to agriculturally improved close proximity to more suitable habitats. grasslands has occurred quite recently, possibly due HABITATS FARMLAND to a reduction in semi-natural grasslands. All feeding 3.5 Fungi and Lichens (low importance) species prefer short grass. Few fungi grow in improved grasslands, but field The edges of ditches are particularly valuable mushrooms Agaricus spp. and Brown Mottlegill feeding areas for species such as Lapwings, Starlings Panaeolina foenisecii, which is stimulated by mowing, and others. can occasionally be found. Harvested and bagged silage provides an unusual fungal habitat with the first

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 199 ARABLE FIELDS

Scottish record of Split-gill Schizophyllum commune • A number of avermectin-based veterinary coming from near in the 1960s. This is an medicines are used to control internal worms and uncommon deadwood species of southern England, other parasites. Stock treated with these products but is now recorded breaking out through the excrete residues for several weeks, adversely polythene of silage bails. affecting invertebrates and fungi associated with dung. • Careless application or spillage of chemicals, slurry and silage effluent can affect habitats such as wetlands and watercourses by changing their nutrient status. • Slurry may be toxic to soil invertebrates such as earthworms. • Waterlogging reduces invertebrate populations.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • Goose management schemes, managed by Coprobia sp. fungus on dung. Crichope, June 2007. Scottish Natural Heritage, operated in parts of (Peter Norman) the region most affected by goose grazing. These AGRICULTURALLY IMPROVED GRASSLANDS AGRICULTURALLY 3.6 Flowering Plants (low importance) have now been incorporated into the Scottish Agriculturally improved grasslands are dominated by Rural Development Programme. a small number of highly productive grass species, • The Scottish Agricultural College has completed sometimes grown with White Clover Trifolium repens. research that highlights the value of conservation A few species, such as sorrels, may remain in semi- headlands in grassland, as well as their more improved grasslands, and ditches may support usual location in arable fields. species not found in the middle of the field. • There have been attempts to convert improved grassland to habitats closer to semi-natural types, 3.7 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) including flower-rich grassland, heathland or Intensively managed agriculturally improved woodland. So far these have been relatively small grasslands have few, if any, non-flowering plants. scale experiments, and there have been few in Dumfries & Galloway. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity 6.2 Other recommended actions The large flocks of wintering swans and geese that • Encourage adoption of a range of measures, feed on agriculturally improved grasslands are one of including management of traditional field the wildlife spectacles of Dumfries & Galloway, and boundaries, to improve the biodiversity of field attract many visiting birdwatchers. They do, however, margins. cause localised agricultural damage to fields. FARMLAND HABITATS FARMLAND 5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• There has been a move away from hay production with lower inputs and greater species diversity to re-seeded rye grass silage with higher chemical inputs. • Local stock breeds are used less, which may affect sward composition.

200 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership provides space, lightandfoodforarange ofwildlife. and harvesting iscritical. growth, andthereforethetiming ofcultivation,sowing crop. These factorschangeatdifferent stagesof available forwildlifetogrow ortomovethroughthe and densityalsoinfluences theamountofspace within thecropandatsoilsurface.Cropheight speed, andthereforethehumiditytemperature crop. This affects thedegreeofshadingandwind importance istheheightanddensityof associated withparticularspecies.Perhapsofgreater significant directinfluencewithsomeinvertebrates on anumberoffactors. The cropspecieshasa The valueofarablefieldsforbiodiversityisdependent plan. a separateagriculturallyimprovedgrasslandaction old isnotconsideredasarable,andincludedin the purposesofthisplan,grasslandunder5years entirely forbiodiversityand/orgamepurposes.For have recentlybeenintroducedonsomefarms crops, includinglegumes,brassicasandlinseed, consumption orforanimalfodder. Unharvested species. These maybegrowneitherforhuman Cereals, rootcrops,rapeandmaizearetypicalarable 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:Farming&Wildlife Advisory Group. courses andestablishmentofademonstrationsite. Provide adviceforfarmersandtheiradvisorsonimprovingarablefieldsbiodiversity Priority Action (AF1) Habitat Description Barley fieldPowfoot,July2006.(PeterNorman) Overwintered stubble ARABLE FIELDS standing was smallincomparison,ataround21,000ha. Scotland in2006. The extentinDumfries&Galloway There wasaround600,000ha.ofarablelandin 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext therefore oftendeepandsteepsided. in ordertokeepthesurroundinglanddry. They are to haveawaterlevelwellbelowtheground hedges andwoods.Onarablefarmland and areinfluencedbyadjacenthabitatssuchas Field margins numbers onarableland. measures thathavedramatically increasedbird At Mersehead 2.3 SiteExamples 1786ha. ofsetasideon269farms 3379ha. ofothercrops(mostlymaize)on319farms 186ha. ofkale&cabbageon45farms 392ha. ofturnips,swedes&fodderbeeton80farms 415ha. ofpotatoeson57farms 302ha. ofoilseedrape(winter)on15farms 583ha. ofoats(77%spring,23%winter)on70farms farms 11992ha. ofbarley(73%spring,27%winter)on572 1632ha. wheaton105farms crops inDumfries&Gallowayconsistedof: lower Nithsdaleand Annandale. In2006,arable Most arablefieldsarelocatedintheStranraerbasin, 2.2 CurrentDistribution agri-environment schemes. to adoptsuchtechniqueslargelythroughincentivesin loss ofbiodiversity. Farmershavebeenencouraged enhance biodiversityinarablefieldswithminimum However, newmethodshavebeendevelopedto in Dumfries&Gallowayhascontinuedtodecline. Over thelast10-20years,areaofarableland 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus , RSPBhaveintroduceda range of havelesscompetitionfromthecrop, Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership , throughtraining ditches need 201 FARMLAND HABITATS ARABLE FIELDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.4 Associated Habitats A number of habitats occur in close association and/or overlap with arable fields, and the following action plans may also contain relevant information: Agriculturally Improved Grasslands, Traditional Field Boundaries.

3. Importance for Associated Species

3.1 Birds (high importance)

Few birds nest in mature standing crops, although Corn Spurrey, a plant introduced to Britain with early farming but Quails Coturnix coturnix and Marsh Harriers Circus now in decline. Near New Abbey, July 2007. (Peter Norman) aeruginosus are rare exceptions. Species such as Lapwings Vanellus vanellus and Oystercatchers 3.2 Flowering Plants (high importance) Haematopus ostralegus use spring-sown cereals, Flowering plants of arable fields are mostly annuals, ARABLE FIELDS but not autumn/winter sown crops that are too high adapted to quickly exploit bare ground, making use at nesting time. Skylarks Alauda arvensis also nest in of conditions that are free of competition and shade. standing crops, but only up to a maximum crop height Most of them germinate in the spring, and therefore of around 30cm. not in autumn/winter sown cereals. They include some of the rarest plants in Britain. In Dumfries & Galloway there is a long list of such species that are now either believed extinct or are very rare in the wild. They include Prickly Poppy Papaver argemone, Purple Ramping-fumitory Fumaria purpurea, White Mustard Sinapis alba, Field Pepperwort Lepidium campestre, Cornfield Knotgrass Polygonum rurivagum, Field Woundwort Stachys arvensis, Cornflower Centaurea cyanus and Rye Brome Bromus secalinus.

3.3 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) A specialised moss and liverwort flora has recently Tree Sparrows have declined as a result of the loss of arable fields. been discovered in arable fields, though the species (Steven Round) concerned are generally small and inconspicuous. Grey Partridges Perdix perdix require long grass Intensively managed fields may have none of these for nesting and abundant invertebrate food for their at all, but fields those managed less intensively, chicks. They therefore tend to nest on field margins particularly those with overwintered stubble, can but feed on invertebrates within the standing crop and be rich. Although some arable bryophytes, such on winter stubbles. as Glaucous Crystalwort Riccia glauca have been recorded in Dumfries & Galloway, the number and Standing crops are visited for food by birds such as extent of important sites is not known.

FARMLAND HABITATS FARMLAND Tree Sparrows Passer montanus nesting in adjacent habitats. However, arable fields become most 3.4 Mammals (medium importance) valuable for seed-eating species such as Linnets Brown Hares Lepus europaeus fare better on farms Carduelis cannabina, Corn Buntings Miliaria calandra with arable fields, than those without – the crop and Yellowhammers Emberiza citronella at harvesting providing cover for leverets, but without the intensity time and in the months following. Overwintered of cutting of silage fields. They particularly avoid stubble is especially valuable, not only for spilt grain, heavily stocked pastures. Dumfries & Galloway is but for the seeds of weed species. Roosting Golden the only part of Scotland to support Harvest Mice Plovers Pluvialis apricaria may also use winter Micromys minutus, but so far they have only been stubble fields, but flocks have reduced dramatically in found in wetlands and rough grasslands, rather than recent years due to the loss of such fields. the arable fields after which they were named.

202 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.5 Invertebrates (medium importance) • Fertilisers greatly encourage modern crops and A large number of money spiders, hoverflies and a small number of weed species, but these plants ground beetles, such as Bembidion lampros, occur in then out-compete wild plants. arable fields, many of which assist with pest control. Bumblebees are important pollinators of many crops, 6. Strategic Actions but also require nectar and pollen from wild plants when the crop is not flowering. Well-managed field 6.1 Recent and current activity margins support few rare invertebrates but very • Agri-environment schemes provide incentives to large numbers of common ones, including butterflies, enhance arable fields. grasshoppers and plant bugs. • Scottish Natural Heritage’s Targeted Inputs 3.6 Fungi and Lichens (low importance) for a Better Rural Environment (TIBRE) project Few fungi of conservation importance occur. Crop provides information to show how technology can pests such as mildews and poisonous species be used in farming to benefit the environment. such as ergots are effectively controlled by modern • A Farmland Birds Working Group, organised ARABLE FIELDS techniques. by RSPB, meets to co-ordinate survey and management projects across the region. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social • The Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust is Importance of Biodiversity undertaking a research project called Sustainable Arable Farming for an Improved Environment, Traditionally managed arable fields with wide field which aims to enhance farmland biodiversity margins, wild flowers and overwintered stubble make by developing more wildlife-friendly farming a significant contribution to arable landscapes that techniques. can otherwise appear monotonous. Extensive arable landscapes are rare in Dumfries & Galloway; rather individual fields contribute to a ‘patchwork’ landscape. 6.2 Other recommended actions • Encourage the uptake of agri-environment 5. Factors affecting the Habitat schemes to enhance the biodiversity of arable fields. • The decline of mixed farming, with arable fields, • Improve awareness and training in the practical has reduced and fragmented populations of techniques, such as headlands and beetlebanks, species associated with these habitats. that can be used to enhance arable fields. • A widespread move to autumn-sown cereals has made many fields unsuitable for many nesting birds and wild plants. • Loss of traditional cropping systems, and associated loss of winter stubble, has reduced winter food sources for many farmland birds. • Cropping systems have become more uniform with less rotation giving fragmentation and

reduced habitat variety. HABITATS FARMLAND • The use of insecticides, fungicides and herbicides may cause significant harm to non-target species, even at less than the recommended application rate. • Aerial drift of chemicals may result in impacts outside of the cropped area, such as field margins and ponds. Wide arable field margins Arbigland, • Seed treatment may impact on seed-eating birds August 2006. (Peter Norman) if some seeds are left unburied at sowing.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 203 204 FARMLAND HABITATS TRADITIONAL FIELD BOUNDARIES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T and throughstones andtopstonesbridging thetwo separate dyke faceswithsmallstonesin-between standard andcommonestform consistsoftwo on localtraditionandavailability ofmaterials. The Drystone dykestakeavariety offormsdepending drystone walls. Individual treescanalsooccurwithinthelineof they fulfilthesimilarfunctionsforwildlifeasahedge. fertile areasalsohavedykes.Inbothenvironments is tooharshforhedgerows.Butsomelowland,more outcrops arecommon,thesoilisthinandclimate dykes, arethedominantfieldboundarieswhererocky Drystone walls,betterknownlocallyas habitat. farms, theymaybethesinglemostimportantwildlife provide additionalstructuretohedges.Onsome Hedgerow trees,typically Ash, Wych Elmandoaks, earth mounds,sometimesmixedorfacedwithstones. microclimate. Hedgebanksarehedgesplantedon ‘edge’ habitattomanyspecies,withaslightlydifferent stock-proof structureoffer aswellan an‘interior’ form hedges.Largehedgeswitha Beech, Hazel,Privet,DogRoseandGorsecanalso many othershrubs,includingBlackthorn,Elder, Holly, Hedges aretypicallycomposedofHawthorn,but 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:Scottish Agricultural College. Carry outresearchintothebiodiversityofdrystonedykesandtheirmanagement. Priority Action (TFB2) Lead Partner:RegionalProposal Assessment Committee. Increase thequalityofhedgerows,includinghedgerowtrees,inDumfries&Galloway Priority Action (TFB1) Habitat Description TRADITIONAL FIELDBOUNDARIES Drystone sheeppens,Queensberry(RichardMearns) dense,bushy drystone often haveawoodlandflora,whilst Hedge-bottoms or fertiliserdrift. roads andtracks, from adjacent nutrient enrichment may suffer from activities. Some by agricultural undisturbed often relatively field, andtheyare humidity thanthe temperatures and higher daytime sheltered with are usuallywell hedges anddykes The basesof sheltered, perhapswithatrickleofwater. but thebottomsheltered.Insideitcanbedryand dyke andadryer, warmerside. The topiswindswept granite. There isusuallyanexposed,wetsidetoa and therocktypeisusuallyigneous,especially field clearancestoneasopposedtoquarriedmaterial, parts ofGalloway. They arealmostinvariablybuiltof but canbeverycommoninsomelocalities,including single wall,formonlyasmallproportionofalldykes where mostofthestonesareverylargebouldersina as sandstone,limestoneorgreywacke.Singledykes, of materials,oftenquarriedsedimentarystonesuch faces together. They areconstructedfromavariety type, though similarstructures are foundinotherparts single dykesare themostlocallydistinctive boundary or theotherdid notformpartoftheview. Galloway difficult tofindmanyparts ofthecountrywhereone integral partofthelandscape asinBritain.Itwouldbe but therearefewcountries wheretheyformsuchan occur inmanyformsasfar awayasSouth America, Hedges andwallsarenotespeciallyBritish;they 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext usually moreweedy. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Red sandstonedykeatCrichopeLinn, . June 2007.(PeterNorman) dyke-bases are TRADITIONAL FIELD BOUNDARIES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

of Scotland, Wales, northern England and Dartmoor. 3. Importance for Associated Species There is approximately 814,000km of hedgerows in the UK, 48,700 of which are in Scotland, and 3.1 Invertebrates (very high importance) approximately 87,500km of walls in Scotland. These Many invertebrates are associated with traditional figures compare with more than 235,000 of fences in field boundaries, though few, if any, require Scotland. maintenance of the boundary in a stockproof condition. The number of invertebrates associated with hedgerows probably runs into many thousands. Typical moths include Early Moth Theria primaria, Chinese Character Cilix glaucata and Green-brindled Crescent Allophyes oxyacanthae. The caterpillars of the Orchard Ermine moth Yponomeuta padella live gregariously in webs on Hawthorn and Blackthorn hedges and can defoliate long stretches. The Bird Cherry Ermine Yponomeuta evonymella may do the same where Bird Cherry occurs in hedges, though in both cases the host plant always recovers. Many bees, wasps, sawflies, mirid bugs, shield bugs, leaf beetles are also to be found. TRADITIONAL FIELD BOUNDARIES TRADITIONAL A myriad of invertebrates and their eggs are found Hedgelaying training course at Bombie Farm, , January 2005.(FWAG) in drystone dykes - spiders, woodlice, springtails, millipedes, bees and wasps. The rare Wall Mason Bee Osmia parietina, typically associated with 2. Dumfries & Galloway Status drystone walls, has been recorded in two locations on the Solway coast (out of less than 20 in the UK), 2.1 Recent Trends whilst the even rarer ruby-tailed wasp Chrysura Whilst deliberate destruction of field boundaries hirsuta, usually found in pastures with dykes, has has virtually ceased in the last 30 years, the been recorded in the region just once, near Whithorn fortunes of hedgerows and drystone dykes has in 1973. A spider Textrix denticulata is often found varied enormously in this period. Many dykes have amongst stone dykes, whilst the Muslin Footman been rebuilt along their original lines. There are moth Nudaria mundana feeds on lichens growing on also examples of successful hedgerow restoration dykes and other rocks. projects, but this has had a minimal impact on the scale of the problem. The vast majority of the region’s The nationally rare Wall Whorl Snail Vertigo pusilla hedgerows remain in an extremely poor condition, is most typically found at ivy-covered dyke-bases, unmanaged other than by an annual flail with a usually shaded by trees. The weedy flora of dyke- tractor-driven machine, and continuing to slowly bases can also be important for some butterflies, disappear from existence. Virtually none of them are including Nettle-feeding Peacocks Inachis io and stockproof without the need for additional fencing. Small Tortoiseshells Aglais urticae.

2.2 Current Distribution 3.2 Birds (high importance)

Hedgerows and dykes are widespread throughout the HABITATS FARMLAND Well-maintained region, though hedgerows are predominantly lowland bushy hedgerows in distribution. Hedge banks are rare. can provide food and nest 2.3 Associated Habitats sites for many A number of habitats occur in close association and/ species of small or overlap with traditional field boundaries, and the bird, including following action plans may also contain relevant Linnets Carduelis information: Veteran Trees, Agriculturally Improved cannabina and Grasslands, Arable Fields, Roads and Verges. Yellowhammers Dunnock, sometimes called Hedge Sparrow Emberiza (Paul McLaughlin)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 205 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

citronella, whilst Grey Partridges Perdix perdix often nest in hedge bottoms. Hedgerow trees add further structure to the habitat and are used by nesting Tree sparrows Passer montanus, Barn Owls Tyto alba and other species.

Dykes are of lesser importance for birds, but some species such as Wrens Troglodytes troglodytes, and in the uplands Wheatears Oenanthe oenanthe, may nest in cavities within them.

3.3 Flowering Plants (high importance) Hawthorn Crataegus monogyna is by far the most abundant hedgerow plant, though in Dumfriesshire Beech hedge at Claygate, near Canonbie, February 2008. there are also many Beech Fagus sylvatica hedges. (Peter Norman) Other shrubs that are often part of the hedge, and in travelling between areas of semi-natural habitat. some cases can be the dominant species, include Most bats avoid from crossing open fields, and Blackthorn Prunus spinosa, Gorse Ulex europaeus, may even shun from crossing quite small gaps in Holly Ilex aquifolium, Elder Sambucus nigra, Wild hedges. Hedges can also form an important habitat

TRADITIONAL FIELD BOUNDARIES TRADITIONAL Privet Ligustrum vulgare and Guelder Rose Viburnum component for other species, including of course opulus. A feature of many parts of Dumfries & Hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus. Galloway in the spring are the great drifts of Cow Parsley at hedge-bottoms. In other areas there is Voles, mice and shrews find shelter within dykes, more of a woodland flora with Primroses Primula where they are hunted by Stoats Mustela erminea vulgaris, Bluebells Hyacinthoides non-scripta and and Weasels Mustela nivalis. even Early Purple Orchids Orchis mascula. 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) A number of plants grow on drystone dykes, Shady, damp dykes can be totally covered in mosses including cranesbills and stonecrops. and liverworts. Semi-derelict dykes in more exposed environments are colonised by Woolly Fringe- 3.4 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) moss Racomitrium languginosum. Hedgerow trees, Lichens generally favour the exposed side of dykes, especially Ash, Sycamore and Wych Elm can be rich leaving the damper sheltered side to the mosses. in mosses and liverworts, including the possibility of Where stock rubs against the dyke, the lichen flora rare species. may be limited to a few species able to cope with this. 3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium Hedgerow trees are very important for lichens. importance) They support species not found in woodlands; Dykes are used for shelter and basking sites by instead rather approaching the diversity of those of Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara and Slow Worms wood pastures. However, due to the abundance of Anguis fragilis. Newts, Common Frogs Rana hedgerows, in comparison to wood pastures, their temporaria and Common Toads Bufo bufo may also total value may be greater. The species and age of find shelter, perhaps even hibernation sites, within FARMLAND HABITATS FARMLAND the tree has a significant influence, but so to do local them. conditions and management. Elm is the prime host of the most threatened lichens, but Ash and Sycamore 4. Environmental, Economic & Social are also valuable. In areas with little native woodland, Importance of Biodiversity hedgerows may be the only significant habitat for epiphytic lichens. • Hedges, boundary trees and dykes are highly significant features in most agricultural 3.5 Mammals (medium importance) landscapes. Bats use holes in hedgerow trees for breeding and roosting and will often fly along hedgerows when • Both hedges and dykes provide shelter for livestock and crops.

206 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

• The ground beetles, ladybirds and parasitic wasps that are associated with traditional field boundaries provide a biological control service that greatly outweighs the damage caused by the pests found in these habitats.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• There is a widespread perception that field hedgerows should look like garden hedges, neatly clipped and tidy. Unfortunately mechanical flailing can never produce the same results as garden shears. • Cutting hedges in the summer destroys bird nests, and in the autumn prevents the formation of berries. • The loss of hedgerow trees probably outnumbers the loss of the hedgerows

themselves. Dutch Elm Disease has contributed FIELD BOUNDARIES TRADITIONAL to this loss, but management practices, including annual flailing, rarely favour their replacement. • Overstocking of fields can lead to the loss of flowers and lichens associated with hedgerows, dykes and trees. Conversely, loss of grazing can lead to ivy encroachment, which has benefits for invertebrates, but can lead to loss of lichens. • Well established, traditional field boundaries are often the first casualty of road widening schemes. Their replacements will take many decades to acquire the same biodiversity interest.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • Agri-environment schemes have funded the creation of new hedgerows. • The Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group has promoted good practice in hedgerow management through advice, demonstrations and

training events. HABITATS FARMLAND

6.2 Other recommended actions • Options are available for field boundaries as part of Rural Development Contracts and Rural Priorities. • Develop hedge management skills through training and advice. Lichen encrusted seashore stones in dyke at Claymoddie, Machars, August 2007. (Peter Norman)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 207 208 FARMLAND HABITATS WOOD PASTURES & PARKLANDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T through fertiliser andpesticideapplication, but have grassland thathasbeenagriculturally improved The majorityofwoodpastures andparklandsnow protection fromgrazingto allow treestoregenerate. numerous invertebratesand birds,butalsoprovides pastures andparklands.It not onlysupports Scrub isessentialforhighbiodiversityinwood and manyarenowconsideredtobe hollows. Someshowevidenceofpreviouspollarding, heavy branching,basalswelling,fattrunksandmany trees inthattheytypicallyhaveroundedcrowns,low pastures andparklands. They differ fromwoodland Open-grown treesarecharacteristicofwood landscape reasons. superimposed overolderwoodpastures,primarilyfor usually inthevicinityofalargehouseandsometimes as woodpasturesbutweredeliberatelydesigned, Parklands havethesamevegetationalstructure products, thoughmanagementoftreesisnowrare. for theproductionofbothlivestockandtimber elements ofthehabitatweretraditionallymanaged heathland combinedwithtreesorshrubs.Both Wood pasturescompriseofgrazedgrasslandor 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead: SulwathConnections. Target: Dedicatedwoodpastureprojecttooperateregion-widefrom20082013. the region. Complete SulwathConnectionsWood Pastureprojectandsecurefundingtoextendthiswork throughout Priority Action (WPP1) Parkland atShambellie,New Abbey, May2004.(PeterNorman) Habitat Description WOOD PASTURES &PARKLANDS veteran trees . compared totheirEuropeancounterparts. British woodpasturesandparklandsisoutstanding, trees andtheabundanceofassociatedspeciesin of management.Inparticular, thenumberofveteran unique, andfewcountrieshavesuchalonghistory used inBritishwoodpasturesandparklandsare species compositionandmanagementtechniques many Europeanandothercountries.However, the Wood pastures,inoneform oranother, existin 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext even rarer. wood pastureisalsoofhighbiodiversityvalue,but and isofhighbiodiversityvalue.Heathlandunder unimproved grasslandstilloccursonsomesites abandoned inthe19 The techniquesofmanagingwoodpastureswere 2.1 RecentTrends 2. site hasahistory ofwoodpastureandcontains oneof the bestwood pasturesiteintheregion. Although the Lochwood 2.3 SiteExamples widespread, neitherisevenly distributed. predominantly lowland.However, althoughbothare the uplandsandlowlands,whilstparklandsare accurately assessed.Wood pasturesoccurinboth parklands inDumfries&Gallowayhasnotbeen The presentdistributionofwoodpasturesand 2.2 CurrentDistribution significant impactinDumfries&Galloway. to thecreationofnewones. This hasyettohavea fragments ofwoodpastures,andconsiderationgiven research intonewtechniquestorestoretheremaining In thelasttenyearstherehasbeenconsiderable their biodiversityvalue,especiallyveterantrees. resurgence ofinterestinwoodpastures,primarilyfor However, inthelate20 land managementbecamealmosttotallyforgotten. an extentthattheveryexistenceofthisform Dumfries &GallowayStatus (SSSI),nearBeattock,isoften quotedas th Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership and20 th centurytherewasa th centuriestosuch WOOD PASTURES & PARKLANDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

frondosa are more common species. Where it exists, unimproved grassland beneath the trees may also be important for grassland fungi such as waxcaps.

3.2 Invertebrates (very high importance) Due to the presence of many veteran trees, many wood pastures are very important for invertebrates. Most of these are associated with decaying wood in veteran trees, but others feed on fungi and other invertebrates that are found on the trees. For example, the larvae of a nationally scarce darkling beetle Eledona agricola develops in the fruiting bodies of Sulphur Polypore Laetiporus sulphureus, and occasionally other bracket fungi, mostly in old Short, stubby, veteran oaks. Boreland of Parton, July 2007. wood pastures. Virtually no local surveys have been (Peter Norman) completed of such species. the finest collections of veteran trees in Britain, most of it has not been managed as wood pasture for some However, the presence of many veteran trees is time. There are, however, some very good examples not the only reason why wood pastures are very WOOD PASTURES & PARKLANDS WOOD PASTURES of current wood pasture on its fringes and on nearby important for invertebrates; those sites with scrub, Raehills Estate. Other sites include Boreland Hills especially Hawthorn and Blackthorn blossom, provide and Ardwall Hill in the Fleet Valley. Good examples essential nectar for the adult insects that emerge of parklands are found at Drumlanrig Castle and from the trees. Unimproved grassland provides a at Kirkconnell House and Shambellie House near nectar-rich habitat, but scrub and associated flowers New Abbey. such as Hogweed Heracleum sphondylium and other umbellifers are equally valuable within improved 2.4 Associated Habitats pastures. A number of habitats occur in close association and/ or overlap with wood pastures and parklands, and 3.3 Mammals (high importance) the following action plans may also contain relevant Though many mammals, including Brown Hares information: Native Woods, Veteran Trees. Lepus europaeus and Badgers Meles meles undoubtedly make use of wood pastures, their 3. Importance for Associated Species greatest importance is for bats. Veteran trees, with their numerous holes and hollows, provide many 3.1 Fungi and Lichens (very high importance) opportunities for breeding roosts and hibernacula, The combination of habitats in wood pastures whilst invertebrates associated with both the trees means that they are important for a range of fungus and unimproved grassland provide abundant food. species. On the open-grown trees, light and humidity conditions are often ideal for many lichen species. 3.4 Non-flowering Plants (medium Importance) For example, Tree Lungwort Lobaria pulmonaria Epiphytic ferns are usually abundant on veteran trees is known from several current and former wood in wood pastures and parklands. Common Polypody pastures across the region. Other lichens, recorded Polypodium vulgare is the typical species, but others FARMLAND HABITATS FARMLAND only rarely in Dumfries & Galloway, that may benefit also occur. Veteran trees also provide an ideal habitat from enhancement of wood pastures include Bacidia for epiphytic mosses and liverworts, though isolated incompata, Schismatomma graphidioides and trees are of less value, being susceptible to drying Orange-fruited Elm Lichen Caloplaca luteoalba. winds. Little work has been carried out in Dumfries & Galloway, but the local bryophyte flora may be better The presence of veteran trees also makes wood than in some of the ‘classic’ wood pasture sites in pastures important for a range of saproxylic fungi. southern England, where air pollution is a restricting The internationally rare Oak Polypore Piptoporus factor. Typical species include Park Yoke-moss quercinus has been recorded at Lochwood, whilst Zygodon rupestris and Squirrel-tail Moss Leucodon other bracket fungi such as Beefsteak Fungus sciuroides. Fistulina hepatica and Hen of the Woods Grifola

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 209 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.5 Birds (high importance) Hole-nesting species that feed in open areas are the typical birds of wood pastures. These include Barn Owls Tyto alba, Redstarts Phoenicurus phoenicurus and Spotted Flycatchers Muscicapa striata. Areas of scrub may attract breeding Dunnocks Prunella modularis and Linnets Carduelis cannabina.

3.6 Flowering Plants (low importance) Apart from their veteran trees, most wood pastures in the region tend to have improved or semi-improved grassland that supports a limited range of flowering plants. Crab Apples Malus sylvestris are a distinctive feature of many wood pastures in Dumfries & Scrub pastures, often dominated by Gorse, are common across the Galloway. region. Lochanhead, April 2006. (Peter Norman)

3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) lived and worked. Apart from the value of the The open conditions of wood pastures is of more trees themselves, many contain other features of cultural heritage value including earthworks,

WOOD PASTURES & PARKLANDS WOOD PASTURES benefit to reptiles and amphibians than dense woods. However, the trees alone are of little value without a disused mines, rock carvings, a Neolithic burial field layer that provides shelter, invertebrate food and, cairn, a hill fort and a 12th century motte. in the case of amphibians, breeding ponds. Therefore, only those wood pastures with unimproved 5. Factors affecting the Habitat grassland, heathland or wetland tend to support high reptile and amphibian populations. • Removal of trees and dead wood through perceptions of safety and tidiness where sites 4. Environmental, Economic & Social have high amenity use, forest hygiene, the supply Importance of Biodiversity of firewood or vandalism. • Loss of veteran trees through disease, • Wood pastures and parklands are of considerable physiological stress such as drought and landscape value. In parklands, the combination storm damage, and competition for resources of trees and pasture was deliberately planned to with surrounding younger trees. be pleasing to their owners, often when viewed from the windows of their homes, but even in non- • Damage to trees and roots from soil compaction designed wood pastures, the diversity of colours, and erosion caused by trampling of livestock and shapes and light offered by this habitat forms an car parking. attractive landscape. • Neglect, and loss of expertise of traditional tree • Wood and scrub offers shelter for stock in winter management techniques (e.g. pollarding) leading and shade in summer. Some grazing of trees to trees collapsing or being felled for safety and shrubs may occur, but this is rarely managed reasons. in any way, although recent research has • Lack of regeneration of trees, producing a FARMLAND HABITATS FARMLAND suggested that livestock might benefit from the skewed age structure, leading to breaks in the supplementary feeding of tree foliage. continuity of dead wood habitat and loss of • Timber production would historically have been specialised dependent species. one of the uses of wood pastures. Some sites • Pasture improvement through reseeding, deep retain patches of high forest as well as open- ploughing, fertiliser and other chemical grown trees and these can be thinned out to treatments, leading variously to tree root provide good timber. damage, loss of nectar-bearing plants, damage to • Many wood pastures illustrate past land use the soil and epiphytes. and are therefore part of the region’s cultural heritage, providing evidence of how our ancestors

210 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P WOOD PASTURES & PARKLANDS WOOD PASTURES

White Galloway cattle grazing under Ash trees. High Ardwall, Gatehouse of Fleet, August 2005. (Peter Norman) • Inappropriate grazing levels: under grazing • A project to manage, and possibly create, wood leading to loss of habitat structure through pastures in selected locations in Dumfries & bracken and scrub invasion; and over grazing Galloway was begun in 2007 as part of the leading to bark browsing, soil compaction and Heritage Lottery Funded Sulwath Connections loss of nectar plants. Landscape Scheme. • Pollution derived either remotely from industry • RSPB has begun to create a wood pasture (or, and traffic, or locally from agro-chemical depending on definition, restore of a degraded application and nitrogen enrichment from pasture one) at Barclye in the Cree Valley, with the overstocking, causing damage to epiphyte support of Sulwath Connections. communities and changes to soils. • Wood pastures have been poorly served by agri- 6.2 Other recommended actions environment and forestry grant schemes. • Promote the positive features of grazing in woodland and the role of wood pasture in 6. Strategic Actions planning ecological restoration. • Identify sites with current or historical evidence 6.1 Recent and current activity of wood pasture. This does not mean that all • A preliminary assessment of the distribution and such areas should be managed as wood pasture extent of the wood pasture resource in Dumfries but its existence should be appreciated and the & Galloway was commissioned by Scottish possibility of maintaining or enhancing wood- Natural Heritage in 2006. pasture features considered. HABITATS FARMLAND • A detailed assessment of wood pastures in the • Examine the feasibility of running training Fleet Valley National Scenic Area, including courses in traditional tree management history, management, vegetation and veteran techniques (e.g. pollarding). trees was carried out in 2005 by SEPA, Solway • Explore possibilities for the creation of new Heritage and Dumfries & Galloway Council. An areas of wood pasture. introductory booklet to wood pastures in Dumfries & Galloway was produced at the end of this • Encourage and contribute to the national project. production of an illustrated management guide to wood pasture and parkland.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 211 212 FARMLAND HABITATS FARM WOODS & SHELTERBELTS 16,000ha were foundinDumfries&Galloway. woodland inScotland in2006,ofwhich around There wereapproximately 250,000ha offarm 1.2 NationalandInternational Context woodland offers thegreatestpotential forbiodiversity. value. Oftentheinterfacebetweenfarmlandand but evenrelativelyyoungplantationshavesome interest tendstoincreasewiththeageofwood, depending ontheirstructureandlocation.Biodiversity species, andcanbeusedforavarietyofpurposes and shelterbeltscanbecomposedofnativeorexotic Though predominantlyofplantedorigin,farmwoods a result,manyarelinearinshape. be foundalongaccesstracksandfieldboundaries. As are oftenlocatedclosetofarmbuildings,butmayalso as partofthedaytoactivitiesfarm. They for timberproduction,mostfarmwoodsaremanaged which areoftenmanagedbyexternalagentsprimarily hectares. Unlikethelargercommercialplantations, Most woodsonfarmsaresmall,usuallylessthan2 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. College. Lead Partner:ForestryCommissionScotland/Farming&Wildlife Advisory Group/Scottish Agricultural specific advice. Improve thebiodiversitymanagementofexistingfarmwoodsandshelterbeltsthroughprovisionsite- Priority Action (FSB2) Lead Partner:RegionalProposal Assessment Committee. Target: 50newfarmwoodsonappropriatesitesby2015. Create newfarmwoodsandshelterbeltsonlandcurrentlyoflowbiodiversityarchaeologicalinterest. Priority Action (FSB1) Habitat Description Conifer andbroadleavedfarmshelterbeltsatDalswinton. FARM WOODS&SHELTERBELTS (Richard Mearns). Plantations, Traditional FieldBoundaries. information: NativeWoods, BroadleavedandMixed the followingactionplansmayalsocontainrelevant or overlapwithfarmwoodsandshelterbelts, A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.3 Associated Habitats of alargeestateoftenhavemorefarmwoods. woods thanothers.Farmsthatare,orwereonce,part in thelowlands,haveagreaterdensityofthese Dumfries &Galloway, thoughsomeareas,particularly Farm woodsandshelterbeltsarewidespreadacross 2.2 CurrentDistribution have notbeennumerous. woods havebeencreatedinrecentdecades,these been clearedbutnotreplaced. Though newfarm as aresultofdisease,stormsoroldagehaveusually been managedtoanyextent. Trees thathavefallen that havebeenconvertedtoconifers,mostnot recent decades.However, withtheexceptionofthose Few farmwoodshavebeendeliberatelyremovedin 2.1 RecentTrends 2. frugilegus on thefarm. Typical speciesincludeRooks important nestingsitesfor birds thatfeedelsewhere species areusuallyfound.However, theycanform woodland breedingbirds,althoughafewcommon Farm woodsarerarelylargeenoughtosupportmany 3.1 Birds(mediumimportance) 3. suitable holes ornestboxes.Inexceptional cases, Owls Tyto alba maynestinfarmwoodsif thereare Sparrows Passermontanus Dumfries &GallowayStatus Importance for Associated Species and Starlings Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Sturnus vulgaris inafewlocations with Tree Corvus . Barn FARM WOODS & SHELTERBELTS

they may also be used by Little Owls, on the northern 3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium edge of their range, or Long-eared Owls Asio otus, importance) which avoid larger woods dominated by Tawny Owls Though farm woods in themselves may not be of high Strix aluco. value for reptiles and amphibians, they are often an important component for a wider habitat mosaic for newts and Common Toads Bufo bufo.

3.5 Invertebrates (low importance) The small size, open nature, limited range of tree species and lack of deadwood usually limits the value of farm woods for the rarer species of invertebrates. Nevertheless, such woods may contain an abundance of common species that may be rare elsewhere on the farm.

3.6 Flowering Plants (low importance) As with invertebrates, the history and environmental conditions found in farm woods and shelterbelts, is

rarely suitable for important flowering plants, but such WOODS & SHELTERBELTS FARM sites may contain common species that may not be found elsewhere on the farm.

3.7 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) The open nature of most farm woods makes them poor habitats for mosses and liverworts.

4. Environmental, Economic and Social Great Spotted Woodpeckers will nest in quite small woods if Importance of Biodiversity suitable deadwood is available. (Gordon McCall)

3.2 Mammals (medium importance) • The landscape value of farm woods and Farm woods are valuable habitat features for bats. shelterbelts, both individually and collectively, Old trees provide roost sites and the wood can be a is enormous. They can also screen unsightly valuable source of insect food, but even when this is buildings. not the case they provide valuable habitat linkages • Farm woods and shelterbelts act as buffers to between areas of high insect abundance, such as increase farm biosecurity. wetlands, and roost sites in farm buildings. Many bat species will not cross open country. • Many small woods provide cover for pheasants and other game. 3.3 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) • Farm woods and shelterbelts reduce wind-borne A range of fungi can be found in farm woods, though soil erosion and help reduce both the amount and there are none are restricted to this habitat. Such rate of run off into watercourses, thus contributing woods are of greater value to lichens, as their high to flood alleviation. HABITATS FARMLAND ratio of edge habitat and often their open nature, • Footpaths and public access routes are often provides environmental conditions closer to wood defined by farm woods, and they add interest for pasture than dense woodland. Also, the tree species the visitor. typical of many farm woods in Dumfries & Galloway – Ash and Wych Elm, is well suited to many lichens.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 213 FARM PONDS

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Dutch Elm Disease has reduced the number of elms in farm woods and shelterbelts. • Unmanaged stock access can damage ground flora and prevent regeneration. • Dead and fallen trees are usually cleared immediately, often for firewood. This removes an important habitat for many species of bird, bat and invertebrate. • Some woods are used to screen the dumping of farm rubbish. FARM WOODS & SHELTERBELTS FARM

Rookery at Kirkton. (Richard Mearns)

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • Some farm woods have been fenced from livestock under agri-environment schemes.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Carefully plan new farm woods to avoid habitats that are already of biodiversity interest, such as wetlands or unimproved grasslands, and archaeological sites. Maximise biodiversity and other benefits, by linking existing habitats, such

FARMLAND HABITATS FARMLAND as ponds and hedgerows. • Aim for several small woods on the farm, especially when managing for game birds. • Consider reversion of conifer woods to broadleaved or mixed woods. Small conifer plantations rarely have an economic value.

214 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership biodiversity andamenitybenefits. watercourses. They should,however, alsoprovide farm steadings,toprevent damage tonatural ponds aredesignedtotreat andstorerunoff from Sustainable FarmDrainage Systems. New pondshavealsorecentlybeencreatedfor are muchmoreimportantthantheoriginofpond. exposure topollutionandlocationinthelandscape ponds. Factorssuchasgeology, waterdepth, difference betweenman-madeandsemi-natural Unlike manyotherhabitats,thereislittleecological amenity, wildlifeorsportingvalue. farm management,butthemajoritynowonlyprovide seasonal. Manyoriginallyservedaspecificpurposein adds totheirvalue. The watercanbepermanentor lochans of1-2hectaresormore,butthisvariation in sizefrompuddlesofonesquaremetretodeep farm pondshavebeenartificiallycreated. Theyvary Natural pondsoccuronfarms,butthemajorityof 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:Farming&Wildlife Advisory Group. Target: Arrange 2trainingcoursesby2012. Provide traininginthemanagementoffarmponds. Priority Action (FP2) Lead Partner:RegionalProposal Assessment Committee. support importantpondspecies. Create newpondlandscapes(severalpondslinkedbywildlife-richhabitats)infarmlandareasknownto Priority Action (FP1) A recentlycreatedsustainablefarmdrainagepondatBarnboard Habitat Description Farm, BridgeofDee, August 2006.(PeterNorman) FARM PONDS Such Marshes, NativeWet Woods, ForestPonds. Eutrophic Lochs,Mesotrophic Lochs,Swamps, action plansmayalsocontain relevantinformation: and/or overlapwithfarmponds, andthefollowing A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociation 2.4 Associated Habitats Britain forGreatCrestedNewts. forms oneofthemostimportantbreedingareasin A networkoffarmpondsatBurrowHead(SAC/SSSI) important inScotlandforwaterbeetles. Carrick Ponds(SSSI)aresomeofthemost 2.3 SiteExamples been littleresearchintovariationsinponddensity. areas acrossDumfries&Galloway, buttherehas Ponds arebelievedtobewidespreadinallfarming 2.2 CurrentDistribution recent years. there hasbeenrelativelylittlelossoffarmpondsin that thisisnotthecaseinsouthwestScotlandwhere match thosestillbeinglost,althoughitissuspected scale thenumberofnewpondsisestimatedonlyto at thebeginningof20thcentury. Indeed,onaUK resulted inaponddensityanywherenearthatseen or amenitypurposes.Howeverthishasnotyet create newfarmpondsforangling,shooting,wildlife In thelastfewdecadestherehasbeenatrendto 2.1 RecentTrends 2. unknown. Their numberandextentinDumfries&Gallowayis waterbodies upto2ha,aroundhalfoftheBritishtotal. Scotland isestimatedtohaveatleast150,000 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership 215 FARMLAND HABITATS FARM PONDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3. Importance for Associated Species A wide variety of flowering plants is found in farm ponds. Mudwort Limosella aquatica, an annual of 3.1 Reptiles and Amphibians (very high the muddy edges of ponds, if found only erratically importance) in Dumfries & Galloway. Lesser Reedmace Typha Common Frogs Rana temporaria, Common Toads angusifolia, of restricted distribution in Scotland, Bufo bufo and all three species of newt – Great grows in slightly deeper water on the edge of ponds Crested Triturus cristatus, Smooth Lissotriton vulgaris than its larger and commoner relation. and Palmate Lissotriton helvetica regularly breed in farm ponds. Natterjack Toads Epidalea calamita, 3.5 Mammals (medium importance) though of limited distribution, also breed in a few farm Larger farm ponds, especially where they connect ponds. to wetland, are used by aquatic mammals such as Otters Lutra lutra, Water Voles Arvicola terrestris and Water Shrews Neomys fodiens. They will also be used for drinking by terrestrial mammals. FARM PONDS FARM 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) Algae are a natural part of ponds and form rich habitats for many invertebrates and the basis of many food chains. However nutrient enrichment can cause dense algal growth and blooms, to the detriment of other species.

3.7 Fishes (low importance) Though farm ponds may be stocked with fish for Common Toads benefit from larger ponds. Kirkconnel, angling or amenity purposes, the species involved 3.2 Invertebrates (high importance)February 2006. (Greg Baillie) are of low conservation importance. It is damaging, Many aquatic invertebrates are found in farm ponds. and potentially illegal, to stock ponds with fish that are Typical species include moths such as Bulrush currently fishless. Wainscots Nonagria typhae that feed on Reedmace, water beetles such as Great Diving Beetles Dytiscus 4. Environmental, Economic & Social marginalis, and dragonflies such as Large Red Importance of Biodiversity Damselflies Pyrrhosoma nymphula.

• Water creates a focal point in farm landscapes. A number of locally important species have also been recorded from a few ponds in the region. These • Ponds have a cultural and archaeological value. include Water Spiders Argyroneta aquatica, the only Mill ponds and other farm ponds provide valuable spider to live an almost entirely submerged existence, information about the history of a place. and Variable Damselflies Coenagrion pulchellum that • Ponds may be of considerable amenity value: have a restricted UK distribution. some are used for shooting or fishing, others for boating or part of a nature reserve. 3.3 Birds (high importance) Mallards Anser platyrhynchos and Moorhens

FARMLAND HABITATS FARMLAND 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Gallinula chloropus are the typical breeding birds of farm ponds, with Sedge Warblers Acrocephalus • On a national scale, pollution may be more of schoenobaenus and Reed Buntings Emberiza a threat to ponds than actual loss. This includes schoeniclus in the surrounding marsh and scrub. nutrient over-enrichment (eutrophication) from However, farm ponds may be of critical importance fertiliser and slurry runoff and accidental chemical in providing food for birds that may nest elsewhere contamination. on the farm, including Lapwings Vanellus vanellus, Redshanks Tringa totanus and Tree Sparrows Passer • Excessive cattle poaching on the banks of montanus. 3.4 Flowering Plants (medium importance)

216 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

ponds can cause turbidity and decreased dissolved oxygen concentrations as a result of sediment and excrement entering the water. • Well-intentioned mismanagement may be more damaging than doing nothing. For example, dredging silt and removing vegetation for the sake of creating open water may in some circumstances damage the conservation interest of ponds.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity

• The Working Towards Best Practice Project, led PONDS FARM by FWAG, is carrying out a number of wetland projects on farms and promoting best practice to other farmers and landowners. • The Pond Monitoring Network is establishing an online database of ponds throughout the UK.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Link new ponds to other habitats within the landscape. Avoid open semi-natural habitats that are likely to already have a high biodiversity value, and important archaeological sites. • Maintain habitat mosaics. Ponds associated with semi-natural habitats such as unimproved grasslands or native woods are likely to be of higher conservation value. FARMLAND HABITATS FARMLAND

Extensive network of ponds within farmland at Carrick, Gatehouse of Fleet, June 2007. (Peter Norman)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 217 218 BUILT HABITATS PUBLIC OPEN SPACES attracted afewspecialist species, mostlyfungi. woodchip mulch hasprovidedanewhabitat thathas plants changed twoorthreetimesayear. However, managed, sometimesbeing dugandbedding in otherurbanareas. They tendto beintensively Municipal domestic, orsemi-tame,wildfowl. for intensiveactivitiessuchasboatingandfeedingof created, concretelinedwithverticalbanks,andused exceptions, thetypical of semi-naturalhabitat. Though therearemany management, aretheirsizeandproximitytoareas on theirvalueforbiodiversity, apartfromtheir remnants ofprevioushabitats.Otherinfluences established longer amenity grassland,butthesetendtohavebeen Town parksalsousuallycontainlargeareasof habitats intheseareas. than theactualplayingpitchwithpotentialforother in character, butusuallycoveramuchlargerarea high nutrientlevels. frequently closemown.Itthereforeissubjecttovery by seedingimportedtopsoilandisregularly open spaces,themajorityofwhichisnewlycreated Amenity grasslandisthemainhabitatofpublic 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:SulwathConnections. Target: Implementprojectson10sitesby2011. spaces. Work withlocalcommunities toincreasemanagementandinterpretationofbiodiversityinpublicopen Priority Action (POS1) Habitat Description Rhonehouse FairGreen,November2007.(RuthPaterson) Participation isthebestwaytolearn-tree-plantingdayat flowerbeds andmaythereforecontain Sportsgrounds occur bothwithinparksand park pond PUBLIC OPENSPACES isartificially arealsouniform more than20townparksand130churchyards. sites thaninmoreurbanenvironments,butthereare Galloway meansthatthereisalowerdensityofsuch throughout Britain. The ruralnatureofDumfries& Public openspacesarewidespreadandcommon 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext Wetlands in theactionplanforUrbanWatercourses and and urbanponds(otherthanparkponds)areincluded Urban Trees arecoveredbyaseparateactionplan, similar intermsofwildlifeandmanagement. churchyards soimportant. subsequent speciesdiversity make carefully managed orchids togrow. This variationinmanagementand may bemuchshorterallowingbird’s-foot trefoilor the effect ofahaymeadow. Inothercasesthegrass daisy, commonpoppyandyellowrattlegrow, giving grasses amongstwhichfloralplantssuchasox-eye In somecasesthismaytaketheformoflongmeadow may supportgreaterdiversitythansurroundingareas. because oftheirageandlowerintensitymanagement type ofhabitatfoundinchurchyardsisgrassland,but species-rich thanotherurbanenvironments. The main burial grounds.Buttheycanbesignificantlymore from anygardensimplybecauseoftheirroleasthe land surroundingchurches,givenadifferent status At firstglancechurchyardsaremerelypiecesof grasslands and parks. has therefore becomemorelikethatinamenity grow. Management ofchurchyardsandcemeteries black polishedheadstones uponwhichlichenscannot increased useofchemicals anduseofmachine-made headstones, intensification ofmowingregimes, highly managed. This hasinvolved movementof of parks,somechurchyardshavebecomemore has beenatendencyforreducedmanagement space hasbecomemoreuniform.Whilstthere Over thepast30yearsmanagementofpublicopen 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Cemeteries areoften PUBLIC OPEN SPACES

2.2 Current Distribution out to assess such sites Public open spaces are predominantly within towns in Dumfries & Galloway. and villages and are therefore concentrated in the In parks and other coastal lowlands and river valleys. municipal flowerbeds, the increasing use of 2.3 Site Examples woodchip mulches has encouraged the spread A number of town Parks include features of high of several species of biodiversity interest, such as the pond at Blairmount fungi, and even created a in , grassland at Castledykes habitat for new species, in Kirkcudbright, and trees at Castledykes in such as Agrocybe Dumfries. rivularis. Larch Bolete Suillus grevillei on mown grassland beneath ornamental 2.4 Associated Habitats 3.2 Birds (medium larch. The Crichton, September 2007. (Peter Norman) A number of habitats occur in close association and/ importance) or overlap with public open spaces, and the following The mix of open grassland and trees and shrubs in action plans may also contain relevant information:

many public open spaces can lead to a high density PUBLIC OPEN SPACES Scrub Woods, Broadleaved and Mixed Plantations, of breeding birds. Typical species include Blackbirds Traditional Field Boundaries, Wood Pastures and Turdus merula, Song Thrushes Turdus philomelos, Parklands, Urban Trees, Gardens, School Grounds, Dunnocks Prunella modularis and Spotted Walls and Buildings, Roads and Verges, Urban Flycatchers Muscicapa striata. Watercourses and Wetlands.

3.3 Invertebrates (medium importance) 3. Importance for Associated Species Large numbers of invertebrates are associated 3.1 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) with public open spaces, though most tend to be species that are also common and widespread Churchyards and cemeteries are known to in other habitats. Typical butterflies include Small support important lichen Tortoiseshells Aglais urticae, and where there is communities. Different longer grass Meadow Browns Maniola jurtina. Holly species occur on the Blues Celastrina argiolus, on the northern edge front, back and tops of of their UK range, have been seen in the Crichton headstones, with some grounds. Other common invertebrates include 300 species recorded from ladybirds, hoverflies and bumblebees. British churchyards. One of the most common lichen 3.4 Flowering Plants (medium importance) species, the bright orange Xanthorias thrive on the Over 100 species of plant may occur in an average nutrient-rich tops where sized churchyard. Typically, older churchyards have bird droppings accumulate. more native species, with mature Yew Taxus baccata Leafy lichens Platismatia and Beech Fagus sylvatica dominating, mixed with If headstones are moved glauca on headstone. to ease management, the Durisdeer Church, March 2008. exotic conifers often planted in Victorian times.

likelihood is that the lichens (Peter Norman) Shrubs including Holly Ilex aquifolium and climbers HABITATS BUILT will not survive. like Ivy Hedera helix are also typical.

In built-up or agriculturally improved areas, old 3.5 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium churchyards and cemeteries that are closely mown importance) at regular intervals can form the most important Great Crested Newts Triturus cristatus occur in at long-established grassland habitats for fungi, least two ponds within towns and villages in Dumfries especially when nitrogenous fertilisers have not & Galloway at Newton Stewart and Gatehouse been applied. Some well-studied British sites have of Fleet. In churchyards and cemeteries, older recorded more than 200 species, including important headstones laid on their side provide basking sites for species such as Pink Meadow Waxcap Hygrocybe reptiles such as Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara calyptriformis. However, little work has been carried and Slow Worms Anguis fragilis.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 219 URBAN TREES

3.6 Mammals (medium importance) 6. Strategic Actions The proximity of public open spaces to buildings, which offer bats many roosting opportunities, 6.1 Recent and current activity makes them valuable feeding areas for Pipistrelles • Sulwath Connections Community Biodiversity Pipistrellus spp. and occasionally other species. Action Project has worked with several Where dense cover is available, they may also be communities to enhance public open spaces. used by Hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus. • Green Flag Awards, judged by the Civic Trust on 3.7 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) the quality of park and greenspace management in England and Wales, has recently been In contrast to lichens, little information has been launched in Scotland. collected on mosses and liverworts in churchyards, but such sites are likely to be important where the • Judging for Eco-congregation Awards can surrounding area is include conservation management of church built-up or intensively grounds. farmed. Most • Community volunteers have created Garries species are found Park wildflower meadowin Gatehouse of Fleet.

PUBLIC OPEN SPACES on headstones or other hard surfaces, • Lochside Park in , on the such as paths. Bryum shores of Carlingwark Loch, includes wildlife argentum is probably interpretation and a no-boating zone to prevent the most widespread Rustyback, an uncommon fern in disturbance to nesting birds and other wildlife. plant in the world, Scotland, growing in the lime mortar of Dunscore churchyard, August • The Crichton grounds are well maintained with growing between 2008. (Peter Norman) large areas of mown grassland and specimen paving stones in trees, but minimal use of chemicals leads to an virtually every town and city in the world. interesting range of fungi.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social 6.2 Other recommended actions Importance of Biodiversity • Carry out an audit of urban biodiversity information in Dumfries & Galloway. Identify and • Biodiversity enhances the interest and enjoyment map important areas for biodiversity within public of visitors. green spaces, including parks and cemeteries. • The different greys, greens and yellows of • Incorporate the conservation and headstone lichens give a sense of age to the enhancement of wildlife into the design and churchyard and a feeling of warmth to the stones. management of urban greenspace. 5. Factors affecting the Habitat • Reduce negative biodiversity impacts resulting from grounds maintenance contracts in public open spaces, parks and sports grounds (e.g. the • Lack of knowledge of existing value of urban use of herbicides, the timing and extent of grass habitat in the planning of developments/re- cutting and the type of equipment used). developments. BUILT HABITATS BUILT • Encourage community and individual action • The threat of development encroachment onto to survey, plan for and manage urban wildlife parks and old cemeteries. habitats. Consider designation as Local Nature • Simplification of the management of parks, Reserves. cemeteries and amenity grassland. This can • Promote wild space in urban areas as an involve clearing of shrubs, filling-in of ponds and educational resource to inform communities levelling land with hillocks and hollows making about local wildlife in the context of the wider them less attractive to wildlife. environment. • The use of invasive species in landscaping • Organise basic biodiversity training for staff schemes where this could pose a threat to in order to ensure that biodiversity is considered existing natural habitats. during their everyday work.

220 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 40,000 urban trees were lost between 2001 and 2006. declining. Forexample,in London anestimated of Britain,itisbelievedthat numbersarerapidly Although therearemanytreesintheurbanareas 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext in areasofhightrafficdensity. those inruralsituations,particularlyiftheyarelocated to copewithhigherlevelsofairbornepollutantsthan centimetres ofthesoil.Urbantreesalsousuallyhave food. The majorityofatree’s rootsareinthetopsix water andessentialmineralnutrients,storageof three importantfunctions:stability, absorptionof is criticaltotheircontinuedexistence.Rootsperform The environmentexperiencedbyurban forms mayalsohavebeenplanted. Chestnut, andSycamore. A numberofornamental native species,typicallyCommonLime,Beech,Horse many townsandvillages.Oftentheseconsistofnon- small groupsandsingleurbantreesarefrequentin Urban andsuburbanwoodlandisuncommon,but 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayCouncil. Target: Completesurveyby2015. age andcondition. Complete asurveyofallstreettreesinpublicownership,includingtheirlocation,species,approximate Priority Action (UT1) Horse ChestnutandothertreesarethedominantfeatureatMill Habitat Description Green, Dumfries.September2007.(PeterNorman) URBAN TREES tree roots Parks andCaravanSites. Trees, PublicOpenSpaces,GolfCourses,Holiday plans mayalsocontainrelevantinformation:Veteran or overlapwithurbantrees,andthefollowingaction A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats feature ofthecentreKirkcudbrightandWigtown Thornhill the centreofsometownsandvillages,including Avenues ofurbantreesareanotablefeature 2.3 SiteExamples restricted toareassuchasparksandchurchyards. of morerecentorigin,orexpansion,tendbe established townsandvillages. Trees insettlements The bestexamplesofurbantreesarefoundinlong- 2.2 CurrentDistribution adequately replaced. growing species.Fewmatureurbantreeshavebeen have notbeenmaintainedorsmaller in treeplantingrecentdecades,manyofthese Though therehasbeenaconsiderableinterest trees throughdevelopmentorperceptionsofsafety. There hascontinuedtobeagraduallossofurban 2.1 RecentTrends 2. and bark-boringbeetles. fauna, whilstCommonLime hasagoodfoliagefauna sap runswhichsupportan interestinginvertebrate invertebrates. HorseChestnut ispronetoproducing value, butstillprovidefoodandhabitatformany Honeysuckle and Traveller’s Joyareoflesser invertebrates. Otherclimbingplants Ivy growingontreescanbeveryimportantfor 3.1 Invertebrates(mediumimportance) 3. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Importance for Associated Species andMoffat. Trees arealsoanotable Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership suchas . 221 BUILT HABITATS URBAN TREES 3.2 Birds (medium importance) rate of grassland. Urban trees that are remote from semi-natural A study in the West habitats generally support fewer birds than those in Midlands predicted the countryside, but Waxwings Bombycilla cedrorum that doubling the are remarkable exceptions. These birds, which breed number of trees in remote Siberia, occasionally winter in Britain in could reduce large numbers and in Dumfries & Galloway have been excess deaths due recorded on trees in car parks at the Council Offices to particles in the and Morrisons supermarket in Dumfries, and the air by up to 140 per M74 services at Gretna. They favour bearing-bearing year. trees. More typical species include Starlings Sturnus • Trees also vulgaris, House Sparrows Passer domesticus and remove carbon Greenfinches Carduelis chloris. dioxide from the atmosphere, Urban trees include some unusual 3.3 Mammals (medium importance) but in Dumfries species, such as this Indian Bean URBAN TREES Tree at St.Michael's Church, Bats find many roosting opportunities in urban areas, & Galloway this Dumfries. (Peter Norman) and in some locations street trees provide the only is a very minor opportunity to find insect food they need to survive. contribution to carbon sequestration. • Trees positively affect property values. 3.4 Fungi and Lichens (low importance) In Dumfries & Galloway’s towns, air quality is much • Several urban trees are local landmarks and have better than in other urban areas, but still may be been the subject of local artists. sufficient to prevent colonisation by the most sensitive lichen species. 5. Factors affecting the Habitat

4. Environmental, Economic & Social • Newly planted trees may struggle to grow and Importance of Biodiversity survive in towns due poor growing conditions as a result of compacted soils and a shortage of • Urban trees contribute to the landscape character, mineral nutrients. setting and local distinctiveness of towns and • Above average air temperatures created by villages. heat radiating off tarmac, paving, glass and • Trees improve people’s quality of life and reduce buildings can cause already drought-stressed everyday stress through their aesthetic qualities, trees to lose even more water. by providing shade and humidity, by reducing • Neglect, including lack of water, weed infestation, noise levels and by providing privacy. constricting ties on standard trees (which restrict • Trees provide summer shade and winter shelter the flow of water and sap), strimmer and mower enabling the saving of energy. damage (which damages and removes the bark), overdosing/misuse of herbicide and de-icing salt • Trees affect air quality, both negatively by emitting (which then becomes toxic to trees). gases known as volatile organic compounds

BUILT HABITATS BUILT (VOCs) that contribute to the production of • Vehicles that accidentally drive into trees damage pollutants, and positively by removing pollutants, bark, break stems and snap roots. Guards, especially ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and particles fencing and posts can help trees to avoid vehicle from the air. Different tree species in different damage. locations perform differently, but generally Ash, • Service runs including drains, sewers, water, Alder, Larch, Silver Birch, Scot’s Pine are best, electricity, gas, telephone and cable TV laid via oaks and willows are worst, in terms of improving open trenching can cause serious disruption to air quality. existing trees by damaging or severing roots, • Particles in the air have an impact on human making the tree unstable and reducing its health. Mature, mixed woodland captures capacity to absorb water, oxygen and essential airborne particles at approximately three times the mineral nutrients. Leaks from some of these

222 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership services, such trees out of the ground, and premeditated ring as gas and barking, sawing off branches/crowns of young water, can trees and poisoning roots. It is illegal to damage a harm or kill public/protected tree, but this often fails to perturb roots. the vandal. Tree vandalism is a social problem, not a tree problem. • Engineering work, including • Deliberate removal of Ivy from trees destroys a installation and valuable wildlife habitat. However, dense ivy can maintenance restrict tree safety surveys and increase the tree’s of paving susceptibility to windthrow. Each case should slabs and be considered individually, but it may be best to tarmac, kerbs prevent a dense covering being created. and private • Future colonisation of Grey Squirrels in urban driveways areas, parks and cemeteries may cause damage

may cause URBAN TREES through bark stripping. severance or Pollarded Lime trees are a feature of the centre of Thornhill. May2008. damage to (Peter Norman) roots. 6. Strategic Actions

• Trees growing in certain locations may be a 6.1 Recent and current activity source of conflict with the public. Complaints usually involve blocking of light, fear that they • Tree Preservation Orders, Conservation Area may fall and damage people or property, or Orders and Planning Conditions serve to ensure seasonal problems such as leaf fall. These may that trees are retained and protected during and result in pruning or removal of these trees. after construction works. • Pressure to fit as many houses as possible on • British Standard 5837 ‘Trees in relation to development sites can bring trees into direct Construction’ provides guidance, in respect of conflict with building projects. As sites become development sites. It applies to applications for crowded during construction, and trees are most developments where construction work subsequently damaged by machinery, fires and is involved, but will not generally be applied to storage of materials. In the long-term such trees householder applications unless the site contains may become unstable and/or diseased and may a large number of trees. be felled. 6.2 Other recommended actions • Even where trees are successfully retained on a site, often consideration is not given to their • Strengthen protection for urban trees, including long-term growth requirements, in terms of the use of Tree Preservation Orders in areas height and width. As a result, residents of the site where they will safeguard biodiversity. may become concerned as these trees begin to • Ensure the successful retention of trees in reach above the roof tops, block increasing levels development works. of light and drop more leaves. • Encourage owners and occupiers of land to BUILT HABITATS BUILT • Long-term management of urban trees can safeguard and re-instate hedgerows and trees be expensive if carried out to the correct of biodiversity value where these are affected professional standard, and therefore may be by development or re-development proposals. neglected. As a result drastic action is often taken such as lopping/topping, heavy crown reduction • Report contractors who are suspected of or removal, as this provides an immediate quick carrying out unauthorised works to protected fix solution, even though these options are not trees. good for the tree and the safety of people. • Education and raising awareness of trees is the • Vandalism of trees can take two main forms: best way to reduce vandalism. Opportunistic snapping of side branches, breaking off crowns, uprooting and pulling whole

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 223 224 BUILT HABITATS TRADITIONAL ORCHARDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T During the20 2.1 RecentTrends 2. orchards intheUK,a64%decline27years. that in1997therewere22,400haofcommercial orchards areinthesouthofEngland.Figuressuggest production, notatraditioninScotland.Mostofthese significant acreageisgivenovertociderapple where aswellgrowingcommercialeatingfruit, Elsewhere intheUKtherearemanyorchardareas, area aroundCarseofGowrieontheFirth Tay. include Dumfries&Galloway, theBordersand with atraditionofsignificantorchardcultivation the mostsignificantorchardarea.Otherareas it isclearthattheClydeValley hasalwaysbeen numbers, areasandproductionwithinScotlandbut There arenoreadilyavailablestatisticsfororchard 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext increasingly rare. varieties offruitsuchastheGallowayPippinthatare of geneticdiversityinsupportinglocallydistinctive Traditional orchardsarealsoimportantreservoirs can providecrevicesandhollowsfornestingbirds. decay morequicklythanmostBritishhardwoodsthey orchards canbeover60yearsoldandasfruittrees to woodpastureorparkland. Trees withinold trees withingrasslandgivesahabitatwithsimilarities ecological value. The combinationofoldindividual modern commercialorchardsandthereforehavehigh have beenplantedandmanagedlessintensivelythan also bepresent. Traditional orchardsarethose which nut-bearing treessuchasWalnuts andHazelnutscan as apples,pearsandplumsand/ordamsonsalthough Orchards arecollectionsofcultivatedfruittreessuch 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. traditionally grown inDumfries&Galloway. Today productive and thisledtoadeclineinvarieties encouraged tousearange ofapplethatwasmore Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayOrchardNetwork. to determinetheirextent,distribution,compositionandstatusinDumfries&Galloway Compile adatabaseoftraditionalorchards,includinganyknownhistoricalandbiodiversityinformation, Priority Action (TO1) Dumfries &Galloway Status Habitat Description th Centuryapplegrowerswere TRADITIONAL ORCHARDS species. bit Scabious Meadow Cranesbill swards include Yellow Rattle minimum. Specieslikelytobefoundinthesegrass where applicationsoffertilisershavebeenkepttoa associated withtraditionalorchards,especially Species richunimprovedgrasslandisoften 3.1 FloweringPlants(highimportance) 3. and Parklands. Neutral Grasslands,NativeWoods, Wood Pastures action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: or overlapwithtraditionalorchards,andthefollowing A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats as theCroft-angryapple. location oftheoriginalGallowayPippinknownlocally “Croft-an-Righ” HouseinWigtown,anotherpossible old orchardssuchas Some countryestatesandhouseshaveremnantsof 2.3 SiteExamples current distribution. is requiredtoassessthesesitesandestablish traditional orchardswithinthem.Furthersurveywork grid squaresinDumfries&Gallowaywhichhave distribution mapsuggeststhattherearesix10x10km unreliable weatherconditions.However, theUKBAP large-scale commercialapplegrowingduetothe Dumfries &Gallowayisnotanarearenownedfor 2.2 CurrentDistribution houses andVictorian backgardens. gardens ofcountryestatesorlargehouses,farm Galloway, withoccasionalremnantsremainingin there areveryfeworchardsleftinDumfries& Importance for Associated Species Succisa pratensis Geranium pratense Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Galloway HouseGardensand Rhinanthus minor, andvariousorchid . , Devil’s- TRADITIONAL ORCHARDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.5 Mammals (medium importance) Various species of bats use orchards. Pipistrelles Pipistrellus spp. and Brown Long-eared Bats Plecotus auritis find the open scrub habitat provided by some orchards suitable as foraging habitat, and if the trees are old enough to produce crevices, then species such as Pipistrelle and Noctule Nyctalus noctula may also use them as roosting sites. Other mammals such as Red Squirrels Sciurus vulgaris, Badgers Meles meles and deer are attracted to this habitat type, and a range of small mammals such as mice and voles is also found.

Peacock butterfly. (Paul McLaughlin) 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) 3.2 Invertebrates (high importance) Many mosses and liverworts grow on fruit trees, and The blossom of fruit trees can also provide a source species associated with damp unimproved grasslands of nectar for invertebrates such as bees, butterflies are found in orchards in the region. and hoverflies, whilst the dead wood of mature trees ORCHARDS TRADITIONAL orchards can form important refuges for dead wood 3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) (saproxylic) invertebrates. If ponds are present within orchards then it is likely that amphibians will be present. 3.3 Birds (medium importance) Flower buds and leaf buds provide 4. Environmental, Economic & Social food for birds such as Bullfinches Importance of Biodiversity Pyrrhula pyrrhula, whilst windfall fruit is eaten in autumn and winter by • Traditional varieties of fruit, produced with high Fieldfares Turdus pilaris, Redwings environmental standards, can be marketed to a Turdus iliacus and other thrushes. specific, high spending market. Birds such as Woodcocks Scolopax • Traditional orchards can be grazed by sheep or rusticola, Green Woodpeckers Picus cattle. viridis and Spotted Flycatchers Bullfinch. Muscicapa striata that are (Paul McLaughlin) • Many invertebrates act as biological control associated with wood pastures are agents against pests of fruit. For example the also attracted to orchards, along with Buzzards Buteo mirid bugs Blepharidopterus angulatus and buteo, Barn Owls Tyto alba and Tawny Owls Strix Psallus ambiguu are predators of Fruit-tree aluco that may roost in mature trees and forage over Red Spider Mite, the flower bugs Anthocoris open grassy areas. nemorum and Anthocoris nemoralis feed on aphids, and the Common Earwig Forficula 3.4 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) auricularia is an important predator of Codling A diverse fungus flora is associated with old or dead Moths. The Whirligig Mite Anystis baccarum

trees. Several species of waxcap, including the impacts on Apple-grass aphid populations HABITATS BUILT Pink Waxcap Hygrocybe calyptraeformis are among and has also proved compatible with various many small fungi characteristic of such pastures. fungicides commonly used for apple scab control. Sarcodontia crocea is a rare fungus that seems to It therefore offers much potential to be integrated specialise in old apple trees, though has not yet been into pest control programmes for apple orchards. recorded in Dumfries & Galloway. • Sites can be used for educational activities, The bark of fruit trees can support a good cover and guided walks and talks. range of lichens such as Parmelia sp.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 225 GARDENS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Lack of information and understanding about the distribution, quality and importance of this habitat leading to poor appreciation of its value. • Loss of habitat due to grubbing out or death of mature trees. • Agricultural improvement through drainage, cultivation and fertiliser applications. • Agricultural abandonment, leading to rankness and scrub encroachment through lack of management. • Inappropriate management, including overgrazing by horses. • Most beneficial invertebrates are susceptible to

TRADITIONAL ORCHARDS TRADITIONAL agrochemicals and cannot survive in intensively managed orchards. • Development of land adjacent to village or estate orchards.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • The Dumfries & Galloway Orchard Network was set up in 2000 to promote the understanding and enhancement of traditional apple varieties in the region.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Encourage the enhancement and reinstatement of orchards on traditional orchard sites. • Promote greater awareness of the importance of this habitat and its sensitivity to land use changes. • Arrange activities such as Apple Days and

BUILT HABITATS BUILT Budding Days through the Dumfries & Galloway Orchard Network.

226 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership shallow, and areoftensubjecttorapidly fluctuating Garden Ponds biodiversity reasons. and afewhaveinstalled Compost heapsarealsoafeatureofsome gardens, woodland habitats,atleast intermsoftheirstructure. dead wood. that hasattractedsomespeciesassociatedwith need forweedinghasprovidedagardenhabitat plants. The useofwoodchipmulchestoreducethe weeding, andsometimesregularreplacementof non-native flowersandsubjecttoregulardigging, lawnmower. Flowerbeds All areadaptedtofrequentandshortcuttingwitha colonise allbutthemostintensivelymanagedlawns. or twospeciesofgrass,butotherplantsquickly Garden lawnsareusuallyplantedwithjustone flowers ingreenhousesorpolytunnels. gardens commerciallygrowfruitvegetablesand and tendtohavelessintensivemanagement. on allotments. These arelargerthanprivategardens gardens, butvegetablesaremorecommonlygrown Vegetable plotsaresometimesafeatureofprivate different habitats. tend tobemuchlargerandcontainpatchesof Public gardens diverse thanmuchofthesurroundingcountryside. cover asignificantareaandareconsiderablymore are highlyclustered,resultinginhabitatmosaicsthat their valueisconsiderablyenhancedbythefactthey therefore havelimitedbiodiversitypotential.However, air pollutionthanthecountryside.Individualgardens urban areas,tendtobesubjecthigherlevelsof levels ofdisturbance,andbeingmostcommonin Private gardensaresmallinsize,subjecttohigh 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:SolwayHeritage. Target: Establishdemonstrationgardenby2012. Promote agardenthatdemonstratesgoodpracticeforwildlifemanagement. Priority Action (GA2) Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: Interpretationat3sitesby2015. interpretation. Encourage publicgardensandgardencentrestopromotewildlifegardeningbyinstalling Priority Action (GA1) Habitat Description Shrubs andtreesmimicmorenatural are typicallyvery smalland are similarinmanyrespects,but log piles areusuallystockedwith , specificallyfor GARDENS Market RSPB, SWT andWWT. total ofallwildlifereservesintheregionmanagedby (12,000 acres). This islargerthanthecombined resulting inanestimatedareaofalmost5,000ha households, themajorityofwhichhavegardens, Dumfries &Gallowaythereareapproximately60,000 more than1.2millionhectares(3acres).In There aresome16millionUKgardenscovering 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext species. to eachother, allowingrapidrecolonisationofmany biodiversity benefitsfromthecloseproximityofponds use. However, aswithgardensgenerally, aquatic nutrients fromadjacentgrasscuttingandchemical water levelsandtemperatures,highinputsof plants andpot plants. polytunnels on 22sites,mostlygrowing bedding there were12,755 squaremetresofglasshouses/ in Dumfries&Galloway. Nevertheless,in 2006 Market gardeningisnotanimportantactivity public gardens numbers inothertownsand villages.Incontrast, urban areasofDumfriesand Stranraer, withsmaller gardens andallotmentsarelocatedinthemain The majorityofDumfriesandGalloway’s private 2.2 CurrentDistribution feeders andnestboxes. especially adramaticincreaseinthenumberofbird gardening hasalsobecomemuchmorepopular, in theuseofgardenchemicals.However, wildlife more paving,tarmacandgravel,anincrease been anincreasingtendencyforhardsurfacing,with been acontinuedincreaseinnumber. There hasalso probably notincreasedinrecentyears,therehas Although theaveragesizeofprivategardenshas 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus generallyhaveamorerural location. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership 227 BUILT HABITATS GARDENS 2.3 Site Examples Wool Carder Bees Anthidium manicatum are striking Glenwhan Gardens at Dunragit has created and medium-sized bees that are common in southern promoted wildlife habitats, and biodiversity has been England. However the only Scottish records come promoted by special wildlife events at Blackstone from Dumfries & Galloway where they can be found Garden Plants in Kippford. hovering around patches of labiates, including those in garden flower beds. Other garden bees include 2.4 Associated Habitats Red Mason Bees Osmia rufa, Rose Leaf-cutter Bee Megachile centuncularis, Honey Bees Apis A number of habitats occur in close association and/ mellifera and the bumble bees Bombus pratorum, B. or overlap with gardens, and the following action pascurum, and B.terrestris. The first Scottish record plans may also contain relevant information: Walls of a mining bee Lasioglossum morio came from and Buildings, Public Open Spaces, Urban Trees, Threave Gardens in 2006, although this species is not Traditional Orchards. generally a garden specialist.

GARDENS 3. Importance for Associated Species Garden butterflies are mainly common widespread species such as whites, Small Tortoiseshells Aglais 3.1 Reptiles and Amphibians (high importance) urticae and Peacocks Inachis io, but the first recorded Garden ponds are extremely valuable for breeding of Holly Blue Celastrina argiolus in Scotland amphibians. Even the smallest pond can support came from a Rockcliffe garden in 2004. breeding Common The average suburban garden in Dumfries & Frogs Rana Galloway is likely to support in excess of 200 temporaria, species of moth. One species, Blair’s Shoulder-knot Smooth Newts Lihophane leautieri, is virtually confined to gardens, Lissotriton as its caterpillars feed on planted shrubs and trees vulgaris and of the cypress family. First recorded in Britain in 1951, Palmate Newts it reached Kirkcudbright in 2001 and is now found in Lissotriton gardens across the region. Conversely, the decline helvetica. Garden ponds provide a valuable habitat of Currant Clearwing Moth Synanthedon tipuliformis Common Toads for Common Frogs. Kirkconnel, June 2007. (Greg Baillie). may be linked to fewer currant plants being grown in Bufo bufo prefer vegetable plots and allotments. larger ponds. Log piles provide essential hibernation sites. Most garden ponds will support common species of breeding damselflies, as well as pond skaters, water Slow Worms Anguis fragilis occur in suitable gardens beetles, pond snails and other aquatic invertebrates. in greater density than in many semi-natural habitats, although populations may be seriously affected by cat 3.3 Birds (medium importance) predation. Compost heaps are a favoured egg-laying Much time and money is spent erecting nest boxes site for Grass Snakes in southern England, though and feeders the presence of this species in Dumfries & Galloway for garden is not confirmed. birds, but of

BUILT HABITATS BUILT much greater 3.2 Invertebrates (high importance) importance is More than 11,000 species of invertebrate has been the structure recorded from a single British garden. The average of garden for a garden in Dumfries and Galloway will be vegetation. considerably lower, but will nevertheless be counted Shrubs and in the thousands. trees provide food, nest House Sparrows, in rapid national decline, are Flower beds, even those composed entirely of non- sites and still common in local gardens. (Gordon McCall) native species, can be rich in nectar sources for bees, protective cover from predators such as cats for butterflies, moths and hoverflies and can provide such Dunnocks Prunella modularis and Robins Erithacus nectar (and pollen) early and late in the season when natural sources are not abundant. 228 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership rubecula; lawns The practice of using wood chips for mulching offer feeding flower beds and on garden paths has introduced opportunities a new fungal habitat to Britain in recent years. for Blackbirds Agrocybe rivularis, new to science in the Pennines Turdus merula in 2003, was discovered on a pile of wood chips at and Song Nunholm, Dumfries in 2007. Other species have Thrushes Turdus been introduced with exotic plants. The False Truffle philomelos; Hydnangium carneum, known in Britain since 1875, garden ponds has been found in association with eucalypts at Logan provide essential Botanic Garden. Blackbirds nest in high densities in gardens. drinking (Paul McLaughlin) and bathing Common species of lichen may be found on shrubs opportunities for many species. and trees, as well as garden paths, walls and fences.

Spotted Flycatchers Muscicapa striata are declining 3.5 Mammals (medium importance) GARDENS across the UK, but populations in gardens seem Hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus occur in a greatest to be fairing better than those in woodland or density where grassland and woodland is found farmland. There has also been a dramatic reduction in close proximity. A mosaic of garden shrubs and in numbers of House Sparrows Passer domesticus trees, together with lawns therefore provides an ideal in Britain, though local declines have not been habitat. They can occur here at a density of more detected. Reasons for the national trend are unclear, than 1 per 5-10ha, compared with 1 per 15-20ha in but increased use of garden chemicals and the plantations and farmland. corresponding reduction in weed seeds has been implicated as a contributory factor. Common and Soprano Pipistrelle bats Pipistrellus pipistrellus and Pipistrellus pygmaeus regularly roost in houses and feed over gardens.

3.6 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) A typical suburban garden may support more than 20 species of bryophyte, though most are common species. Common Liverwort Marchantia polymorpha is a frequent garden species, often sharing plant pots with garden flowers, whilst Crescent-cup Liverwort Lunularia cruciata may be found on paving and patios. Few species occur in flower beds, but Springy Turf-moss Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus, a ubiquitous species usually at home in grassland, is found on lawns where the grass is kept short through mowing. Agrocybe rivulosa on garden woodchips. Nunholm, Dumfries, August 2007. (Peter Norman) Here it can form extensive, almost pure swards of moss. Several species of bryophyte have been 3.4 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) introduced with imported plants, though none have BUILT HABITATS BUILT Few species of fungus are specifically associated yet had a significant impact on wild populations. with gardens. Perhaps the Fairy Ring Champignon Marasimus oreades, though not restricted to garden 3.7 Flowering Plants (low importance) lawns, is one species best known from this habitat. Many wildlife garden publications recommend Old lawns that are regularly mown but have not planting predominantly native flowers to benefit received fertilisers or herbicides are now rare, but garden wildlife. However, such plants can never where they occur they can provide a nationally replace or support wild populations, and recent important habitat for uncommon species of fungi, research has even suggested that native species especially waxcaps Hygrocybe spp. Lawns with moss do not necessarily offer greater benefits to insects are particularly valuable. and birds than exotic plants. A mix of native and introduced flowers may be most beneficial, especially

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 229 SCHOOL GROUNDS

if these are nectar-rich plants. A high variety of plant • The use of limestone in gardens damages rare structures from low-growing creepers to tall shrubs and important semi-natural limestone pavements and trees, supports the greatest diversity of wildlife. that support species not found in other habitats. • Predation by domestic cats can cause local 3.8 Fishes (low importance) reductions of some birds and mammals. As well as ornamental fish, garden ponds may support some species of native fish, such as • Poor hygiene and overfeeding of garden sticklebacks. However, garden populations make an birds can result in potentially lethal bird diseases insignificant contribution to fish conservation and for building up in uneaten food and unwanted garden the benefit of amphibians and insects all fish are best pests, such as rats. kept out of garden ponds wherever possible. 6. Strategic Actions 4. Environmental, Economic & Social 6.1 Recent and current activity

GARDENS Importance of Biodiversity • Advice on wildlife gardening has been published • Wildlife adds to the interest and enjoyment of by many organisations including the Royal gardens. Horticultural Society. • Insects are responsible for the pollination of • Garden Wise garden centre in Dumfries has many garden plants. Bumblebees are particularly promoted biodiversity during special weekends. important for fruit trees and soft fruits. • Other insects are important predators or parasites 6.2 Other recommended actions of garden pests. Less than 1% of insects are • Encourage garden owners to contribute to garden pests. national garden wildlife surveys such as RSPB’s Big Garden Birdwatch, BTO’s Garden 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Bird Survey and Butterfly Conservation’s Garden Butterfly Survey. • Intensive lawn management involving moss • Promote garden biodiversity through garden removal, fertiliser and herbicide application open days, walks, talks and leaflets. reduces biodiversity value. Various species of microfungi are associated with grasses and in natural grasslands they present no special problems, but in the artificial monocultures of ornamental lawns they can attack and damage seedlings of fine grasses and established turf. Nevertheless, care should be taken in the application of fungicides, since many other microfungi play a vital role in recycling nutrients and form mutually beneficial associations with grasses.

BUILT HABITATS BUILT • Garden plants have sometimes been sourced from the wild, either in Britain or abroad, weakening native populations. • The introduction of non-native varieties of British native wildflowers has the potential to threaten on wild populations. • The use of peat in gardens damages rare and important semi-natural peatlands that support species not found in other habitats.

White-tailed Bumblebee Bombus lucorum. Dalry garden, April 2007. (Maggi Kaye)

230 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership offer morebiodiversity benefits,butopportunities opportunities for enhancement. the schoollandscape,and thesehaveonlylimited Hard surfaceareassuchas opportunities tocreatenew onesfromscratch. be enhancedforwildlife,but therearealso Most schoolshaveexisting featuresthatcan community. Scottish schoolsalsomaintaingroundsinthewider part oftheirgroundsforwildlife,butaround5%all schools. Secondaryschoolsareleastlikelytodevelop greatest demandforsuchareasisfromnursery most likelytohaveaschoolwildlifearea,butthat Research hasshownthatprimaryschoolsarethe habitats. The typeofschoolalsohasaninfluence. together withtheirsoiltypeandproximitytonatural variety ofhabitatsandfeatureswithinthegrounds, educational value.Ofmuchgreaterimportanceisthe little bearingontheirbiodiversityorenvironmental School groundsvarywidelyinsize,butthishas 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:EcoSchools/Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: Organisein-servicetrainingdayforteachersby2012. curriculum-based teachingprogramme. Encourage schoolstoestablishandmaintainschoolwildlifeareasusetheseaspartofthe Priority Action (SG1) Pupils atPortWilliam Primaryadmireanewpond.(EcoSchools) Habitat Description SCHOOL GROUNDS playgrounds Playing fields dominate

grounds. commonly occurringwildlifehabitatinScottishschool value, butmosthavetreesandshrubs-the flat, whichrestrictstheiraestheticandwildlife that areunderused.Mosttendtobeunnecessarily significant areasaroundtheedgesofplayingfields their primarypurpose.Howeverthereareusually for enhancementarealsolimitedwithoutaffecting Trees. Open Spaces,Gardens,Walls andBuildings,Urban plans mayalsocontainrelevantinformation:Public overlap withschoolgrounds,andthefollowingaction A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.3 Associated Habitats the region. School groundsarelocatedinallthemaintowns 2.2 CurrentDistribution often havesuchfeaturesbuiltintotheirdesign. and createdgardenswildlifeareas.Newschools development ofchildren.Manyhaveplantedtrees the importanceofschoolgroundstoeducational In recentdecadestherehasbeenmorerecognitionof 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Aglais urticae these arethebutterflies,such asSmall Tortoiseshells planting ofnectar-richspecies. Foremostalmost to childrencanbeattracted toschoolgroundsthrough Many attractiveinvertebrates thatarelikelytoappeal 3.2 Invertebrates(highimportance) as thereissufficientadjacentlonggrassforfeeding. breed inquitesmallpondsschoolgrounds,solong Common Frogs 3.1 Reptilesand Amphibians (high importance) 3. Importancefor Associated Species bumblebees and dragonfliesonponds. Red Admirals V. atalanta.Othersinclude ladybirds, Dumfries &GallowayStatus , PaintedLadysVanessa cardui Ranatemporaria Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership and possiblynewts and 231 BUILT HABITATS SCHOOL GROUNDS GOLF COURSES

3.3 Birds (medium importance) 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Traditional Importance of Biodiversity features of school grounds • School grounds have the potential to contribute attract several to schemes that promote wider environmental species of birds: stewardship, such as through Eco Schools Playgrounds and Forest Schools. The way school grounds are visited by are developed and used can have a significant House Sparrows impact on pupils’ attitudes and behaviour, towards Passer school, towards each other and towards the wider domesticus and Blackbirds find food on school playing fields. environment and society. Pied Wagtails Minnigaff, April 2008. (Gavin Chambers) • Much of the formal curriculum can be taught Motacilla alba; outside. Indeed some can only be taught outside. playing fields attract Blackbirds Turdus merula and Rooks Corvus frugilegus. Trees and shrubs, particularly if close to woods, attract Chaffinches 5. Factors affecting the Habitat SCHOOL GROUNDS SCHOOL Fringilla coelebs, Greenfinches • Pupils spend as much as 25% of their time at Carduelis chloris school in school grounds, but wildlife usually and tits. Most adapts to such disturbance and noise and stay well hidden, activity is rarely a problem. but can easily be • Long-term maintenance requires commitment attracted to feed in from enthusiastic staff, as well as assistance from front of classroom grounds staff. windows by bird tables • Most school grounds have subsoil that has been and feeders. compacted by heavy machinery, a drainage Oystercatchers system intended for playing fields, and rich topsoil Haematopus dominated by a few very vigorous grasses. This ostralegus have hinders good root development by trees and Robins are shy woodland birds in much of shrubs and the encouragement of wildflowers. nested on the roof Europe, but in Britain can become quite of Dalbeattie School. tame with regular feeding. (Gordon McCall) 6. Strategic Actions 3.4 Mammals (medium importance) A range of mammals is present in most school 6.1 Recent and current activity grounds, but most tend to be nocturnal. Hedgehogs • All 125 state schools in Dumfries & Galloway are Erinaceus europaeus and bats benefit from areas of registered for the Eco Schools programme and longer grass that support more insects. more than 100 of them have won the Bronze Eco School Award or higher. Most have done work on 3.5 Flowering Plants (low importance) their school grounds as part of this award. School grounds are unlikely to support any important BUILT HABITATS BUILT species of wildflower, but common species such 6.2 Other recommended actions as thistles, and garden flowers, are important food sources for insects and birds. • Encourage promotion of biodiversity in environmental education by Ranger visits to schools, visits by schools to biodiversity sites, and support for the establishment of school nature clubs.

232 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership increase has taken placepredominantly onfarmland. in recentyears, andothershaveexpanded. This become established inDumfriesandGalloway A numberofnew coursesanddrivingrangeshave 2.1 RecentTrends 2. bunkers and‘ features suchas a rangeofother golf courseshave of mowngrass,but have extensive areas range ofhabitats. All topography, and the course,itssoils, upon thelocalityof courses depends found ongolf The rangeofwildlife 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. ranges intheregion. accurately known,butthereare31courses/driving Scotland. The areainDumfries&Gallowayisnot There aresome27,000hectaresofgolfcoursein 1.2 Nationalandinternationalcontext may enhanceplayingconditions. relatively smallchangesthatcostlittleornothingand and coastalgrasslands. All canbeenhancedby have additionalfeatures,sometimesincludingdunes Coastal coursescan and smallwoods hazards, trees such aswater ‘out-of-play’ areas as well as substantial Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: Holdtrainingdayby2012. day. Improve biodiversityknowledgeandtrainingforgolfcoursestaf Priority Action (GC2) Lead Partner:ScottishGolfEnvironmentGroup. Target: 5coursesby2012. Prepare orupdateenvironmentalstatementsforgolfcoursesinDumfries&Galloway Priority Action (GC1) Dumfries &Galloway Status Habitat Description rough . ’, GOLF COURSES Bloody Cranesbillintheroughat Glenluce GolfCourse,1999. (Peter Norman) Open Spaces,Urban Trees. Wood PasturesandParklands,FarmPonds,Public Sand Dunes,BroadleavedandMixedPlantations, plans mayalsocontainrelevantinformation:Coastal or overlapwithgolfcourses,andthefollowingaction A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Golf Course(SSSI/LWS). Bay HolidayParkGolfCourseandSoutherness biodiversity enhancementwork,including Several localgolfcourseshavecarriedout 2.3 SiteExamples include elementsofcoastalhabitats. towns andvillages. Almost athirdofallcourses Most golfcoursesarelocatedclosetothemajor 2.2 CurrentDistribution diversity inareasoflight for wildflowers,theremaybemorebotanical Though closelymownfairwaysareoflittleimportance 3.1 FloweringPlants(mediumimportance) 3. most local courses,butevenhere themosaicof trees, roost sitesfor bats. Younger treescurrently dominate Mature treesandsmallwoods provideexcellent 3.2 Mammals(mediumimportance) angusifolia such asthelocallyscarce Lesser Bulrush provide conditionsforaquaticplantstocolonise, found atGlenluce.Creationof grasslands arerare,thoughexcellentexamples Flower Cardaminepratensis such asPignutConopodiummajus competition fromcoarsegrasses,allowingspecies grasslands. Insuchcases,occasionalcuttingreduces Importance for Associated Species f byholdingagolfandbiodiversitytraining atBrighouse. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership rough togrow. Unimproved . water hazardscan thaninunmanaged andCuckoo Brighouse Typha 233 BUILT HABITATS GOLF COURSES HOLIDAY PARKS & CARAVAN SITES

rough and water hazards provides many feeding 4. Environmental, Economic & Social opportunities for bats. Daubenton’s Bats Myotis Importance of Biodiversity daubentonii make nightly feeding forays over ponds at Cally during the summer. • Integration of sound environmental principles should ensure that golf clubs reduce over- 3.3 Birds (medium importance) management and minimise maintenance costs. The intricate mix of open grassland, trees and small • Biodiversity enhances the aesthetic character, woods on golf courses can lead to a higher density atmosphere and challenge of the course. of breeding birds that are more usually found on woodland edges. Typical species include Song Thrushes Turdus philomelos, Dunnocks Prunella

modularis and Spotted Flycatchers Muscicapa striata. Small Copper More open courses, often those on the coast, may butterfly in the have Skylarks Alauda arvensis nesting in the rough. rough at New Galloway Golf Course, GOLF COURSES 3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium August 2008. importance) (Peter Norman) Water hazards provide breeding opportunities for 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Common Toads Bufo bufo, Common Frogs Rana temporaria and Palmate Newts Lissotriton Helvetica, • The loss of semi-natural habitats during the adults of which feed in areas of rough. course creation has not been a major issue in Dumfries & Galloway where recent courses have 3.5 Invertebrates (medium importance) been created on improved farmland. Regular cutting of fairways and rough • High levels of fertilisers and chemicals may prevents flowering, whilst runoff or seep into watercourses, causing nutrient unmanaged rough is over-enrichment and pollution. dominated by grasses. • Intensive grassland management around the Therefore opportunities roots of mature trees damages root systems for nectar-feeding leading to poor tree health and premature death. invertebrates are often few, unless there are 6. Strategic Actions areas of nectar-rich grassland. Likewise, 6.1 Recent and current activity bunkers are too heavily managed for most sand- Ponds can attract a range of • The Scottish Golf Environment Group has dragonflies, such as Emerald assisted several courses in Dumfries & Galloway nesting solitary bees. Damselflies. (Richard Mearns) Trees and small woods, to prepare holistic environmental management especially mature trees, provide the best invertebrate plans, so that all relevant environmental issues habitats, though common aquatic species are also are recognised for different parts of the golf found in water hazards. facility. BUILT HABITATS BUILT • A biodiversity survey of selected courses 3.6 Fungi and Lichens (low importance) was carried out by a student from Scottish Trees and small woods on golf courses potentially Agricultural College Auchincruive in 2002/3. provide a good fungus and lichen habitat, with light • Brighouse Bay was the overall winner of the and humidity conditions not dissimilar to those in Scottish Award for Environmental Excellence on wood pastures. However, this is presently limited by Golf Courses in 2006. the relatively young age of most such features on golf courses in Dumfries & Galloway. Short grassland, away from intensively managed areas, may also 6.2 Other recommended actions be good for waxcap fungi, but the presence of such • Develop partnerships with local clubs to carry areas in the region is currently not known. out projects to enhance biodiversity.

234 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership HOLIDAY PARKS &CARAVAN SITES chalets. in thenumberandsizeofsemi-permanent wooden of facilitiesoffered. There hasalsobeenanincrease sites havecontinuedtoincrease insizeandtherange Over thelast10years,holiday parksandcaravan 2.1 RecentTrends 2. the valueofallsites. However, management shouldbeusedtoincrease semi-natural habitatssuchascoastsandwoods. holiday parksandcaravansitesistheirproximityto A keyfeaturethatinfluencesthebiodiversityof that aremanagedspecificallyforwildlife. formal gardenareas,pondsandsometimesareas some sitesincludeplayareas,sportsfacilities,more planted trees and shrubs. Additional features found on but eventhosethatarenotusuallyhaveareasof few sitesarelocatedwithinopenmaturewoodlands, located onanextensiveareaofmowngrassland. A chalets, caravansandsometimesacampingarea, Holiday parksandcaravansitesconsistofwooden 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: 10eventsby2015. interpretation and/orevents. Raise awarenessofbiodiversityforvisitorstoholidayparksandcaravansitesbyorganisingwildlife Priority Action (HPCS1) Dumfries &GallowayStatus Habitat Description Guided walklookingatshellsonthebeachSandyhills Holiday Park.(2007) Spaces. information: Walls andBuildings,PublicOpen the followingactionplansmayalsocontainrelevant or overlapwithholidayparksandcaravansites, A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Park andBarnsoulFarmatShawhead. Brighouse BayHolidayPark,Kippford wildlife attractionsfortheirvisitors. These include carried outenhancementsforwildlifeandpromoted Several holidayparksandcaravansiteshavealready 2.3 SiteExamples concentrated onthecoast. across DumfriesandGalloway, buttendtobe Holiday parksandcaravansitesarewidespread 2.2 CurrentDistribution and Starlings Turdus philomelos, Song Thrushes Turdus merula, Blackbirds include edges. These of woodland more typical common birds a highdensityof shrubs attracts and trees of grassland The mosaic 3.1 Birds(mediumimportance) 3. holidays parks andcaravansitesarecommon and Though most invertebrateslikelytobefound on 3.2 Invertebrates(medium importance) striata benefitfromscatteredtrees. use scrub,whilstSpottedFlycatchers modularis Importance for Associated Species andWillowWarblers Phylloscopustrochilus Sturnus vulgaris

RobinsErithacusrubecula attracted tonestindensetreesandbushes. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Bullfinch, acolourfulspeciesthatcanbe . DunnocksPrunella Muscicapa (Gordon McCall)

235 BUILT HABITATS HOLIDAY PARKS & CARAVAN SITES WALLS & BUILDINGS

widespread species, these can include some very 4. Environmental, Economic & Social attractive species that are likely to appeal to visitors. Importance of Biodiversity Foremost amongst these are the butterflies, and it should be possible to attract Small Tortoiseshells • Adding biodiversity features to holiday parks and Aglais urticae, Painted Ladys Vanessa cardui and caravan sites can considerably increase their Red Admirals V. atalanta to most sites. Others include appearance and attractiveness to visitors. ladybirds, bumblebees and dragonflies on ponds. • Trees and shrubs can be used to screen unsightly 3.3 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium features such as bin stores, and can add to the importance) privacy of the site. Common Toads Bufo bufo, Common Frogs Rana temporaria and Palmate Newts Lissotriton Helvetica 5. Factors affecting the Habitat have all been recorded breeding in ponds within holiday parks. Great Crested Newts Triturus cristatus • Most holiday parks were created on farmland are may also occur. All require suitable terrestrial habitats, still relatively young in ecological terms. They such as long grass, as well as breeding ponds. therefore have not yet developed many mature trees or other habitats. • Biodiversity management is not simply less management. It requires new skills and training

HOLIDAY PARKS & CARAVAN SITES & CARAVAN PARKS HOLIDAY for maintenance staff, which may not be available in-house. • Many park visitors are urban based and biodiversity features such long grass, log piles and scrub may be perceived as untidiness.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • In 2007, 11 holiday parks and caravan sites A mix of woodland and grassland provides good habitat for in Dumfries & Galloway held David Bellamy Hedgehogs. Loch Ken, June 2006. (Peter Norman) Conservation Gold Awards for their wildlife and environmental management. 3.4 Mammals (low importance) Caravans are rarely suitable roost sites for bats. • A number of holiday parks and caravan sites have However, if alternative roosting locations are available wildlife interpretation, including information nearby, the mix of trees, shrubs and open areas panels, leaflets, guided walks and family events. makes holiday parks valuable feeding areas for • Several parks have contributed to the Dumfries bats. For example, one of the few known Noctule & Galloway Wildlife Festival. Nyctalus noctula roosts in the region is at Loch Ken Holiday Park. Dense cover is also attractive to other 6.2 Other recommended actions BUILT HABITATS BUILT mammals, such as Hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus. • Encourage parks to enter for environmental 3.5 Flowering Plants (low importance) awards. A high intensity of management usually means that • Provide training in biodiversity management for holiday parks are rarely rich in native wildflowers maintenance staff. unless there are remnants of previous semi-natural habitats. The locally rare Slender Trefoil Trifolium micranthum has been recorded at a holiday park in Newton Stewart.

236 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership flora. climate. Onlynorth-western Francehasacomparable vegetation inEurope,asa resultofamild,wet Western Britaincontainssomeofthefinestwall 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext constructed them. few havesharedourlivingspaceseversincewefirst spaces notpermanentlyoccupiedbypeople,buta habitat forbiodiversity. Mostspeciesoccupythe The interiorspacesofbuildingsprovideafurther several species. small holesandcrevicesthatoffer opportunitiesfor biodiversity interest.Slateandtileroofsoffer many this, togetherwiththeangleofslope,influences are usuallycomposedofadifferent materialand Roofs offer aslightlydifferent habitattowalls–they survive onverticalfaces. for speciesofplantsandanimalsthatareunableto another dimensiontobiodiversity, providingahabitat microclimate. Wall ledges,wheretheyexist,add structure ofwalls;thelattertwolargelycontroltheir former influenceschemicalcompositionandphysical upon constructionmaterials,locationandaspect. The standing orpartofabuilding,isstronglydependent The biodiversityofexterior are withoutinterest. mean thatwallsandbuildingsintownsvillages have different speciesagain.However, thisdoesnot as woodland,andwallsbuildingsonthecoast they arelocatedclosetosemi-naturalhabitatssuch have different speciestothose intowns,especiallyif their location.Farmbuildingsinthecountrysideoften The biodiversity of walls andbuildingsis influenced by 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: Publishanddistributetoarchitects,buildershouseholdersby2015. guide tothespeciesandmanagement. Encourage greaterpublicawarenessofthevaluewallsandbuildingsforbiodiversitybypublishinga Priority Action (WB1) Habitat Description WALLS &BUILDINGS wall faces,whetherfree- Watercourses andWetlands. Tunnels, IndustrialandPost-industrialSites,Urban information: Traditional FieldBoundaries,Bridgesand following actionplansmayalsocontainrelevant and/or overlapwithwallsandbuildings,the A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociation 2.4 Associated Habitats historic wallsandbuildings,farmsteadings. for biodiversityincludescastles,churchesandother Dumfries &Galloway. Someofthemostimportant There isawiderangeofbuildingsandwallsin 2.3 SiteExamples lowlands, becominglesscommonintheuplands. and buildingsarerelativelyevenlyspacedinthe Outside ofthemainurbancentreDumfries,walls 2.2 CurrentDistribution walls andbuildingscompriseof20thcenturyhouses. internal habitats.Numerically, mostoftheregion’s for biodiversity, thoughjustasmany, ifnotmore, Modern materialsprovidefewerexternalopportunities 2.1 RecentTrends 2. example Long-eared Bats buildings influences thetypeofbatspresent. For design andconstructionof may notbeobvious. The of sight,sotheirpresence - mosttuckthemselvesout hang inexposedpositions hibernating. Fewspecies for breeding,roostingand to providethemwithshelter on buildings,especiallyroofs, Large numbersofbatsrely importance) 3.1 Mammals(veryhigh 3. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Associated Species Importance for Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Plecotus auritus Long-eared Batspreferolder buildings closetowoodland. Cally Woods,June2000. (Peter Norman) usually 237 BUILT HABITATS WALLS & BUILDINGS fly around roof spaces prior to leaving the building to Joints and cracks on otherwise smooth slate and hunt in woodland. Therefore they are most frequently tile roofs enable species such as Capillary Thread- found in older, rural buildings. Conversely, Pipistrelle moss Bryum capillare and Grey-cushioned Grimmia Bats Pipistrellus pipistrellus and P. pygmaeus. are Grimmia pulvinata to get a hold, whilst Great Hairy frequently found in new houses in urban areas. Of Screw-moss Syntrichia ruralis might be found on flat Dumfries & Galloway’s eight species of bat, only the asphalt roofs. Noctule Nyctalus noctula does not make extensive use of buildings. Churches and castles are important habitats for non-flowering plants in many parts of Britain, but in Although other wild mammals may occasionally Dumfries & Galloway they are not constructed on use buildings, none are of significant conservation the most valuable building stone (limestone), and importance in Dumfries & Galloway. are usually located in areas that have many natural rock outcrops. As a result they rarely support notable 3.2 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) species. Lichens are common on many wall faces, but species composition is strongly influenced by the wall 3.4 Flowering Plants (medium importance)

WALLS & BUILDINGS WALLS substrate and associated chemical attributes and A few species, such as Biting Stonecrop Sedum textures. In south east England the rare Churchyard acre, favour the tops of walls, but the upper and Lecanactis lichen Lecanographa grumulosa is entirely middle zones of wall faces generally support the restricted to limestone walls of medieval churches and most distinctive vegetation, including Herb Robert castles. It has been recorded in Dumfries & Galloway, Geranium but only from natural rock faces on the coast. A few robertianum and non-lichenised microfungi also grow on walls, but they the introduced are not of high conservation importance. Ivy-leaved Toadflax Cymbalaria 3.3 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) muralis and Yellow Ferns, liverworts, mosses and algae are more tolerant Corydalis Corydalis of lower light lutea. Another levels that introduced species other plants Fairy Foxglove and therefore Erinus alpinus is frequently known from a few dominate walls, including the shadier wall abbeys at Glenluce faces. Species and Dundrennan, include Wall whilst Wallflower Yellow Corydalis, a native of the Alps, Erysimum cheiri on sandstone wall at Castledykes Park, Rue Asplenium Dumfries. September 2007. was lost from the (Peter Norman) ruta-muraria, Grey-cushioned Moss Grimmia pulvinata, Maidenhair common on urban walls. (Peter Norman) walls of Sweetheart Spleenwort Abbey through cleaning by the Ministry of Works Asplenium trichomanes and Revolute Beard-moss in the 1950s. Navelwort Umbilicus rupestris and BUILT HABITATS BUILT Pseudocrossidium revolutum on lime-mortared walls. Pellitory-of-the-wall Parietaria judaica are locally rare Wall Screw-moss Tortula muralis is the commonest native species, growing on just a few walls. Walls with moss on many mortared or base-rich walls, both lime mortar are especially rich, with even granite walls brick and stone, and can tolerate some shade and supporting lime-loving plants. pollution. It also grows on concrete, roof tiles and other man-made structures, but is rarely found away Lower zones and wall bases usually receive from human habitation. Rough-stalked Feather-moss excessive nutrients and moisture, and support a Brachythecium rutabulum is typical on wall-tops. less interesting flora, whilst woody species are able to establish on poorly maintained walls with missing mortar.

238 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 3.5 Invertebrates (medium importance) 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Old walls provide good nesting sites for bees, wasps and ants if the mortar is soft enough for burrowing. • Over-zealous removal of all plant species Indeed relict populations of some species may survive reduces biodiversity. only in walls after loss of their natural nesting sites. • The use of biocides to control mosses and Ants play an important part in the seed dispersal of lichens. This is rarely necessary and should be many wall plants. limited to very exceptional circumstances.

The Zebra Spider Salticus scenicus, a jumping • Certain mosses and lichens have declined as a spider that hunts on sunny wall faces, occurs more result of the reduction in the use of lime mortar. frequently along the Solway coast than in other parts • If not sympathetically carried out, roofing repairs of Scotland, and the first Scottish record of a large may reduce bat habitat and directly lead to the long-legged spider Tegenaria parietina came from the death of some bats. In such circumstances a interior space of a house in Dumfries in 2006. criminal offence may be committed. • Bat roosts may be unknowingly destroyed,

possibly resulting in the death of those bats using & BUILDINGS WALLS the roost at the time. • There is a negative perception of the wildlife associated with built habitats, including mice, rats, pigeons and roof nesting gulls, although these habitats also support a number of other species of conservation value including Barn Owls, Swifts and Swallows.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • It is a legal requirement that any building works Swallows are almost entirely reliant on buildings for nest sites. take account of known bat roosts, but only a small (Gordon McCall) proportion of the roosts have been discovered or recorded. SNH therefore request surveys to be 3.6 Birds (medium importance) completed where there is a risk to bats. House Martins Delichon urbica make use of the underside of wall ledges, especially eaves, to build 6.2 Other recommended actions their nests. Barn Owls Tyto alba, Swallows Hirundo • Provide advice on incorporating design for rustica and Swifts Apus apus rely much more on biodiversity into new buildings and other interior spaces, the first two predominantly in structures, such as ‘bat bricks’ and bird nesting unoccupied rural buildings, and the latter in the roofs platforms. of urban buildings. • Survey and record flora on walls. HABITATS BUILT 4. Environmental, Economic & Social • Consult SNH prior to re-roofing if there is any Importance of Biodiversity likelihood of bats being present, or if bats are found during roofing work. • A covering of flowering plants, mosses and • Ensure nesting Barn Owls are protected during lichens add to the aesthetic appeal of many walls barn conversions or other relevant building and buildings. repairs, and subsequent provision is made for • Some lichens break down stone, but there is them. evidence that others protect some types of stone • Consider turf and Sedum roofs on appropriate by providing a shield against water erosion. new buildings.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 239 240 BUILT HABITATS PORTS, HARBOURS & MARINAS augmented by many smallboatstoaccommodate) thisisusually vessels, butinmarinas(where thereareusually These structuresalsoprovide securemooringsfor hardness arefoundfromconcrete andirontowood. but liketherockyshoresthey resemble,gradationsof in species. These areusuallyconstructedfromstone, conditions oftheinnerharbourwallsareusuallyricher a similarhabitat. The quieter, siltierandmoreturbid waves, sandandpebbles.Hardseadefencesprovide composition astheyarerelentlesslybatteredby sides ofthesewallsarepoorestintermsspecies is usuallyenhancedby located inshelteredcoastalwaters,butthisshelter Ports, harboursandmarinas,bytheirverynature,are 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Seaweed atIsleofWhithornHarbour, April 2008.(PeterNorman) Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership/SolwayFirthPartnership. Target: Interpretationat3sitesby2015. managers ofports,harboursandmarinasbyprovidingwildlifeinformation/interpretatio. Encourage greaterawarenessofbiodiversityandenvironmentalissuesamongsttheusers Priority Action (PHM1) Habitat Description PORTS, HARBOURS&MARINAS floating pontoons harbour walls . . The seaward present atKirkcudbright region nowreceivelittleornotraffic.Marinasare fleet isbasedatKirkcudbright.Otherharboursinthe recreational craft,thoughasmalloffshore shellfishing a combinationofsmallinshorefishingvesselsand Garlieston, Kirkcudbright , PortWilliam, IsleofWhithorn, and villagesincluding Ireland. Smallharboursarefoundinseveraltowns Ryan, whichbothdealprincipallywithferrytrafficto Galloway are The principalcommercialportsinDumfriesand 2.3 SiteExamples hard seadefencesofanyextentintheregion. harbours areinthewestofregion. There arefew The largestoftheDumfries&Galloway’s portsand 2.2 CurrentDistribution recreational useofStranraer. traffic fromStranraertoCairnryan,andincrease At thetimeofwritingitisplannedtorelocateallferry craft. Bothoftheregion’s marinas areatfullcapacity. but therehasbeenarecentincreaseinrecreational Commercial andfishingvesselsremainatalowlevel, 2.1 RecentTrends 2. valuable fornesting birds. The abandonedMullberry that arelesssusceptible todisturbance can bevery nest inPortpatrickharbourwalls the birdsmostcloselyassociated withharbours. They Apart fromgulls,BlackGuillemots 3.1 Birds(mediumimportance) 3. Buildings. information: IntertidalRockyShores,Walls and the followingactionplansmayalsocontainrelevant or overlapwithports,harboursandmarinas, A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Dumfries &GallowayStatus Importance for Associated Species Stranraer Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership , PortLogan, andCairnryaninLoch and Kippford and Annan. Mostsupport . Offshore structures Cephus grylle . are PORTS, HARBOURS & MARINAS

Harbour at Garlieston is one of the biggest breeding inland walls are augmented by maritime specialists Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo colonies in the such as Common and Danish Scurvygrass Cochleria region, whilst terns (as well as Black Guillemots) have officinalis & C. danica, Thrift Armeria maritima and nested on the disused South Deep jetty at . Buck’s-horn Plantain Plantago coronopus.

3.5 Fishes (low importance) Though several species of fish enter harbours and find productive feeding areas around walls and other structures, species composition is the same as adjacent coastal areas.

3.6 Mammals (low importance) Despite their name, Harbour Porpoises Phocoena phocoena rarely visit the shallow waters of inner harbours, though they may be seen close to the harbour entrance. Seals are also infrequent visitors, but Otters Lutra lutra may visit on a nightly basis.

Black Guillemots nest in several harbours and ports. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social PORTS, HARBOURS & MARINAS (Gordon McCall) Importance of Biodiversity 3.2 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) Wildlife and interpretation enhances ports, harbours Typical seaweeds of harbour walls include Spiral and marinas for passengers and visitors. Wrack Fucus spiralis. Another seaweed Callithamnion tetragonum is mostly restricted to kelp fronds the west 5. Factors affecting the Habitat coast of Britain including Wigtownshire, but regularly occurs on marina pontoons and may move into such Risks of accidental oil spillage or other pollution are a habitat in Dumfries & Galloway. greater in ports, harbours and marinas.

3.3 Invertebrates (medium importance) 6. Strategic Actions The invertebrates of ports, harbours and marinas are not particularly specialised, usually reflecting those 6.1 Recent and current activity found on adjacent shores of a similar sediment type. • Kirkcudbright Marina was the first in Scotland to Harbour walls support a similar range of species to receive a Blue Flag award. rocky shores, often under the curtain of seaweeds, including Common Limpets Patella vulgata, Barnacles • Harbour is a principal access point and Balanus crenatus, Beadlet Anemones Actinia equina car park for Wigtown Bay Local Nature Reserve, and another anemone Sagartia elegans. Their with wildlife interpretation and a bird bide. predators are also similar, including Shore Crabs Carcinus maenas and Harbour Crabs Liocarcinus 6.2 Other recommended actions depurator. The latter is not restricted to harbours • Raising awareness of biodiversity amongst HABITATS BUILT despite its name. The Shipworm Teredo nivalis may users and managers of ports, harbours and bore into wooden structures. marinas would benefit not only the wildlife of these sites, but would encourage increased 3.4 Flowering Plants (low importance) reporting of marine species. There are no flowering plants found in the waters of ports, harbours and marinas. Some species are able grow on the upper parts of harbour walls and on land-based structures. The typical species of

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 241 242 BUILT HABITATS ROADS & VERGES has beengiven tosuchissues. issues onroads. As aresult, much greaterthought has helpedto heightenawarenessabout biodiversity impact ofroadsandroadbuilding inrecentdecades Increased concernregarding thewiderenvironmental 2.1 RecentTrends 2. in aseparateplan. Traditional fieldboundariesonroadsidesarecovered and steepsided. surrounding landdry. They aretherefore oftendeep well belowthegroundlevelinordertokeep Roadside vehicle emissions. high levelsofpollutantssuchasde-icingsalt,oiland as anunintentionalresultoftheirlocation,relatively cutting andothermanagementbothreceive, to operationalsafetyrequirementswithregard which nowconstitutetheverge.Botharesubject unimproved grassland,heathlandornativewoods, may passthroughsemi-naturalhabitatssuchas stretches ofminorroads road. However, some construction ofthe or shortlyafter, created during, improved grassland usually consistof opportunities. They Verges offer more on veryminorroads. all wildlife,otherthan habitat forvirtually is aninhospitable that thecarriageway and trafficlevelsmean construction techniques Modern road 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayCouncil/AmeyHighways. Target: 10newConservationVerges by2015. designation ofnewConservationVerges. Provide specialmanagementofroadsandvergesatsitesknowntobeimportantforbiodiversitythrough Priority Action (RV1) Dumfries &Galloway Status Habitat Description ditches needtohaveawaterlevel

salting. A75 near Annan, April 2007. Danish Scurvygrass,aplantfast expanding itsrangeduetoroad ROADS &VERGES (Peter Norman) Boundaries, Urban Trees, Bridgesand Tunnels. Neutral Grasslands,ScrubWoods, Traditional Field action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: or overlapwithroadsandverges,thefollowing A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats regular movementroutesformanyspecies. traverses mostoftheregion’s rivervalleysthatare A74(M) through Annandale. The A75Euroroute The onlysectionofmotorwayintheregionis 2.3 SiteExamples valleys withfewer, moreminorroadsintheuplands. The majorroadsarelocatedinthelowlandsandriver Dumfries &Galloway, mostofwhichhasaverge. There aresome2,900miles(4,666km)ofroadin 2.2 CurrentDistribution Perhaps thebest example has encouraged them. road management to theroad,butbecause they werepresentprior verges, notbecause A fewplantsoccur on and Broomscrub. associated withGorse a vergeinDumfries,is in theregionincluding known fromafewsites is rareinScotlandbut rapum-genistae Broomrape grasslands. Greater especially neutral road wasconstructed, that existedbeforethe are remnantsofhabitats Most roadverges 3.1 FloweringPlants(highimportance) 3. Importance for Associated Species Orobanche , which thatareimportantforwildflowersof Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership as Wild Thymesometimesgrow directly onthecarriageway. The On minorroads,flowerssuch Machars, July1999. (Peter Norman) ROADS & VERGES

is Danish Scurvygrass Cochlearia danica, a plant sometimes Buzzards Buteo buteo attempt to feed of the cliff-tops, sand dunes and sea walls that first on carrion on the carriageway. Few species nest on started appearing inland on the central reservations the verge itself, though Oystercatchers Haematopus of motorways and dual carriageways in the late 20th ostralegus are recorded doing so most years. A century as a result of salt treatment. The distribution number of birds, including Barn Owls Tyto alba, are map in the New Atlas of British and Irish Flora regularly killed by traffic as they hunt along verges or (2002) clearly shows this plant along the route of the fly over the road. A74(M), but it has since spread westwards along the A75 to Dumfries. Although now frequent on single 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) carriageways, it is seldom seen below A-class roads. Unlike flowering plants, there are few salt and heavy metal-tolerant mosses that are specialists of road 3.2 Invertebrates verges. (medium importance) 3.7 Fungi and Lichens (low importance) The first Scottish Road verges

colony of are rarely of ROADS & VERGES Narrow-bordered significant 5-spot Burnet interest for Moth Zygaena fungi, although a lonicerae subsp. limited range of latomarginata nitrogen-tolerant was found on a species occur, verge of the A711. such as Shaggy It remains the Ink-cap Coprinus only site for this Narrow-bordered 5-spot Burnet moth. comatus and the species in Dumfries Dalskairth road verge, July 2004. Horse Mushroom & Galloway. (Peter Norman) Agaricus arvensis. 3.3 Mammals (medium importance) Potentially of Other than mice and voles, roads and verges support more importance few mammal species. However roads are a significant are upland Pestle Puffball Handkea excipuliformis by cause of death for several species of conservation verges with the A762 near Mossdale. August 2008. concern, including Hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus, unimproved (Peter Norman) Otters Lutra lutra and Badgers Meles meles. grassland. Fortunately it currently appears that these deaths are not limiting local populations. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity 3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium importance) • Road verges that are high in biodiversity, There are recorded instances of reptiles basking on especially wildflowers, add to the landscape and

warm carriageways of very minor roads, but more enhance the area for tourists. HABITATS BUILT often roads pose a threat to reptiles and amphibians. • Some types of roadside vegetation reduce noise Toads in particular tend to use the same routes and pollution from traffic. between feeding areas and breeding ponds and on damp evenings at certain times of the year can be highly susceptible to traffic. Nevertheless populations 5. Factors affecting the Habitat of other species prosper on certain verges, including Slow Worms Anguis fragilis on the A713 beside Loch • Road safety must always take priority in the Ken. management of roadside verges and hedges. • Fragmentation of habitats as a result of roads 3.5 Birds (medium importance) acting as barriers to movement. Rooks Corvus frugilegus, Crows C. corone and

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 243 RAILWAYS

• A high incidence of wildlife road kills in Dumfries 6.2 Other recommended actions & Galloway involving mammals and birds of • Enhance populations of nationally and conservation importance, including Otters, regionally uncommon plants and invertebrates Badgers, Red Squirrels and Barn Owls. Other that occur on road verges through modifications species can be affected by noise, movement or to management or timing of management. light disturbance. • Identify blackspots for wildlife road kills. • Excessive grass cutting, shrub and hedge brashing can change habitat structure. • Include proactive design measures to safeguard against animal kills on new roads such as the • Over-use of chemicals to control weeds can installation at appropriate locations of animal affect non-target species, and run-off of chemicals underpasses and culverts. and oil can pollute watercourses. • Implement measures to safeguard against animal • Road construction and maintenance can result in kills on existing roads, by carrying out works to alterations to the natural drainage pattern of a encourage animals to use existing culverts, such locality. as fencing, reflectors and culvert modification.

ROADS & VERGES • Treatment of verges on new roads or following carriageway alterations may not benefit biodiversity. Top-soiling and inappropriate planting produces poor results. Usually the outcome is a missed opportunity for biodiversity, but in some cases can lead to potentially invasive species. For example, Bird’s-foot Trefoil is usually a valuable foodplant for butterflies, but much of it on the A75 is a non-native vigorous subspecies of limited value that has spread from introduced seed mixes. • Flailing roadside scrub may look untidy but has little detrimental impact on biodiversity as long as it is not carried out in the bird breeding season.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • The Scottish Executive drafted a Trunk Road Biodiversity Action Plan for trunk roads across Scotland. • Dumfries & Galloway Council drafted a Roadside Biodiversity Action Plan in 2000 and has implemented most of its recommendations.

BUILT HABITATS BUILT As part of this, several conservation verges have been identified in the region and received special management. Cow Parsley display on verge by minor road near Dundrennan. June 2006. (Peter Norman)

244 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership covered bya separate actionplans. and thehighly specialisedhabitatoftunnels are rail side. The masonryofplatforms,wallsandbridges, ballast onthetrackbedanddrainage landscape, anumberofother habitatswerecreated: or shadycuttings. Although lessobviousinthe support different speciestonorth-facingslopes biodiversity; thesunniersouth-facingembankments influence ontheirmicro-climate,andtherefore The orientationofthesefeaturesexertsasignificant and embankments cuttings wereexcavatedthroughhigherground to allowsteamtrainsoperateatmaximumspeed; the Victorian ageofsteam.Gradientswereminimised Virtually allofBritain’s railways were establishedin 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Trees andshrubsbesideworkingrailway, Dumfries. August 2007. Lead Partner:NetworkRail/Dumfries&GallowayEnvironmentalResourcesCentre. Target: Survey10selectedsitesby2015. access forvolunteersurveyors. Assess thebiodiversityofrailnetworkinDumfries&Gallowaybyprovidingsafetytrainingtoenable Priority Action (RA1) Habitat Description constructedacrosslowground. RAILWAYS ditches bythe (Peter Norman) disused railway. line inDumfries&Galloway, andatleast160milesof There isapproximately125milesofworkingrailway along the21,000milesofnationalrailnetwork. There areover30,000hectaresoflinesidevegetation 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext and remainsafeatureofworkingrailwaylines. herbicides, butregulardisturbancehasalwaysbeen ignited bysparks.Lateritinvolvedgreateruseof removal scrubontherailsidestopreventitbeing of vegetationgrowingthroughtheballast,and biodiversity. Initiallythisinvolvedregularhandcutting of vegetationexertedasignificantinfluenceon for thespreadofsomespecies,whilstmanagement The turbulencecreatedbythetrainswasresponsible woods andgrasslands. agricultural areas,linkingotherhabitatssuchas natural corridorsthroughtheintensively-managed in landuse.Furthermore,therailnetworkprovides disappeared inthesurroundingareaduetochanges are theremnantsofhabitatsthathavenowalmost along therailwaylinecontaincommunitiesthat agricultural intensification. Thereforemanyareas time ofrailwayconstruction,waslessaffected by from thesurroundingcountrysidewhich,at but themajorityofwildlifecolonisednaturally occasionally grass,topreventthemwashingaway, Some embankmentswereplantedwithtrees, railway linesare stilldiscernibleontheground. Stranraer toGlasgow. The majority ofthedisused Dumfries, CarlisletoGlasgow viaLockerbieand restricted tothelinesfrom Carlisle toGlasgowvia Working railwaylineinDumfries&Gallowayis 2.2 CurrentDistribution especially inDumfries. have beenturnedintowalkingandcyclingroutes, Over thelast10years,anumberofshortstretches 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership 245 BUILT HABITATS RAILWAYS by a range of plants that are resistant to moisture stress, such as Procumbent Pearlwort Sagina procumbens. On working lines, these are regularly removed, allowing the process of colonisation to start all over again, but if the line ceases to be used, a grassland habitat forms that can be very species-rich. On acidic sites, a Heather Calluna vulgaris community may develop, but on neutral sites a more diverse, taller vegetation dominates. This includes species such as Red Fescue Festuca rubra, Tansy Tanacetum vulgare, Common Toadflax Linaria vulgaris and Black Knapweed Centaurea nigra. Rare species recorded from railway lines in Dumfries and Galloway include Common Wintergreen Pyrola minor. RAILWAYS A disused railway line providing habitat linkages through an urban Cuttings tend to support the richest grassland, due area. Caledonian Cyclepath, Dumfries, August 2007. to their slopes being composed largely of unfertilised (Peter Norman) soil. Drifts of Rosebay Willowherb Chamerion 2.3 Site Examples angustifolium, and Ox-eye Daisy often dominate long The Caledonian Cycleway in Dumfries is the longest sections, but less common species such as Meadow stretch of disused railway in the region to be turned Crane’s-bill Geranium pratense and Common into a walking/cycling route. Spotted Orchid Dactylorhiza maculata are also found. Eventually scrub invades. One of the first woody 2.4 Associated Habitats species to colonise, particularly in more urban areas, A number of habitats occur in close association and/ is Buddleia Buddleja davidii, but Hawthorn Crataegus or overlap with railways, and the following action monogyna, Blackthorn Prunus spinosa and Elder plans may also contain relevant information: Neutral Sambucus nigra often form dense thickets. Grasslands, Acid Grasslands, Inland Rock Outcrops Scrub Woods, Traditional Field Boundaries, Bridges 3.2 Invertebrates (medium importance) and Tunnels, Walls and Buildings, Industrial and Post- A number of butterflies, such as Common Blue industrial Sites. Polyommatus icarus and Wall Lasiommata megera, are found on railway lines. The bare ground of the ballast and some embankments is especially valuable for them and their foodplants, whilst cuttings (as long as they are not too shady) provide shelter.

3.3 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium importance) Slow Worms Anguis fragilis and Adders Vipera berus bask on ballast and south-facing embankments that heat up quickly, and make use of the surrounding BUILT HABITATS BUILT vegetation for shelter.

3.4 Birds (medium importance) Although none of the rarer species of bird is Dog Rose, a typical plant of railway banks. (Peter Norman) dependent on railway lines, there is a diverse range of birdlife found on the network. Typical species are 3. Importance for Associated Species those associated with scrub, such as Dunnocks Prunella modularis, Common Whitethroats Sylvia 3.1 Flowering Plants (medium importance) communi, Willow Warblers Phylloscopus trochilus, Studies have found around 70% of the native British Bullfinches Pyrrhula pyrrhula, and Linnets Carduelis flora from railway land. Ballast is typically colonised cannabina.

246 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership RAILWAYS

Goldfinch, a colourful species that feeds on thistle and other seeds. (Gordon McCall)

3.5 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Field Horsetail Equisetum arvense is a frequent invader of ballast, being somewhat resistant to • Safety obligations are of paramount importance herbicides. Other typical ballast species include on working railway lines. Biodiversity Capillary Thread-moss Bryum capillare and Common management of these areas must be compatible Cord-moss Funaria hygrometrica, but it has been with safety issues. known to support species more typical of upland • Safety restrictions restrict access to working areas, including Green Mountain Fringe-moss railway lines, which means that few wildlife Racomitrium fasciculare. Shady Earwort Scapania surveys have been carried out. umbrosa and several other liverworts are found in deep cuttings • In many areas, particularly on disused lines, scrub growth has affected species rich 3.6 Mammals (low importance) grassland.

Many mammals are found on railway lines, and HABITATS BUILT several use them as corridors to move through the 6. Strategic Actions countryside, but no species are dependent on this habitat. 6.1 Recent and current activity Network Rail has developed a Biodiversity Action 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Plan for their UK operations. Importance of Biodiversity

The biodiversity of the railway network, both working and disused, adds to the interest and enjoyment of users and contributes to the landscape.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 247 248 BUILT HABITATS BRIDGES & TUNNELS characteristics. Riverbridgesexperience morehumid a railwayorsome otherobstacleaffects itsphysical Whether thebridge crossesawatercourse, aroad, bridges havealsobeenconstructed. have feweropportunitiesfor biodiversity. A fewmetal road, oftencrossinganother road. They generally of concrete,including More recentbridgeshavemostlybeenconstructed position ofledges/holesinfluencestheirbiodiversity. The typeofstoneandmortar, andthenumber of shortmasonryarchedspanssupportedontowers. span bridgestolarge these arestillinuse. The rangefromshortsingle- largely constructedofstoneorbrick,andmany short footbridges.Nineteenthcenturybridgeswere constructions butfewareinusetoday, otherthan characteristics. Earlybridgesweresimplewooden used inconstruction,andthereforetheirphysical greatly influencestheirdesign,thematerials The dateofconstructionbridgesandtunnels 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayCouncil. Target: 10bridgesby2015. Install integralbirdand/orbatboxesintobridgesduringanyscheduledmaintenanceorupgradingwork. Priority Action (BT2) Lead Partner:DistrictSalmonFisheriesBoards. Target: Completeby2012. available, aninventory. Assess bridgesinneedofremedialworktoallowunimpededpassagefishbycompiling,andmaking Priority Action (BT1) Habitat Description viaducts, consistingofaseries flyovers thatsupportamain BRIDGES &TUNNELS the tunnel. regime andpermanentlydark,humidconditionswithin This largelyresultsfromamorestabletemperature have verydifferent physicalcharacteristicstobridges. construction techniques,materialsandlocation,they Though tunnelsarealsoinfluencedbytheirage, shadier areasofthebridge. and temperature,incomparisontothenorth-facingor of thebridgeexperiencinggreaterextremeslight also important,withthesouthfacing,exposedside railways areaffected byemissions.Orientationis conditions, whilstthoseoverroadsandoperational of bridgesthathavebeenupgraded. more significancetobiodiversity, isthelargenumber have beenbuiltinrecentyears. However, ofmuch A numberofnew bridges,particularlyfootbridges, 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Bridge overNithatThornhill.(PaulMcLaughlin) Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership BRIDGES & TUNNELS

2.2 Current Distribution between freshwater spawning grounds and the sea, There are more than 1,400 bridges in Dumfries and but even non-migratory species require a variety of Galloway, spread throughout the region. aquatic habitats and may travel several miles up and down a watercourse. 2.3 Site Examples 3.2 Mammals (high importance) A number of large viaducts are found in the region, such as at Big Water of Fleet (1861), near Bridges and tunnels are important hibernation and Gatehouse. Notable bridges include Devorgilla’s roost sites for most species of bat, with Daubenton’s Bridge (c1432) and Tongland Bridge (1804-8). The Bat Myotis daubentonii particularly associated with latter supports the largest colony of House Martins bridges. Otters Lutra lutra frequently mark their in the region. However, many of the smaller bridges territory with spraints (droppings) under bridges. are equally, if not more important from a biodiversity perspective. There is only one major tunnel in 3.3 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) Dumfries & Galloway, slightly over 1km in length, on The lichen flora of bridges is, as on other walls, the operational railway line between Dumfries and strongly influenced by the wall substrate and Kirkconnel, near Drumlanrig. associated chemical attributes and textures. A wide range of species is found. BRIDGES & TUNNELS

3.4 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) The masonry of bridges and tunnels was particularly suitable for a range of ferns during the steam age, when the additional moisture encouraged growth wherever trains were regularly halted. For example, Rusty-back Ceterach officinarum occurred on Little Water of Fleet Viaduct prior to its demolition. Others ferns still persist. The lower sections of bridges over water also support a range of mosses, liverworts and algae.

Virtually every compartment under the ledge of Tongland Bridge 3.5 Birds (medium importance) has a House Martin nest each summer. (Peter Norman) Dippers Cinclus cinclus regularly nest under bridges that span watercourses. The largest House Martin 2.4 Associated Habitats Delichon urbica colony in Dumfries & Galloway occurs A number of habitats occur in close association and/ on Tongland Bridge. or overlap with bridges and tunnels, and the following action plans may also contain relevant information: 3.6 Invertebrates (low importance) River Headwaters, Lowland Rivers and Backwaters, Construction of a new bridge over a river may Lowland Burns and Ditches, Exposed River Shingle, impact on aquatic invertebrates as much as fish. A Walls and Buildings, Urban Watercourses and diving beetle Bidessus minutissimus, at one of its Wetlands, Reservoirs. few UK sites, is believed to have been affected by

construction of a flyover over the for the HABITATS BUILT 3. Importance for Associated Species Dumfries bypass.

3.1 Fishes (high importance) 3.7 Flowering Plants (low importance) Freedom of movement, both upstream and A similar range of flowering plants is found on bridges downstream, is essential for the survival of many as on other walls. species of fish, and this can be severely affected by bridges. Both young and adults of migratory species such as Salmon Salmo salar, Sea Trout Salmo trutta and Eels Anguilla anguilla travel hundreds of miles

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 249 INDUSTRIAL & POST INDUSTRIAL SITES

4. Environmental, Economic & Social 6.2 Other recommended actions Importance of Biodiversity • Incorporate well-designed and effective wildlife underpasses into all new roads Bridges that cross watercourses and affect fish wherever required. If the location is appropriate, passage impact on the economic and recreational consider more effective structures such as green benefits of local fisheries. bridges. 5. Factors affecting the Habitat • Assess bridges in need of remedial work to allow unimpeded passage of fish. • Fish passage at river crossings is important in the • Give consideration, where feasible, to the planning, design, installation and upgrading of installation of integral bird and/or bat boxes bridges. Improperly designed culverts and other into bridges during scheduled maintenance or river crossing structures act as a barrier to fish upgrading work. movement. Problems include inadequate water depth, excessive water velocities, vertical barriers and works carried out at an inappropriate time of

BRIDGES & TUNNELS year. • Repointing of masonry bridges not only reduces opportunities for roosting bats, but has the potential to entomb and kill any bats using the structure at the time of the work being carried out.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • A pro-active approach has been taken on a number of bridges being renovated by Dumfries & Galloway Council, with a check for bats being carried out by a countryside ranger prior to work commencing. • Renovation of the disused Goldilea Viaduct involved special measures to cater for Common Wintergreen plants and bats that were found on the bridge. • Forestry Commission Scotland has built bat and bird boxes into the construction of bridges for forest roads. • In parts of Europe, specially designed green An old, unpointed bridge with many opportunities for roosting bats. bridges have been constructed over major roads

BUILT HABITATS BUILT Kirkconnell Bridge, Ringford. May 2008. (Peter Norman) specifically to enable wildlife to cross.

250 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership INDUSTRIAL &POSTSITES free fromcompetition. Shallowdisused species thatare tolerantofsuchconditions canthrive, an extremeenvironmentfor plantcolonisation,but metal concentrationsandlow nutrients,produces techniques employed. The combination oftoxic and chemicalcomposition, andanyrestoration that canbeofvalue,depending ontheirphysical features, includingpondsand are oftenassociatedwithextensivesurface Deep mineshavelittleecologicalinterest,but industrial brownfields. military rangesoftensupportsimilarhabitatstopost- including abandonedairfields,munitionsfactoriesand properties ofthesoil. because oftheseveritychemicalorphysical often persistfordecadeswithoutactiveintervention grassland, heathlandandscrub,butthehabitatcan occur here,andovertimemaydevelopintoareasof scarce andthreatenedopenvegetationcommunities concrete, metalandotherartificialsubstrates.Several ground, oftenmixedwithbuildingstone,bricks, sites arecharacterisedbyanabundanceofbare other land-uses.Intheearlypost-industrialyears, developed, usuallyforindustrialusebutsometimes Bownfields 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Former leadmineatWanlockhead. August 2007.(PeterNorman) Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership/BusinessEnvironmentPartnership. Target: Encourage1industrialbusinesstoprepareplanandbeginimplementationby2015. site Biodiversity Action Plan. Encourage industrialbusinessestomanagetheirlandholdingsforbiodiversitythroughpreparationofa Priority Action (IPIS1) Habitat Description aresitesthathavepreviouslybeen SecondWorld War sites, mine spoil mine shafts (bings) and Galloway. rehabilitation. 216ha(2.9%)ofthiswasinDumfries incapable ofdevelopmentforbeneficialusewithout Scotland, definedasdamagedbydevelopmentand In 2006therewas7,480haofderelictlandin 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext quarries andmineralworkings. cast minesareincludedinthehabitatactionplanfor and cansupportspecialisedflorafauna.Open share similarphysicalcharacteristicstonaturalcaves, Gatehouse Brickfields . been installed onacommunitynaturereserve at Ponds, boardwalksandwildlife interpretationhave substrate, makethesiteoutstanding foramphibians. to scrubbywoodland,combined withthesandy from wetlands,throughgrasslands andheaths sidings andlagoons. The widerange ofhabitats infrastructure, suchasabandonedstores,railway Ordnance Powfoot The siteofaformerexplosivesfactoryatRoyal 2.3 SiteExamples usually closetolargersettlements. Active industrialsitesarepredominantlylowland, are alsosomepost-industrialsitesintheuplands. these arelargelyrestrictedtoloweraltitudes,there Galloway isassociatedwithmilitarysites. Although Much ofthepost-industriallandinDumfriesand 2.2 CurrentDistribution the 1950s. mainly greenfieldlightindustrial/businesssitessince of agencieshavebeeninvolvedintheprovision cast, ratherthandeepminingmethods. A number It hassincerecommenced,butemployingopen in theSanquhar-Kirkconnelfielduntil1960s. food processing.Coalminingremainedimportant established inrecentdecades,includingtimberand A numberoffurtherindustrieshavebecome 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus (SSSI)retainsmuchoftheold Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership 251 BUILT HABITATS INDUSTRIAL & POST INDUSTRIAL SITES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

Wanlockhead (SSSI) contains the most important amongst rubble in the lead mining workings at lead-zinc deposits in Scotland, which were actively Wanlockhead in 2006, its only current UK site worked for over 400 years. The area contains old (previously recorded only in Argyll in 1962). mine workings and spoil heaps. The lead mines at Blackcraig have influenced the ecology of a range of 3.3 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) habitats. The adjacent woods, now a reserve of the Mine spoil can support rare bryophytes that are Scottish Wildlife Trust, were described on the mine tolerant of heavy metals. plan of c1760 as ‘Oak wood fit for all kinds of work underground’. They would have been managed and 3.4 Mammals (high importance) modified by the miners. Disused mine shafts, including some at Wanlockhead, provide the most important bat 2.4 Associated Habitats hibernation sites so far discovered in Dumfries & A number of habitats occur in close association and/ Galloway, although this undoubtedly partly reflects the or overlap with industrial and post-industrial sites, and difficulty in locating tree hibernacula. the following action plans may also contain relevant information: Walls and Buildings, Railways, Quarries 3.5 Reptiles and Amphibians (high importance) and Mineral Workings. Natterjack Toads Epidalea calamita breed in ponds at the disused industrial site at Powfoot. Indeed, this 3. Importance for Associated Species is possibly the only site in Scotland to support all 3.1 Invertebrates (very high importance) INDUSTRIAL & POST INDUSTRIAL SITES & POST INDUSTRIAL INDUSTRIAL Scottish native reptiles Brownfields are probably the single most important and amphibians. invertebrate habitat away from semi-natural habitats. Sites can support important invertebrate communities, 3.6 Flowering Plants including rare species of beetles, butterflies, moths, (medium importance) bees and wasps that require bare substrate, sandy Brownfields that have burrowing or nesting sites, and nectar sources. not been reclaimed can Common ‘weeds’ such as Pineappleweed Matricaria be rich in wildflowers, discoidea are important to invertebrates as larval including former foodplants and nectar supplies for adults. agricultural weeds that are now rare on farms, such as Mugwort Artemisia vulgaris and poppies Papaver spp. Metal-rich mine spoil supports interesting species, such as at Wanlockhead. Habitats that more closely resemble semi-natural environments also occur, such as orchid rich Common Spotted Orchids are BUILT HABITATS BUILT grassland within the Du found at several industrial sites. Kirkconnel, June 2007. Pont industrial compound (Greg Baillie) at Cargenbridge.

Rhizocarpon petraeum, one of the many lichens on mine spoil at Wanlockhead. August 2007. (Peter Norman) 3.7 Birds (low importance) 3.2 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) Species that feed on weed seeds, such as Linnets Carduelis cannabina and Goldfinches C. carduelis are Mine spoil is colonised by a number of lichens frequently found in large numbers on brownfield sites tolerant of the extreme conditions. A critically that have not been restored to a uniform land use. endangered nationally rare lichen Gyalidea roseola was found on a block of calcareous sandstone

252 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

4. Environmental, Economic & Social 6.2 Other recommended actions Importance of Biodiversity • Encourage businesses to carry out ecological audits of large industrial sites and modify • High biodiversity on working industrial sites activities to reduce their impact. increases adds interest and can even improve the • Encourage businesses to carry out practical health, job satisfaction, and therefore productivity, biodiversity projects on industrial sites. of the workforce. • Promote the use of vacant and derelict land, • The biodiversity of post-industrial sites often either temporarily or permanently as wildlife reflects a long history of management. It should habitats. be viewed as an integral part of their industrial archaeology.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Sites of high biodiversity interest on post- industrial land are at risk of destruction and serious degradation. Major factors threatening it include redevelopment, unsuitable reclamation, eutrophication, lack of appropriate management and natural succession. INDUSTRIAL & POST INDUSTRIAL SITES & POST INDUSTRIAL INDUSTRIAL • The biodiversity of post-industrial sites is easily over-looked as they are rarely visited and species may persist in low numbers. • Few previously developed sites have been afforded SSSI protection and creation of new sites is limited.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • Dumfries & Galloway Council is required to assess significant harm to ecological systems, especially on designated sites, as part of its identification of contaminated land.

• The Museum of Lead Mining at Wanlockhead Former brickworks at Gatehouse of Fleet, now a nature reserve. has produced interpretation of the wildlife of the October 2004. (Peter Norman). area. • Magnox North has carried out an assessment of BUILT HABITATS BUILT the biodiversity interest around Chapelcross and published a Biodiversity Action Plan in 2008. • The Wildlife Trust’s Biodiversity Benchmark award enables businesses to assess the quality of their land management, improve their contribution to the environment and demonstrate their commitment to biodiversity.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 253 254 BUILT HABITATS QUARRIES & MINERAL WORKINGS which limitstheir biodiversityvalue. marginal vegetation, sided, withlimited are deepandsteep- open watersinquarries former workings,most result oftheflooding as thisisusuallya quarries. However, disused andworking feature ofmany Open waterisa area. have agreaterrangeofcontoursbutcoverwider coal workings to havehighverticalrockfaces,whilst result fromit.Forexamplehardrockquarriestend technique employedandthelandformchangesthat composition ofthesoil,buttypeextraction being worked. This notonlyaffects thechemical their valueforbiodiversityisthenatureofmaterial landscape. Perhapsthebiggestsingleinfluenceon more prominentinthe tend tobelargerand and workingquarries abandoned quarries obvious. Morerecently always immediately previous useisnot an extentthattheir vegetation tosuch colonised bynatural that havebeen small-scale features years agotendtobe abandoned many quarries thatwere landscapes. features inmost workings arecommon Quarries andmineral 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayCouncil. expansion objectives. Ensure thatanynewrestorationplansforquarriesandmineralworkingscontributetoLBAP Priority Action (QU1) Habitat Description QUARRIES &MINERALWORKINGS Disused andsandgravelpits formerly asand&gravelworks,now includes someofthehighestrock Kirkmabreck QuarryatCreetown a naturereserve.October2007. Dyke FarmQuarrynearMoffat, faces intheregion.July2004. open-cast (Peter Norman). (Peter Norman) usually Dumfries &Gallowayarenotknown. of minerals.EquivalentfiguresforScotlandand under planningpermissionfortheactiveworking In 2005,over64,000haoflandinEnglandwas 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext local conditions. range ofwoodlandtypesispossibledependingon the commonestspeciesonthinsoils,butawide around activeones.Willows,birchesandoaksare quarries andmineralworkingsmaybepresent Scrub andwoodland richness. the shallownessofsoil,oftenleadstoahighspecies to beagriculturallyunimprovedandthis,togetherwith Grasslands inquarriesandmineralworkingstends crannies canbeparticularlyvaluable. value. Pilesoflargestoneswithplentifulnooksand but notremovedfromthesite,itcanbeofbiodiversity lichens. Evenwherematerialhasbeenexcavated, even relativelysmoothsurfacescanbecolonisedby rock outcropswithledgesandwetseepages,but the materialiscritical.Quarryfacescanmimicnatural once againthephysicalandchemicalcompositionof supports aspecialisedforfloraandfauna,though quarries, eventhoselongsincedisused. This Bare groundorbarerockisafeatureofmost contributes to theregion’s economy. and Kirkcudbright. Gravelandcoalextraction also plants suchasthoseatLocharbriggs, Dalbeattie resulting inthedistinctivelandmarks ofquarry quarrying areforaggregates andconcreteproducts aggregate. The mainmarketsnowforhardstone but thereisstillconsiderable demandforprimary the UK. The useofrecycledaggregateisincreasing, aggregates areneededperheadofthepopulationin is ongoingandeveryyearnearlyfourtonnesof Although afiniteresource,demandforminerals 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership oftencolonisesdisused habitat QUARRIES & MINERAL WORKINGS

2.2 Current Distribution particularly butterflies, There are at least 14 active quarries or mineral bees and wasps. workings and many disused ones in the region. Quarry faces, scrub or Active quarries tend to be in lower river valleys or woodland provides an on the coast, but disused quarries are widespread additional benefit in the in both the uplands and lowlands. The great majority form of shelter from of quarrying is for hard rock, with a few open cast wind. A ground spider coal workings in Upper Nithsdale, and sand and Zelotes apricorum, gravel workings in Lower Nithsdale, Annandale and virtually restricted in Wigtownshire. Scotland to stony areas of the Solway coast, is Large Skipper butterfly. Clatteringshaws disused quarry, 2.3 Site Examples regularly recorded from July 2007. (Peter Norman) quarries in England. Two disused quarries have been designated as Sites of Special Scientific Interest for their geological 3.3 Birds (high importance) importance; Clatteringshaws Dam Quarry and Talnotry Mine. The biodiversity potential of quarries Several pairs of Kestrels Falco tinnunculus, has so far been little explored, but live CCTV Peregrines Falco peregrinus and Ravens Corvus images of nesting Peregrines in Creetown Quarry corax nest on quarry faces of both working and are transmitted to Creetown Heritage Centre and disused quarries. At Portpatrick, the extensive cliff Kelhead Quarry is a designated Local Wildlife Site. faces quarried for the harbour works in the late 18th WORKINGS QUARRIES & MINERAL Dyke Farm Quarry at Moffat has recently been and early 19th centuries have been colonised by restored for amenity and nature conservation use. Fulmars Fulmarus glacialis.

2.4 Associated Habitats Gravel works provide nest sites for Oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus, Ringed Plovers Charadrius A number of habitats occur in close association and/or hiaticula and occasionally Little Ringed Plovers overlap with quarries, and the following action plans Charadrius dubius, the latter a very rare breeding may also contain relevant information: Calcareous species in Scotland. Grasslands, Inland Rock Outcrops, Scrub Woods, Industrial and Post-industrial Sites. Extensive areas of grassland may be used by Skylarks Alauda arvensis, whilst a wide range of birds 3. Importance for Associated Species frequent areas of scrub and woodland. Open water in the region’s quarries is not of major importance for its 3.1 Flowering Plants (high importance) bird life. Studies on the colonisation of plants in disused limestone quarries found that species diversity 3.4 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) approached that found in much older semi-natural Quarries, even active ones, can support an interesting calcareous grassland within only 10-20 years. and varied bryophyte flora, though usually just a version of the natural communities found on nearby Common Centaury Centaurium erythraea thrives on rock outcrops, rather than a specialised flora. Thick- the well-drained, disturbed bare ground of quarries set Earwort Scapania compacta, a common liverwort

and Common Cudweed Filago vulgaris, which has HABITATS BUILT in rocky situations in western Britain, often grows in undergone a dramatic national decline as a result of disused quarries. agricultural change, is known from similar habitats in at least one disused quarry. Orchids, including Wet ground on disused quarry floors is good for Common Spotted Dactylorhiza maculata and mosses and liverworts in the few years immediately Common Twayblade Listera ovata can be abundant, following closure, until flowering herbs and eventually depending on local conditions. scrub and trees become dominant. 3.2 Invertebrates (high importance) 3.5 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium Bare ground (especially composed of soft material importance) such as sand) combined with species-rich grassland Sir William Jardine’s collection of fossil reptile makes an ideal combination for many invertebrates,

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 255 URBAN WATERCOURSES & WETLANDS

footprints found in the 1850s at the sandstone quarry 5. Factors affecting the Habitat at Corncockle is now in Royal Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh. More recently, the combination of bare • Restoration to agricultural land has been the ground for basking, grassland for hunting and piles main after use of mineral workings, and most of stones for hibernation makes many quarries and active sites have restoration to agriculture built mineral workings good habitats for Common Lizards into their planning consent. Zootoca vivipara, Slow Worms Anguis fragilis and Adders Vipera berus. Quarries are therefore valuable • An RSPB study identified the main reasons for reptile habitats, and may be critical for their survival not restoring quarries and mineral workings to in areas of otherwise intensive agriculture or forestry. a nature conservation after-use as being a lack This habitat combination can also be good for frogs, of support from the landowner, a perceived toads and newts, but these species also require inadequate financial return, a difficulty in relatively shallow, well-vegetated, predominantly securing long-term conservation management fishless areas of open water, which are often lacking and the proximity of the site to an airfield (threat from hard rock quarries, being common only in some of bird strike). The last reason is not relevant to sand and gravel workings. Dumfries & Galloway, but all the others probably apply. The willingness of the mineral company is 3.6 Mammals (low importance) usually not a problem. Roosting bats use crevices and caves in quarry • Rock climbing can disturb nesting birds or

QUARRIES & MINERAL WORKINGS QUARRIES & MINERAL faces, and the presence of open water, grassland, damage flora in some quarries. woodland and scrub is also of benefit to them. • Disused quarries and mineral workings are However, few bat surveys of quarries have been prone to waste dumping, usually unofficially and completed in Dumfries & Galloway. Other mammals illegally. In particular, small disused quarries are tend to be widespread and common species, for a frequent location for farm dumps, though the which quarries are of minor importance in relation to impact on amenity value is usually greater than other habitats. that on biodiversity.

3.7 Fungi and Lichens (low importance) 6. Strategic Actions Bare rock on quarry faces and other places is readily colonised by lichens, though few notable species 6.1 Recent and current activity are known. Other fungi associated with quarries and mineral workings tend to be generalist species, • Dyke Farm Quarry, near Moffat, has been though some old quarry floors in other parts of Britain restored to a nature reserve following sand and are developing good waxcap mycotas. gravel extraction by Patersons of Greenoakhill Limited. 3.8 Fishes (low importance) • Tarmac has prepared Biodiversity Action Plans Though a number of disused quarries and mineral for all its quarries in Dumfries & Galloway. workings have been restored as recreational and • The Mountaineering Council of Scotland has commercial fisheries, species are generally of low produced an information sheet about birds and conservation value. climbing, which contains guidance on responsible

BUILT HABITATS BUILT climbing. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity 6.2 Other recommended actions Create new habitats on disused quarries and mineral • Features of geological interest are often exposed workings. There is enormous potential to create a in quarries and mineral workings and offer range of habitats. In England, RSPB has calculated opportunities for education and interpretation. that restoration of mineral sites for biodiversity could, • Quarries and mineral workings restored for in itself, meet all of the targets for at least seven UK wildlife have the potential to be managed as BAP priority habitats. nature reserves, offering recreational and educational facilities, along with associated landscape and economic regeneration benefits.

256 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership URBAN WATERCOURSES &WETLANDS have separate actionplans. spaces andindustrial &post-industrialsites are oftenneglected. Pondsingardens, public open ponds. Wherethisusehas beenlost,theseponds including curlingponds,distillery ponds,andmill areas. Pondswerecreatedforarangeof purposes A numberofother wetlandscanbefoundinurban marred byrefuseandlitter. aesthetic perspective,urbanwatercoursesareoften grass cuttingandotherurbanactivities.Froman surfaces, andhighnutrientslevelsfromadjacent and otherpollutantsthatruns-off surroundinghard polluted thantheyoncewere,manystillreceiveoil concrete orsteel. Although theyarenowmuchless straightened andoftenculverted,oratleastlinedwith are frequentlyhiddenfromview. They arealsousually built). Incontrast,smallerurbanburnsandditches natural floodplain(uponwhichthesettlementisoften in bywallsandembankmentscutoff fromtheir with pools,rifflesandgravelbedsremoved,hemmed modified fromtheirnaturalform-usuallystraightened the nameoftown.Nevertheless,mostarehighly and sometimestheirnameisevenincorporatedinto Houses thatoverlookthemaremuchindemand, Urban rivers 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Brieryhill sustainable urban drainage scheme. Lockerbie, July 2006. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayCouncil. 2015. Target: 10SUDSschemesfornewdevelopmentstoincludedesignenhancementsbiodiversityby Incorporate biodiversityintoSustainableUrbanDrainageSystemsinnewdevelopments. Priority Action (UWW1) Habitat Description areoftenthefocalpointofsettlements. (Peter Norman)

problems intheseareas. watercourses comparewiththescaleorextentof recovering. NoneofDumfries&Galloway’s urban lifeless inthemid-late20 and Tyne werehighlypollutedandbecamevirtually of BritainandEurope,suchastheRhine,Mersey Many riversandwetlandsinhighlyindustrialparts 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext biodiversity. surfaces. Someofthesecanbedesignedtoimprove wetlands, infiltrationdevices,swalesandpermeable detention basins,retentionponds,constructed to reducepollutionandfloodrisk. Theyinclude alternative toconventionalurbandrainagesystems are deliberatelydesignedandconstructedasan are arelativelynewkindofurbanwetland. They Sustainable UrbanDrainageSystems(SUDS) in NewtonStewart . Annan, NithinDumfriesFleet Gatehouse, Cree through urbanareas,notably theRiver Annan in A numberofDumfries &Galloway’s mainriversflow 2.3 SiteExamples Dumfries &Galloway’s townsandvillages. There areurbanwatercoursesandwetlandsinallof 2.2 CurrentDistribution biodiversity. can alsobeusedtocreatehabitatsandenhance contributing tofloodrisk. Thesenewtechniques passing themdownstreamasquicklypossible, with potentialcontaminantsatsource,ratherthan avoid pipedoutlets. The introductionofSUDSdeals schemes protectbankswithnaturalmaterialsand with nature,ratherthanagainstit.Softengineering recently installedschemeshaveaimedtowork and importanceofurbanwatercourses,several There isnowabetterunderstandingofthecomplexity 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership th century. They arestill

257 BUILT HABITATS URBAN WATERCOURSES & WETLANDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.4 Associated Habitats freshwater algae form the basis of aquatic foodchains A number of habitats occur in close association and/ and are essential for a healthy watercourse. or overlap with urban watercourses and wetlands, and the following action plans may also contain relevant 3.5 Birds (medium importance) information: Lowland Burns and Ditches, Public Open Mute Swans Cygnus olor, Mallards Anser Spaces, Walls and Buildings, Industrial and Post- platyrhynchos, Moorhens Gallinula chloropus, industrial Sites, Bridges and Tunnels. Kingfishers Alcedo atthis and Grey Wagtails Motacilla cinerea are 3. Importance for Associated Species residents or frequent visitors 3.1 Fishes (very high importance) to many urban All fish of rural rivers, including Salmon Salmo salar watercourses and and Trout Salmo trutta are also found in urban wetlands. Dippers watercourses, including small burns, unless local Cinclus cinclus, factors have affected their habitat or food supply. although usually The only spawning bed in Dumfries & Galloway of associated with the nationally rare Sparling Osmerus eperlanus is river headwaters, Mallard, the typical duck of urban watercourses. (Peter Norman) located within Newton Stewart. The fact that towns are also and villages are often located on the lower reaches associated with of rivers means that any problems here may limit some urban rivers, nesting annually in the centre of

URBAN WATERCOURSES & WETLANDS URBAN WATERCOURSES the free movement of migratory fish throughout the Dalbeattie and Gatehouse of Fleet. catchment. 3.6 Invertebrates (medium importance) 3.2 Reptiles and Amphibians (high importance) Some species such of invertebrates, such as the Urban ponds wetlands, rather than flowing larvae of Chirononus midges and Tubifex worms watercourses, support high populations of most native amphibians, particularly Common Toads Bufo bufo, Common Frogs Rana temporaria and Palmate Newts Lissotriton Helvetica. A few ponds, such as those at Gatehouse of Fleet and Newton Stewart, also have Great Crested Newts Triturus cristatus.

3.3 Mammals (high importance) Although domestic cats undoubtedly take some Water Voles Arvicola terrestris, it has been suggested that they are less susceptible to predation on urban watercourses, due to the deterrent effect of cats on Mink. Otters Lutra lutra make frequent, often nightly, Mute Swans and Cygnets, Paul McLaughlin use of all urban rivers and on occasion even quite will survive in even highly polluted watercourses small burns. but in cleaner water mayfly and stonefly nymphs BUILT HABITATS BUILT may be found. Indeed the species composition of Bats, which find many roosting opportunities in watercourses is an accurate measure of pollution urban buildings and bridges, use watercourses for levels, and these species provide the food supply of feeding. Pipistrelles Pipistrellus sp., Noctules Nyctalus many fish and birds. Variable Damselfly Coenagrion noctula and Daubenton’s Myotis daubentonii bats are pulchellum has a restricted UK distribution but has regularly recorded on the River Nith in Dumfries town been found on a number of ponds in Dumfries & centre. Galloway, including some close to urban locations. 3.4 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) 3.7 Flowering Plants (medium importance) Polluted urban watercourses are associated with The banks of urban watercourses and wetlands have masses of Blanket-weed Cladophora on the surface been highly managed for many years, usually giving or bottom, but such a sight is now rare. Instead,

258 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P rise to a plant community dominated by opportunist surface water discharging into coastal waters invaders such as Monkey Flowers Mimulus spp. and and for single dwellings. In certain locations it Himalayan Balsam Impatiens glandulifera. Both were is possible to design such schemes to enhance introduced as garden flowers in the 19th century, but biodiversity. spread rapidly along watercourses during the late 20th century. Complete eradication of them is now 6.2 Other recommended actions impossible. Instead they should be appreciated for the urban colour, bank stabilisation and nectar sources • Protect all existing stretches of semi-natural they provide. A few less common species have been river and burn corridor and other wetlands in recorded, including Yellow Bartsia Parentucellia urban areas. viscosa on the banks of the Nith in Dumfries. • Encourage designers and developers to use alternatives to culverts on rivers and burns 4. Environmental, Economic & Social through urban and other areas. Importance of Biodiversity • Where feasible and realistic, restore degraded sections of watercourse, particularly weirs, • More natural management of urban watercourses underground and concrete-lined sections. Provide and wetlands reduces flood risks. variation in stream and bank habitats, such as • Unpolluted and biodiverse watercourses and riffles, pools, gravel beds and vegetation. wetlands provide landscape, recreation and • Enhance SUDS to provide biodiversity benefits, quality of life benefits for urban residents. as well as preventing pollution from surface water & WETLANDS URBAN WATERCOURSES • Shallowly sloping banks with marginal vegetation drains entering watercourses and reducing peak are safer than canalised watercourses, as they flows. limit access to deep water.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• There is a perception that all watercourses in urban areas are a safety hazard and an inconvenience. As a result they have often been hidden from public view with little or no access. This is especially the case with smaller burns. • Previous management has focussed on increasing flow capacity. This has resulted in embanking, straightening, mechanical excavating, lining with concrete or steel, and culverting of watercourses in urban areas. • Management of urban infrastructure, such as bridges, footpaths and street lighting can affect some species. BUILT HABITATS BUILT

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • Dumfries & Galloway Council has published Supplementary Planning Guidance on the Flooding and the use of Sustainable Urban Drainage Schemes. Several SUDS have been installed in urban developments and under the Controlled Activities Regulations they are now The River Nith in Dumfries town centre supports a wide range of required for all new development except for species. February 2008. (Peter Norman)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 259 260 BUILT HABITATS RESERVOIRS that cansupport onlyspecialisedplants andanimals. days tomonths, creatingharshecological conditions use ofthereservoir, cyclesofexposurecanvaryfrom be regularlyfloodedandexposed. Dependingonthe pumped inandout,areas of baremudandrockmay reservoirs, butrareinnatural waterbodies. As wateris The draw-downzone banks aresteep-sided. over moreacidicgeology, thewaterisdeep,and than uplandones,usuallybecausethelatteraresited Lowland reservoirstendtohavegreaterbiodiversity banks linedwithconcreteusedtoretainthewater. valleys, othersaresitedonfairlyflatlandwithearth exist. Somehavebeenmadebydammingshallow natural lochs,butsizeablelowlandreservoirsalso have floodedextensivevalleys,sometimesexpanding reservoirs areusuallyinuplandareaswheredams release itundercontrolledconditions. The largest water fromwatercoursesandcatchments, both purposesaredesignedtocatchandmaintain reasons forthereservoirconstruction.Reservoirs Water supplyandwaterpowerarethetwomain 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayEnvironmentalResourcesCentre. Target: Collectandcollateallbiodiversityinformationrelatingtoreservoirsby2015. maintenance andmanagementprogrammes. Increase theavailabilityofbiodiversityinformationrelatingtoreservoirs,inorderthatitcanbeused Priority Action (RE1) Habitat Description isafeaturecommontomost RESERVOIRS Grassland atGlenkilnReservoir, dominatedbyPignut.June2007.(PeterNorman) addition toanumberofsmallordisusedreservoirs. currently usedforhydro-powerorwatersupply, in are atleast14reservoirsinDumfries&Galloway Reservoirs arewidespreadthroughoutBritain. There 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext only rudimentarypasses. passes It isalegalrequirementtoinstalleffective fish banks tomajorstoneorconcretewalls. Dams appear tobe the region’s largestreservoirbut itfeeds, Clatteringshaws Loch,withitslarge dam,may 2.2 SiteExamples fringe. scattered acrosstheregion, mainlyintheupland of theDee-Kenvalley. Elsewhere,theyare well is theseriesthatpowershydro-electricstations modified naturallochs. Thegreatestconcentration Most reservoirsinDumfries&Gallowaytendtobe 2.1 CurrentDistribution 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus takeavarietyofforms,fromsimpleearth onallnewdams,butolderdamsmayhave Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership RESERVOIRS

via a pipeline, into the Dee-Ken system where the Dumfries & Galloway’s best known plant of reservoirs long, narrow Loch Ken (SPA/SSSI) covers a larger is a grass-like fern Pillwort Pilularia globulifera, with area. This reservoir lacks a major dam, appears very the reservoirs of the Dee-Ken hydro scheme providing natural and has high biodiversity. Other sizeable one of its UK strongholds. Though largely submerged, reservoirs include Penwhirn, Loch Whinyeon, it benefits from fluctuating water levels. Lochinvar, Glenkiln, Black Esk and Winterhope, as well as several smaller dams on other waterbodies. 3.3 Birds (medium importance) Blates Mill Dam (LWS), near Laurieston, now shows Loch Ken is the outstanding reservoir in the region little of its artificial origins, the small dam being barely for bird life, with a wide range of wildfowl and waders. discernible amongst natural vegetation. Unlike some other parts of Britain, Dumfries and Galloway has few other large reservoirs that attract 2.3 Associated Habitats large numbers of waterfowl, only small numbers A number of habitats occur in close association and/or of Great Crested Grebes Podiceps cristatus and overlap with reservoirs, and the following action plans common species of duck, sometimes with night-

may also contain relevant information: Eutrophic time roosting of geese and Whooper Swans Cygnus RESERVOIRS Lochs, Mesotrophic Lochs, Oligotrophic Lochs, cygnus. Swamps, Industrial and Post-industrial Sites. Common Sandpipers Actitis hypoleucos often feed 3. Importance for Associated Species and nest in the draw-down zone. Ringed Plovers Charadrius hiaticula have also known to frequent 3.1 Fishes (very high importance) the draw-down zone and previously nested at The most significant impact of reservoirs on fish Clatteringshaws, but inland breeding is now rare. populations is caused by dams that lack properly functioning fish-passes. These prevent free A number of species, including Kestrels Falco movement of all species of fish up and down the tinnunculus, have been known to nest on dams, watercourse, but migratory species such as Salmon usually in cavities or on associated infrastructure. Salmo salar and Sea Trout Salmo trutta can be especially affected. There are no Eels Anguilla 3.4 Flowering Plants (medium importance) anguilla upstream of Tongland Dam, due to the Typical plants of the draw-down zone include difficulty of adults passing downstream though the Shoreweed Littorella uniflora, Amphibious Bistort power station. Persicaria amphibia, Marsh Yellow-cress Rorippa palustris and Marsh Cudweed Gnaphalium In the reservoirs themselves, there are few resident uliginosum. The locally scarce Trifid Bur-marigold species of conservation importance. Typical species Bidens tripartita is found at Loch Ken. include Pike Esox lucius and Perch Perca fluviatilis. 3.5 Mammals (medium importance) 3.2 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) The mammal fauna of Dumfries & Galloway’s The exposed draw-down zone of reservoirs is an reservoirs differs from their more natural freshwater important habitat for several species of mosses and counterparts. Otters Lutra lutra are present on all liverworts. Many are tiny and ephemeral, but grow such waterbodies. in profusion when conditions are right. The wet mud BUILT HABITATS BUILT nearest the water’s edge is likely to produce the 3.6 Invertebrates (low importance) rarest species. Species of this habitat include Clay Though rare beetles, spiders and other invertebrates Earth Moss Archidium alternifolium, Delicate Earth are found on Loch Ken, they are not typical of Moss Pseudephemerum nitidum and Drummond’s reservoirs in the region, which generally have a Thread Moss Pohlia drummondii. Although only the restricted range of common aquatic invertebrates. latter species has been recorded from a reservoir in Dumfries & Galloway (Clatteringshaws) this probably 3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) reflects a lack of survey work. Most large reservoirs are too deep and have too many fish to support amphibian populations, though common species occur at a few locations.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 261 4. Environmental, Economic & Social 6. Strategic Actions Importance of Biodiversity 6.1 Recent and current activity • Scottish Power has prepared a Biodiversity Action Plan for the Galloway Hydros Scheme. For example, work with Galloway Fisheries Trust is underway to improve fish passage. • Recreational activities on Loch Ken are strictly zoned to minimise disturbance to wildlife, and Scottish Power has an agreement with RSPB to manage water levels, as far as possible, in order to benefit breeding birds. Blue-tailed Damselflies breed in a wide range of waterbodies, including well-vegetated reservoir margins. (Gavin Chambers) 6.2 Other recommended actions RESERVOIRS • Reservoirs can attract tourists and other visitors • Assess the biodiversity of all reservoirs and, to watch wildlife. Several of the most popular where feasible, incorporate biodiversity nature reserves in Britain are based around conservation and enhancement into maintenance reservoirs. and management programmes. • Well-managed fisheries can produce income and enhance biodiversity.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Poorly designed dams and fish passes restrict or prevent fish movement. Other problems may result from altered flow velocities and changes to water temperatures and oxygen levels in reservoirs, and in the release of stored water from reservoirs. • Some deliberately introduced species, including non-native fish introduced for angling, pose a threat to other species. North American Signal Crayfish are present in Loch Ken and could spread to adjacent catchments. • Recreational activities such as boating, walking and angling can disturb wildlife, though such disturbance is rarely significant in Dumfries & Galloway. Willow scrub below Clatteringshaws Dam. July 2007. BUILT HABITATS BUILT (Peter Norman)

262 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership