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The Low-Rodgers Expedition: a Study in the Foundations of U.S. Policy in Korea

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The Low-Rodgers Expedition: a Study in the Foundations of U.S. Policy in Korea Calhoun: The NPS Institutional Archive Theses and Dissertations Thesis Collection 1988-06 The Low-Rodgers Expedition: a study in the foundations of U.S. policy in Korea George, Douglas E. Monterey, California. Naval Postgraduate School http://hdl.handle.net/10945/23292 I NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL Monterey , California THESIS THE LOW-RODGERS EXPEDITION: A STUDY IN THE FOUNDATIONS OF U.S. POLICY IN KOREA by Douglas Edward George June 1988 Thesis Advisor: Claude A. Buss Approved for public release; distribution unlimited T238928 CURITY CLASSIFICATION OF ^S -AGE REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE MARKINGS REPORT SECURITY CLASSIFICATION b RESTRICTIVE 'a UNCLASSIFIED /AVAILABILITY OF REPORT CLASSIFICATION AUTHORITY 3 DISTRIBUTION SECURITY Approved for public release; distribu- TI ' DOWNGRADING SCHEDULE unlimited 'b DECLASS!F'CA ON tion REPORT NUMBER(S) ' MONITORING ORGANIZATION PERFORMING CRGAiWAT.C:*. "... L- OFFICE SYMBOL 7a NAME OF MONITORING ORGANIZATION a NAME OF PERFORMING ORGANlZA uON (If applicable) Postgraduate School \faval Postgraduate School 56 Naval ZIP Code) ZIP Code) 7b. ADDP.ESS (C/ty, State, and ic. ADDRESS {City, State, and Monterey, California 93943-5000 Monterey, California 93943-5000 IDENTIFICATION NUMBER 8b OFFlCc :YMBOL 9. PROCUREMENT INSTRUMENT )a. NAME OF FUNDING / SPONSORING ORGANIZATION (If applicable) 10. SOURCE OF FUNDING NUMBERS 3c. ADDRESS (City, State, and ZIP Code) PROGRAM PROJECT TASK WORK UNIT ELEMENT NO NO. NO ACCESSION NO I TITLE (Include Security Classification) THE LOW-RODGERS EXPEDITION: A STUDY IN THE FOUNDATIONS OF U.S. POLICY IN KOREA 12. PERSONAL AUTHOR(S) GEORGE, Douglas E, COUNT TIME COVERED DATE OF REPORT (Year, Month, Day) 15 PAGE 13a. TYPE OF REPORT 13b 334 Master's Thesis FROM TO 1988 June . of the author ^Supplementary notation The views expressed in this thesis are those Department of and do not reflect the official policy or position of the Defense or the U.S. Government. COSATI CODES 18 SUBJECT TE (C ToTea _Fire-defrede ricklck-T.- T^*f ^OT^o^^^Sf ftW; FIELD -Korean relations; Oppert; Hermit Kingdom; U.S U.S. Asi- policy in Korea; General Sherman ; Seward; U.S. atic Fleet; 1871 Marine amphibious landing in Korea. reveals the Origin and 19. ABSTRACT (Continue on reverse if necessary and identify by block number) This thesis significance of the Low-Rodgers Expedition of 1871 in the evolution of a con- scious foreign policy of the United States in East Asia. It deals with the Low-Rodgers Expedition not as an isolated event, but as both an outcome and [antecedent of other closely interrelated events in an unbroken time continuum, on the fundamental regional issues of the times and the national | Concentrating U.S. and the Kingdom of Korea, this thesis: I character and interests of the 'reveals, for the first time, the 1871 diary of U.S. Minister to China, Fred- erick F. Low, and the wealth of new historical data therein; provides deeper analysis of the contemporary events bearing on the Low-Rodgers Expedition and gives a deeper appreciation of the obstacles preventing its success; shows why misconceptions about the expedition and some peripheral events arose and have remained unchallenged; explains why Low's efforts to open Korea failed, in yet still played a more important role in the development of U.S. policy (orea and the opening of Korea to the Western world than has been recognized. :: CLASSIFICATION 20 DISTRIBUTION/ AVAILABILITY OF A3S -<. ABSTRACT SECURITY H UNCLASSIFIED/UNLIMITED SAME AS RPT DTIC USERS UNCLASSIFIED Area Code) Uc OFFICE SYMBOL 22a NAME OF RESPONSIBLE INDIVIDUAL 22b TELEPHONE (Include Dr. Claude A. Buss (415) 327-7893 56BX until exhausted DDFORM 1473. 84 mar 33 APR edition may be used SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE 1986-606-24. All other editions are obsolete ft U.S. Government Printing Office: ApDroved far uublic release; distribution unlimited THE LOV-RODGERS EXPEDITION: A STUDY IN THE FOUNDATIONS OF U.S. POLICY IN KOREA by Douglas E. George Captain, United States Air Force B.A., University of Maryland, 1976 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS IN NATIONAL SECURITY AFFAIRS from the NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL June 1988 ABSTRACT This thesis reveals the origin and significance of the Low-Rodgers Expedition of 1871 in the evolution of a conscious foreign policy of thi United States in East Asia. Entitled "The Low-Rodgers Expedition: A Study in the Foundations of U.S. Policy in Korea," it deals with the Low-Rodgers Expedition not as an isolated event, but as both an outcome and antecedent of other closely interrelated events in an unbroken time continuum. Concentrating on the fundamental regional issues of the times and the national character and interests of the United States and the Kingdom of Korea, this thesis: 1. Reveals, for the first time, the original 1871 diary of U.S. Minister to China, Frederick Ferdinand Low, and the wealth of new historical data therein: his misgivings and motivations; his plans and failings; and his appreciation for the historical importance of the mission which today bears his name. 2. Provides deeper analysis of the contemporary events bearing on the Low-Rodgers Expedition and gives a deeper appreciation of the obstacles which worked against its success from the very moment of its inception. 3. Shows why misconceptions about the expedition and some peripheral events have remained unchallenged for over a century. 4. Explains why Low's efforts to open Korea before the 1882 Shufeldt mission failed, yet still played a more important role in the development of U.S. policy in Korea and the opening of Korea to tne Western world than has been recognised. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS — 1 I. INTRODUCTION: STORMY BEGINNINGS AND UNANSWERED QUESTIONS II. SETTING THE STAGE: THE EAST ASIAN ENVIRONMENT 5 III. THE GENERAL SHERMAN INCIDENT 19 A. THE GENERAL SHERMAN'S VOYAGE TO KOREA 22 B. THE GENERAL SHERMAN IN KOREA 24 C. THE DESTRUCTION OF THE GENERAL SHERMAN 37 IV. THE POLICY IDEA MATURING 41 A. THE AFTERMATH: WORRY AND RAGE 41 B. THE SHUFELDT MISSION 47 C. THE FEBIGER MISSION 56 D. FREDERICK JENKINS AND THE OPPERT CONNECTION 57 E. THE JENKINS- OPPERT LEGACY 73 F. GEORGE F. SEWARD AND HIS "VISION" 76 V. THE LOW-RODGERS MISSION 81 A. KEY PERSONNEL SI 1. HAMILTON FISH 81 2. FREDERICK F. LOW 82 3. ADMIRAL JOHN RODGERS 85 B. THE EXPEDITION'S PURPOSE AND PLANNING 86 C. THE VOYAGE TO KOREA 96 iv VI. THE LOW-RODGERS EXPEDITION ARRIVES IN KOREA 106 A. INITIAL UNOFFICIAL CONTACT 107 B. OFFICIAL CONTACT: MUTUAL MISUNDERSTANDING 114 C. THE FIREFIGHT: MISUNDERSTANDING TURNS TO CONFLICT 119 D. DIPLOMACY SOURS 124 VII. THE BATTLE 141 A. DAY ONE 141 B. DAY TWO 149 VIII. AFTER THE BATTLE 157 A. THE EFFECTS ON THE AMERICANS 157 B. THE EFFECTS ON THE KOREANS 162 C. GOING HOME WITH HONOR 162 IX. CONCLUSION 167 A. THE GENERAL SHERMAN: SELF-ASSURED DESTRUCTION 169 B. LOW-RODGERS: GOOD INTENTIONS GONE AWRY 172 C. THE LOW-RODGERS EXPEDITION'S LEGACY 177 APPENDIX A: THE GENERAL SHERMAN AND THE LOW-RODGERS EXPEDITION TO KOREA TIMELINE OF KEY EVENTS 180 APPENDIX B: THE LOW-RODGERS EXPEDITION OF 1871 THE LANDING PARTY OF JUNE 10-11, 1871 185 APPENDIX C: THE DIARY OF FREDERICK FERDINAND LOW MAY 8 - JULY 10, 1871 187 APPENDIX D: A COPY OF THE ORIGINAL DIARY OF FREDERICK FERDINAND LOW MAY 8 - JULY 10, 1871 249 LIST OF REFERENCES 313 BIBLIOGRAPHY 316 INITIAL DISTRIBUTION LIST 318 LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS AND MPS PHOTOGRAPHS Photograph 1. The U.S.S. Colorado, the flagship of the Low-Rodgers Expedition, at anchor off Kangwha Island, Korea, 'May 30 - July 3, 1871 110 Photograph 2. The officers of the U.S.S. Colorado 111 Photograph 3. The Korean junk which ferried Korean officials to the U.S.S. Colorado 113 Photograph 4. An early Korean visitor to the U.S.S. Colorado with the objects of his fascination on board the American vessel — glass bottles 116 Photograph 5. Rear Admiral John Rodgers (second from the right) with his commanders and key officers planning the Americans' battle strategy for the confrontation June 10-11, 1871 137 Photograph 6. U.S. Minister Frederick Ferdinand Low (standing) dictating official correspondence to one of his aides and his Chinese interpreters 140 Photograph 7, Korean soldiers taken as prisoners of war combat, June 11 - 12, 1871 154 Photograph 8. A Korean official (in the hat) prepares to disembark the U.S.S. Colorado with the Korean prisoners the Americans released following the fighting of June 11 - 12, 1871 160 MAPS Mao Kangwha Island, Korea, where the Lew- Rodgers Expedition engaged Korean forts and forces June 10 - 11, 1871 142 -: ACKNOWLEDGEMENT All photographs appearing in this thesis are courtesy of the Department of Special Collections and University Archives, Stanford University Libraries. vii I. INTRODUCTION: STORMY BEGINNINGS AND UNANSWERED QUESTIONS Today's relationship between Korea and the United States of America represents one of the unique alliances among nations. Geographically, historically and culturally, they are worlds apart. Yet few nations are as close. America's modern commitment to the Koreans, combining both the strategic and the moral, has been indispensable to South Korea's very survival. CRef. 1] Just as important, the Koreans' response to the American alliance has been equally beneficial to the Americans. The South Koreans have built one of East Asia's most thriving and prosperous economies. They have been a loyal ally. But relations between Americans and Koreans have not always been so symbiotic. In fact two unhappy events marked the early years of American-Korean relations when they began over a century ago. The first was the destruction of an American merchant ship, the General Sherman, in the Taedong River and the murder of its crew near Pyongyang in 1866.
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