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Oases at the Gates of Hell: Hydrogeology, Cultural History and Ecology of the Mulligan River Springs, Far Western Queensland Jennifer L. Silcock1,5, Max K. Tischler2,3, and Roderick J. Fensham1,4 Abstract The Mulligan River springs occur on the eastern edge of the Simpson Desert in far south-west Queensland, near the north-west margin of the Great Artesian Basin, and are associated with the Toomba Thrust Fault. The springs provide the only permanent surface water in the driest part of Australia. They have been focal points for human and animal activity for millennia, but despite their cultural and ecological interest, they have received relatively little attention compared to other Great Artesian Basin spring groups. Here we explore the hydrogeology, cultural history and ecology of these springs through a review of published literature, early explorer journals, diaries and letters of early settlers, books, and comprehensive field survey. Fragments of stories and dense surface archaeology indicate intensive occupation at many of the springs by the Wangkamadla people for thousands of years, but most of the knowledge about how people used, mythologised and managed the springs did not survive the frontier period that saw the area depopulated. From the 1880s, explorers and pastoralists marvelled at, relied upon and in many cases severely modified the springs. Shallow bores were sunk on or near springs, and others were excavated to improve cattle access. Today, all except three of 90 documented springs remain active, although many are highly modified and reductions in flow and wetland extent due to aquifer drawdown are likely to have occurred. No endemic species are known to be associated with the Mulligan River springs, but they support disjunct populations of some plants and fish. There appears to be con siderable natural dynamism in spring activity and flow, but springs in some areas have emerged or become re activated, apparently due to increased aquifer pressure following bore capping. Additional springs were found during the most recent surveys, and a small number probably remain undocumented. Improved understanding of recharge areas, aquifer connectivity and spring dynamism will inform future management of these isolated oases, while detailed archaeological work will shed light on patterns of Aboriginal use and better situate the springs in the wider cultural landscape. Keywords: hydrogeology, cultural history, ecology, wetland extent, aquifer drawdown, grazing disturbance 1 Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation Science, National Environmental Science Program – Threatened Species Recovery Hub, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia 2 Australian Desert Expeditions, 222A Barry Parade, Fortitude Valley, QLD 4006, Australia 3 Bush Heritage Australia, Level 1, 395 Collins Street, Melbourne, VIC 8009, Australia 4 Queensland Herbarium, Department of Environment and Science, Brisbane Botanic Gardens, Mt Coot-tha Road, Toowong, QLD 4066, Australia 5 Corresponding author: [email protected] Introduction I gazed upon it. It looked like the entrance into Hell (Captain Charles Sturt, 7 September 1845). Ascending one of the sand ridges I saw a num- berless succession of these terrific objects ris­­ing When a scurvy-ravaged Captain Charles Sturt, above each other to the east and west of me finally thwarted in his attempt to reach the geographic … I find it utterly impossible to describe the centre of the continent, described the eastern edge of appearance of the country … The scene was what is now known as the Simpson Desert in a letter awfully fearful: a kind of dread came over me as to his wife Charlotte, the country to the west was This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International Licence. Individual articles may be copied or downloaded for private, scholarly and not-for-profit use. Quotations may be extracted provided that the author and The Royal Society of Queensland are acknowledged. Queries regarding republication of papers, or parts of papers such as figures and photographs, should be addressed to the Secretary of The Royal Society of Queensland Inc. ([email protected]). PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND VOL. 126 1 2 JENNIFER L. SILCOCK, MAX K. TISCHLER, AND RODERICK J. FENSHAM completely unknown to white Australians. He could were visited between May and August 2013. At each not have known that even here, in the driest part of spring, the landscape position and surrounding vege- Australia, his red sandy hell, lay ancient wells (mikiri) tation were described and photos taken. Each vent in a and spring-fed pools that had sustained desert people spring group was marked with a hand-held GPS and its for millennia. activity status recorded. For active springs, soak and It was another four decades before descriptions of wetland area (defined as >50% cover of wetland vege- the springs that form the Mulligan River supergroup tation), excavation damage (wells, pipes, bores, direct were published. The Mulligan River springs are one excavation) and impacts of stock and feral animals of 12 spring ‘supergroups’ emanating from the Great were recorded. All plant species present in the spring Artesian Basin (GAB), a series of interconnected wetland were recorded, and the wetland was surveyed sandstone aquifers underlying one-fifth of Australia for fish, molluscs and other invertebrates. Where there (Habermehl, 2006). Water enters the GAB mostly at was free water, water chemistry measurements (tem- its eastern margin along the Great Dividing Range, perature, pH and conductivity) were taken. We also and percolates through the sandstone in a generally noted surface archaeology at and around springs, and south-westerly direction. Springs are natural discharge supplemented these observations with ethnographic points for this water, and occur around the basin’s edges observations from explorer and early settler journals or along fault lines in western Queensland, north-west and diaries, monographs and books, as well as con- New South Wales and north-east South Australia. The temporary ethnographic and archaeological studies. journey from the intake beds to the desert springs may Camera traps were set up on nine springs between take millions of years (Habermehl, 2001). August 2012 and May 2013 to document fauna use. The Mulligan River supergroup occurs along the north-eastern margins of the Simpson Desert in far Hydrogeology south-western Queensland (Figure 1). The climate is The Mulligan River springs occur near the north- hot and arid, with summer daytime maximum tem- western margin of the GAB, and the source aquifer peratures regularly exceeding 40°C, and an average is the Hooray Sandstone (Habermehl, 1982), formerly annual rainfall of 165 mm at the geographic centre of referred to as the Longsight Sandstone, with the the supergroup (derived from the modelled surface in Wallumbilla Formation acting as the overlying aqui- SILO; Jeffrey et al., 2001). Rainfall is charac terised tard. The springs are associated with the Toomba Fault by high inter-annual variability, while the study area that has upthrown the sediments of the aquifer by up is also subject to flooding from intermittent tropical to 300 metres from the west (Simpson et al., 1985). monsoons to the north. This supergroup has received The main Toomba Fault is 200 km long, has a vertical comparatively little attention from researchers, com- displacement of up to 6.5 km and contains ‘fracture pared to the considerable interest in springs in other zones’ measurable in square kilometres (Harrison, areas of Queensland (Fairfax & Fensham, 2003; 1980). The fault provides a significant obstruction to Kerezsy & Fensham, 2013; Rossini et al., 2017), and in groundwater flow and causes upwelling and discharge New South Wales (Pickard, 1992; Powell et al., 2015) through the springs. It is aligned in a north–north-west and South Australia (Harris, 1981; Harris, 2002). They direction between Beppery and Ethabuka Springs, were not included in recent research investigating and the westerly line to Montherida Spring and north– hydro geological, ecological and cultural knowledge of north-easterly line to Peanunga Spring (Figure 1) may numerous spring groups (Silcock et al., 2014; Fensham be associated with cross-faulting from the main fault. et al., 2016). The upwelling of groundwater at the Mulligan Here we explore the hydrogeology, cultural history River springs coincides with an area where ground- and ecology of the Mulligan River springs. Locations water flow converges from all directions including the of springs were documented by combining the results northern margin of the basin, which probably provides of a previous survey (Fensham & Fairfax, 2003) with some local recharge (Radke et al., 2000). The spring examination of historical maps (survey run plans and water is relatively alkaline with high concentrations the Queensland ‘4 mile’ series) and Google Earth of total dissolved solids (Fensham & Fairfax, 2003). imagery; a review of journals, diaries, letters and A more detailed analysis to determine the hydro- newspaper articles by early explorers, pastoralists and geology and contribution of groundwater recharged travellers; and interviews with contemporary pastoral from the northern margin of the GAB is required for station managers. All known and potential spring sites the Mulligan River springs. HYDROGEOLOGY, CULTURAL HISTORY AND ECOLOGY OF THE MULLIGAN RIVER SPRINGS 3 Figure 1. The Mulligan River supergroup

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