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Beyond Tube-And-Wing: the X-48 Blended Wing-Body and NASA's Beyond-and- Tube The X-48Wing Blended Wing-Body and NASA’s Quest to Reshape Future Transport Aircraft Bruce I. Larrimer Beyond -and- TubeThe X-48 Blended Wing-Body and NASA’s Quest to Reshape Future Transport AircraftWing Bruce I. Larrimer Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Larrimer, Bruce I., author. | United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, issuing body. Title: Beyond tube-and-wing : the X-48 blended wing-body and NASA's quest to reshape future transport aircraft / Bruce I. Larrimer. Other titles: X-48 blended wing-body and NASA's quest to reshape future transport aircraft | NASA aeronautics book series. Description: Washington, DC : NASA, [2020] | Series: NASA aeronautics book series | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “This book details the remarkable efforts to develop a new aircraft configuration known as the Blended Wing-Body (BWB). Responding to a challenge from NASA, McDonnell Douglas Corporation initiated studies in the early 1990s to determine if this new configuration could bring about significant advantages over conventional sweptwing, streamlined tube, and swept-tail designs. After McDonnell Douglas’ merger with Boeing, Boeing conducted additional research, development, and design work that led to the fabrication and flight testing of the X-48B and modified X-48C, and, along with NASA, it con- ducted additional wind tunnel testing under the auspices of NASA’s Environmentally Responsible Aviation Program.”—Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2020004749 (print) | LCCN 2020004750 (ebook) | ISBN 9781626830585 (hardback) | ISBN 9781626830592 (paperback) | ISBN 9781626830608 (epub) Subjects: LCSH: United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration— Research. | Boeing Company—Research. | X-48 (Research plane) | Blended wing-body aircraft—United States—Design and construction—History. Classification: LCC TL567.R47 L25 2020 (print) | LCC TL567.R47 (ebook) | DDC 629.133349—dc23 | SUDOC NAS 1.120:X 2 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020004749 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020004750 Copyright © 2020 by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The opinions expressed in this volume are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official positions of the United States Government or of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. On the cover: The X-48C reveals its distinctive manta ray–like planform as it flies low over Rogers Dry Lake, California. NASA This publication is available as a free download at http://www.nasa.gov/ebooks National Aeronautics and Space Administration Washington, DC Table of Contents Acknowledgments v Prologue vi Chapter 1: Seeking “An Aerodynamic Renaissance” ........................................ 1 Chapter 2: “The Concept Appears to Be a Winner” .........................................37 Chapter 3: From Concept to Design .................................................................59 Chapter 4: Small-Scale Testbeds .....................................................................81 Chapter 5: NASA’s First Effort: The Blended Wing-Body Low-Speed Vehicle ...97 Chapter 6: Aerodynamic Testing and Vehicle Fabrication .............................125 Chapter 7: The X-48B and X-48C Take to the Air ...........................................163 Epilogue: Toward a Full-Size Airplane ............................................................199 Appendix: X-48B and X-48C Research Flights at NASA Dryden Flight Research Center ..............................................................................................213 Abbreviations and Acronyms 221 Selected Bibliography 227 About the Author 237 Index 239 iii Acknowledgments Many individuals went to great lengths to furnish crucial information in the form of documents, insights, interviews, photographs, and reviews of the author’s work. The following individuals were especially helpful—indeed, often essen- tial—to the search for materials and the preparation of the manuscript, and I am most grateful for their assistance. At the Boeing Company, Long Beach, CA: Michael Kisska, Robert H. Liebeck, Norman Princen, Blaine K. Rawdon, Jonathan Vass, and Katherine A. Zemtseff (Boeing Seattle). At the Air Force Flight Test Museum, Edwards Air Force Base, Edwards, CA: Stephen K. Robinson. At Karem Aircraft, Inc., Lake Forest, CA: Benjamin Tigner. At NASA Armstrong (formerly Dryden) Flight Research Center, Edwards, CA: Frank Batteas, Karl A. Bender, Albion H. Bowers, Christian Gelzer, Heather A. Maliska, Joseph W. Pahle, Timothy K. Risch. At NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC: Richard P. Hallion, Anthony M. Springer. At NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA: Dennis M. Bushnell, Robert E. McKinley (former staff member), Wendy F. Pennington, and Dan D. Vicroy. At Stanford University, Ilan Kroo. At DZYNE Technologies, Mark A. Page (formerly of Swift Engineering and McDonnell Douglas). v Prologue This book reviews the remarkable efforts to develop a new aircraft configura- tion known as the Blended Wing-Body (BWB). While the blended wing is an offshoot of the flying wing, there are significant differences. The flying wing, or all wing, airplane encompasses its entire payload within the wing structure, while a blended wing-body smooths, or blends, a fuselage upward into the wing. Both, however, are tailless aircraft that represent a significant design dif- ference from the conventional wing, tube, and tail design of current passenger and cargo airplanes. They likewise represent significant stability and control challenges posed by tailless aircraft. In 1988, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) chal- lenged the U.S. aeronautics industry (and the dominant design paradigm) by asking if there was a potentially revolutionary renaissance for the long-range airplane, or had industry reached a plateau after which designers would only marginally improve upon the design and hence performance of contemporary “tube-and-wing” airliners and transports such as the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas MD-11, and Airbus A320. The McDonnell Douglas Corporation (MDC, which subsequently merged with the Boeing Company) accepted the challenge and, in the early 1990s, initiated studies to determine if this new configuration could bring about significant advantages over conventional sweptwing, streamlined tube, and swept-tail designs that echoed Boeing’s trendsetting B-47 bomber built 50 years earlier. The McDonnell Douglas engi- neers who led this effort noted that anyone familiar with the B-47 bomber would readily recognize in its lines and features the basic structural layout of contemporary large jet passenger and transport airplanes. McDonnell Douglas’ initial studies identified both the significant advantages of the blended wing and the challenges in designing, fabricating, and flying a BWB aircraft. Early issues identified and eventually solved included designing a very large pressurized passenger or cargo cabin lacking the hoop-tension strength of a cylinder-shaped conventional tube and tail airplane. These studies led first to additional comparisons of various design concepts and to further development of the BWB configuration, and then to the follow-on design and construction of a dynamically scaled small-size BWB Technology Demonstrator—the X-48B, which was later modified and designated as the X-48C. vi Prologue As a followup to the initial studies and designs, Stanford University, with McDonnell Douglas’ assistance, built and flew some radio-controlled (R/C) models, including a 6-foot-wingspan R/C model designated the BWB-6, and later designed, built, and flight-tested a 17-foot-wingspan remotely piloted BWB testbed—the BWB-17. At this point, McDonnell Douglas hoped to build a piloted, twin-engine, 24-percent-scaled BWB technology demonstra- tor. However, on August 1, 1997, just days after the completion of the Stanford BWB-17 flight testing and just prior to the beginning of MDC’s efforts to build a prototype, McDonnell Douglas merged with the Boeing Company, thus raising the possibility that Boeing might simply abandon the BWB effort. But Boeing undertook a detailed review of MDC’s work, and afterward, with NASA’s encouragement, recommendations, and support, the company agreed to continue the BWB effort. Additional Boeing studies further perfected the BWB concepts and designs and addressed important flight control issues, including the development of the flight control laws and angle of attack and sideslip limiters required for tailless aircraft. The follow-on Boeing/NASA proj- ect started with NASA Langley Research Center’s plan to design and build a 14-percent small-scale BWB Low Speed Vehicle later designated the X-48A by the U.S. Air Force. This first effort was abandoned, but the BWB continued with the follow-on X-48B project. As reviewed in this book, the X-48B project built upon the earlier BWB work, but with extensive aerodynamic testing and the design and fabrication of two 8.5-percent dynamically scaled test vehicles. The X-48B flew 92 test flights before modification into the X-48C; then it flew an additional 30 flights under the auspices of NASA’s Environmentally Responsible Aviation Program. These efforts, while proving the viability of the BWB concept, still represent a work in progress, for the fullest promise and international future of the BWB concept is still unfulfilled as of this time. Bruce I. Larrimer Columbus, Ohio September 22, 2020 vii The Northrop N-9MB of the early 1940s constituted
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