The Basic Science of Ground-/Surface-Water

“The science of hydrology would be relatively simple if water were unable to penetrate below the ’s surface.” Harold E. Thomas John LaFave Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Tech of The University of Montana [email protected] (406) 496-4306 Presented to Environmental Quality Council Helena March 10, 2004 The ground water environment is hidden, it is difficult to visualize the occurrence and movement of ground water, this can hinder our ability to deal with ground-water related problems.

• The purpose of this presentation is to : – Introduce some basic concepts regarding the occurrence and movement of ground water, and how ground water and interact or are interrelated.

– Describe how interact with the ground-water system, how they work, how we use data from wells (our window to the subsurface) to delineate ground-water flow directions and assess or predict the impact of wells on the ground-water / surface water system.

– Illustrate some of the concepts presented with Montana examples.

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Essential Definitions • : – A permeable geologic unit that can transmit and store significant quantities of water. • Transmissivity: – Capacity of the aquifer to transmit water • Storativity: – Capacity of an aquifer to take in and release water store and transmit water. Quantifying the transmissivity and storativity, allows one to use ground-water flow equations to predict how an aquifer will respond to different stresses.

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program : Basin Scale Hydrologic cycle: the endless circulation of water between the atmosphere, the land surface and the ocean. The notion of the hydrologic cycle provides a framework for understanding the occurrence and distribution of water on the earth. Precipitation Surface water Evaporation

Ground water discharge

Water is in motion. Although water is constantly cycling Critical hydrologic exchanges on a residence times differ. typical Montana basin scale include: Water is in the atmosphere for 1-2 weeks, precipitation, infiltration, , for ~ 2 weeks, the ground water evaporation and transpiration system for 2 weeks to 10,000 years.

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Ground Water, Aquifers and Confining Units Ground water makes up 95 % of the world’s useable fresh water. Ground water occurs in unconfined () or confined aquifers. The water table marks the upper surface in an unconfined aquifer. Confined aquifers are bounded by low permeability units. The water level in a completed in a confined aquifer will rise above the top of the In many cases, surface water represents an “exposure” aquifer due to artesian pressure. of the water table. That is, surface water is hydraulically connected to shallow ground water.

Wa Surface ter Ta ble Water

Below the Unconfined Aquifer water table the pore space is

artesian pressure Confining Unit – , clay, shale saturated.

Confined Aquifer

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program The water table

face Sur The water table is typically a Land subdued representation of the land surface. The depth to the water table will vary, it is usually near the land surface close to streams or in topographically low areas. ble Ta ter Wa Gravity is the driving force behind ground-water movement. Therefore, ground-water flows down the slope of the water table surface.

Where the water table surrounding a is at a higher level than the stream, Land surface ground water will flow toward and feed Gaining the stream. The discharge increases W ater t Stream down stream hence the term gaining able stream, it gains water from ground water

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program the water table. but it flows slowly. is extraordinarily fast. higher to lower altitude, the order of 1 ft per day Ground-water will flow from the order of miles per day. NOTE: Ground water flows, Ground-water movement on In streams water can move on measuring water levels in wells. perpendicular to the contour lines. Contoured water-level altitudes can define the position and orientation of of the water table are determined by The depth to water and the configuration

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Gr Ground-water flow associated with a gaining stream Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Seasonal Stream-Flow Stream flow varies on a seasonal basis. A stream hydrograph is a measure of discharge at a given point as a function of time

The peak is a result of water delivered to the stream by overland and subsurface flow in response to The steady component of stream flow spring snow melt. derived from ground water is called baseflow. A response to a In gaining streams baseflow is a significant short-term event. source of stream discharge. Discharge

Baseflow

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

• Major portion of flow ultimately derived from baseflow – On average, ground water accounts for 40 - 50 % of annual flow – In dry periods, ground water contributes almost all flow

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Ground-water flow associated with a losing stream

Not all streams are gaining

In some settings water can flow from a stream into the subsurface. Land surface Losing Where the water altitude in the stream Stream is higher than the adjacent water table, There is a potential for a losing stream. Water table

Losing streams can be directly connected to the water table or detached. Detached Land surface Losing Stream

Water table

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program that decrease in ill be reflected in the Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program from the stream. altitude away from the stream water table contours The flow direction w a losing stream will be away

Ground-water flow adjacent to

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0 7 Ground-water flow associated with a losing stream Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Ground-Water Hydrograph: Ground-Water level measurements vs. time The water table is not static. It rises and falls in response to inputs and outflows from the aquifer. Changes in water level reflect changes in aquifer storage or pressure over time.

The water-level data can be compared to other factors such as climate to better understand how the aquifer works. Each water-level measurement adds knowledge of how the aquifer works, but because climatic and other factors operate on periods of years to decades, water-level records must be of similar duration to be most effective. 2940 well 1 2935

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2925 well 2 2920 Ground-Water Alt. Ground-Water 2915 Jan- Jan- Jan- Jan- Jan- Jan- Jan- 98 99 00 01 02 03 04

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Well Hydraulics How do aquifers respond to withdrawals from wells?

Static-water (non-pumping) level Water table

When pumping starts, the water level in the well drops, below the water level in the surrounding aquifer, this induces water to move from the aquifer into the well.

Water-bearing formation

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Well Hydraulics

Pumping-water level Original water table

Drawdown

The water level continues to decline until the rate of inflow into the well Factors that affect equals the rate of withdrawal. cone of depression size: This results in a cone 1) Pumping rate or cone of depression 2) Pumping duration around the pumping well 3) Aquifer characteristics -transmissivity Water-bearing -storativity formation

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Well Hydraulics Large Yield If ground water moves so slowly, how can you get large yields from wells?

Pumping-water level Original water table

As pumping pulls water toward a well, it passes through imaginary cylindrical surfaces that are successively smaller in area closer to the well. Water Water Water must Thus, as flow converges flows flows on a well, its velocity flow fastest slowly must increase to move faster the amount of water being pumped through the successively smaller areas.

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program The geologic framework is a critical piece of information needed to assess the impact of a pumping well

High Medium Low Transmissivity Transmissivity Transmissivity

gravel sand silty sand

The more transmissive the aquifer, the smaller the cone of depression, all other things being equal. The size of the cone is a reflection of how much work it takes to move water to the well. It takes less work to push water through a coarse gravel than a silty sand.

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Land Surface Unconfined Aquifer Storage High Storativity affects size and rate of Storativity cone development. Cone of Cone results from There is a big difference between unconfined Depression aquifer (water table) and confined aquifers. In unconfined aquifers water is released from storage by draining the aquifer; expansion of the cone of depression is relatively slow and the cone is relatively Water-table aquifer small.

Land Surface Confined In confined aquifers, pumping decreases the artesian pressure. Water is released Cone of Low by compacting or squeezing the aquifer, Depression Storativity expansion of the cone is relatively fast, and the cone may expand over large areas.

Cone expands Confined aquifer faster and further

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Ground-Water Flow System in a Stream Valley Cross Section View Ground-water divide Water table stream

Map View Water table contours

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Ground-water flow lines

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Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Ground-Water Flow Affected by a Pumping Well Pumping a well will create zone of influence (ZOI) – extent of cone of depression a cone of depression Ground-water divide stream

zone of capture (ZOC) Zone of

s contribution t r supplying e am water to the well.

The ZOC is always found within the cone of depression 60 50 50 60 70 80 90

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Ground-Water Flow Affected by a Pumping Well Ground-water divide

stream

If pumping near a stream lowers the water table to a level lower than the stream, then water may be induced from the stream into the subsurface.

(ZOC)

s In other words, t r e when the capture am zone intersects the stream there is the potential for induced infiltration from 50 the stream.

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Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program : Quantifying the Hydraulic Characteristics Q: Is there a way to predict if the capture zone will intersect the stream?

stream

A: The best way is to quantify the transmissivity and storativity (T and S) by performing an aquifer test. The basic principle is to stress (pump) the aquifer and monitor the response (drawdown).

The basic procedure requires Pumping well s a pumping well and at least t r r1 r one observation well at a known e 2 a distance away. If there is a m concern about impact to nearby surface water bodies, an r observation well should be 3 located between the pumping well and the surface water.

Observation wells

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Aquifer Test: Quantifying the Hydraulic Characteristics The well is pumped at a constant rate for 1 to 3 days. Drawdown is measured in the pumping well and observation wells.

stream t 1

t 2

These data are substituted t1 t 3 into appropriate flow t2 t 4 equations to calculate the t3 hydraulic characteristics, t transmissivity and storativity 4

(T & S) of the aquifer. Drawdown Time

r r s 1 2 t r T & S can be used e with pumping rate am and time to run r predictive scenarios 3 100 gpmdays 5 at 100 gpm 30 days at 100 gpm 10 days at

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Quick Review

• Water is transferred between the atmosphere, the earth’s surface, and below ground • Shallow ground water and surface water are typically interconnected • Understanding the ground-water system requires data from wells: – Long-term monitoring – Spatial data – Aquifer test data • Remainder of presentation will focus on some western Montana examples

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Northwestern Montana

Series of Intermontane Basins.

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F -Mountains composed of Blackfoot River “bedrock”

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Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Alluvial Aquifers

The basin-fill or alluvial aquifers are the most utilized in western Montana basins. Stream Stream shallow aquifer b e d confining unit r o c k deep aquifer

• Shallow and deep • Generally contain abundant water • Most utilized aquifers • Shallow: hydraulically connected to streams • Deep: confined or “artesian”

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Where Does the Water Come From (Recharge)) … and Go To (Discharge)? Evaporation/ Infiltration of Infiltration of Discharge to transpiration Precipitation Stream Flow Streams Canal Leakage Well Pumpage Mountain Front Recharge Shallow Aquifer

Infiltration From Shallow k Deep Aquifer c Aquifers ro ed B

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Not All Basins Are Created Equal

Surficial Sand and Gravel Cross Section Glacial-Lake Sand, Silt and Clay Till 4000 Deep Sand and Gravel 3000 ? Deep Aquifer ? 2000 Tertiary Belt Rocks 1000

0 V.E. = 20 10 miles 0 Kalispell Valley • Productive shallow aquifers • associated with rivers • Deep alluvial/bedrock aquifer • confined, several hundred ft. thick • distinct water-level fluctuations

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program 04 Jan- 03 Jan- Flathead R. 02 Jan- well 2 01 Jan- Deep aquifer Confining unit Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program 00 Jan- 99 well 1 (deep aquifer) Jan- well 2 (water table aquifer) 98 Jan- well 1

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Ground-Water Alt. Ground-Water

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iver 16 ft h R well 2 fis te hi Kalispell Valley W 452 ft well 1 Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Not All Basins Are Created Equal Sapphire Bitterroot Mtns. Mtns. Six Mile Crk. – Fan clayey grvl. and sand

Ancestral Bitterroot Silt, sand and grvl. Granitic Blue Bedrock Blue Clay Clay ? Granitic Bitterroot River ? Bedrock Deposits ? Tv

Bitterroot Valley • Tertiary sediments predominate the basin fill • Surficial alluvium • associated with Bitterroot River • East-side benches • supported shallow aq. • Deep aquifer • ancestral Bitterroot deposits Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Not All Basins Are Created Equal

Clark Fork 3200 Bitterroot

Unit 3 ?

Tertiary Sediments 3000 1000 0 Feet

Missoula Valley

• Prolific shallow alluvial aquifer • sole source aquifer for Missoula • Recharged by the Clark Fork River • ground water flows beneath town and discharges to the Bitterroot River

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Ground Water\Surface Water Interaction

20000 Clark Fork Discharge Missoula Valley 15000 USGS station 12340500

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Discharge (cfs) 5000

0 151189 Jan-96 Jan-97 Jan-98 Jan-99 Jan-00 Jan-01 Jan-02 Jan-03 3145 Ground-Water

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feet above mean sea level 3120 Jan- Jan- Jan- Jan- Jan- Jan- Jan- Jan- 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 The relationship between surface-water The water table contours reflect the losing and gaining discharge and ground-water levels natures of the Clark Fork and Bitterroot Rivers. highlights the connection between ground water and surface water. Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Summary • To understand ground-water/surface-water interactions: 1) Hydrogeologic Framework • variation in sediment types • distribution of different aquifers • sources of recharge/discharge 2) Ground-Water level information • spatial: assess ground-water flow • temporal: assess long and short-term storage changes 3) Hydraulic Characteristics • aquifer test (T & S) – evaluate predictive scenarios

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program Study areas and wells visited Ground-Water Characterization 1,100 Areas 1,400 880 provides the basic 910 framework for more 1,100 detailed ground-water evaluations 220

Ground-Water Monitoring Network 850 wells state wide that are used to monitor water levels and water quality for the long term.

http://mbmggwic.mtech.edumbmggwic.mtech.edu Contact Information:

Ground-Water Information Center: http://mbmggwic.mtech.edu/

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology: http://www.mbmg.mtech.edu/

John LaFave (406) 496-4306 [email protected]

Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Montana Ground-Water Assessment Program