DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 293 733 SO 017 904
AUTHOR Meijer, H. TITLE Compact Geography of the Netherlands. Fifth Edition. INSTITUTION Information and Documentation Centre for the Geography of the Netherlands, Utrecht.; Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Hague. PUB DATE 85 NOTE 44p.; For Third Edition, see ED 190 419. PUB TYPE Reference Materials - Geographic Materials (133) Guides - Classroom Use - Materials (For Learner) (051)
EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Foreign Countries; *Geography; Instructional Materials; *Maps; Secondary Education; Social Studies IDENTIFIERS *Netherlands
ABSTRACT A short, concise summary of the geography of the Netherlands is presented in this document. The introduction describes the country's governmental forms, physical location, provinces, population, and history. Geographic coverage includes: (1) the high and low Netherlands; (2) the struggle against flooding and land reclamation; (3) the polders, or land surrounded by dikes; (4) the Zuyder Zee; (5) the Delta Project; (6) water control; (7) demcgraphy; (8) population distribution; (9) the Randstad, cities located in western Netherlands; (10) Amsterdam and Rotterdam; (11) the economy; (12) agriculture; (13) mineral production; (14) industry; (15) trade and traffic; (16) physical planning; and (17) the environment. Full-page maps accompany each of these topics. (JHP)
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Compact Geography of the Netherlands
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TO THE EDUCATIONALRESOURCES Points of view or opinions stated in thisdocu- INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)." ment do not recessanly represent official OERI position or policy
2 Foreword3 Introduction4 The High and Low Netherlands6 Struggle against Flooding land reclamation8 Polders 10 The Zuyder Zee Works12 The Delta Project14 Water control 16 Demography18 Population distribution20 The Randstad 22 Amsterdam and Rotterdam24 The Economy26 Agriculture28 Mineral production30 Industry I32 Industry II34 Trade and traffic36 Physical Planning I38 Psysical Planning II 40 The Environment42
Cover photograph: reduced satellite picture Pitlished by the Ailinistry of Foreign Affairs, of the Netherlands. The Hague, in conjunction with the Copyright Malmberg Den Bosch (ITC). Informaiiori and Documentation Centre for the Geography of the Netherlands (IDG), Utrecht. Composition/text: H. Meijer, IDG. I Production: Governmint Information Service, The Hague. Graphics: Theo Woudstra, Cartographic Laboratory, Geographical Institute, Utrecht. Design: 'Full House, The Hague. Lithography: Koningsveld en Zn. By, Leiden. The first edition of the 'Compact Geography Both the time devoted to the subject of For further information, documentation or of the Netherlands'was compiled in 1970 by geography in the curriculum and the teaching literature lists on the geography of the the Information and Documentation Centre methods used vary from country to country. Netherlands, readers are invited to contact for the Geography of the Netherlands (IDG) For this reason an arrangement was chosen the Office of the Information and at the request of the Ministry of Foreign from which each user can take what he Documentation Centre for the Geography of Affairs in The Hague. In 1963 the C ,dricil of needs, although of course the possibility the Netherlands, Rijksuniversiteit, P.O. Box Europe requested its member countries to remains that in view of the differences 80115, 3508 TC, Utrecht, The Netherlands. appoint experts in the field of geography to between countries, the material provided will arrange the exchange of information in order comprise too much for some and not enough Writers of textbooks are permitted to to effect an improvement in the accounts of for others. reproduce the maps and text excerpts from the geography (or elements of the geography) this booklet, provided they acknowledge the of their countries in the textbooks. This The present version isthe_fifth.impression/ source. Photographs to illustrate such books request led to the establishment of the IDG Not only have the contents of the last wholly may also be obtained on request from the in Utrecht in 1964 and of an IDG Office in revised version (third edition) been updated, IDG or from the Netherlands Embassies in 1971. The stream of requests for information but they have been drastically revised and the varioucountries. grew every year. The correspondence supplemented in various places. The showed the need for a short summary of the cartographic material has also been subject Utrecht/The Hague, 1985 geography of the Netherlands. to a number of amendments. At the same time, a substantiallyamended second edition of the 'Pictorial Atlas of the Netherlands' is being issued. This is a closely related publication to the 'Compact Geography' and was first published in 1977.
These booklets are intended for students of geography and teachers in secondary schools and the higher classes of primary schools. They are designed to serve in part as a commentary to the 'School Map of the Netherlandslscale 1:325,000), which is also published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in collaboration with the,IDG. In order to keep users regularly supplied with recent data, an annual IDG Bulletin is also published.
4 The impression of the Netherlands which Situation the first half of the 16th century, under Exists in the minds of many people in other The Netherlands, which covers an area of Charles V, these were all absorbed into the countries is amply confirmed by the view 37,291 km2 is situated on the west side of great BurgundianHapsburg Empire, from which greets the eye of the traveller flying the Eurasian continent between which the Netherlands freed itselfs duringan into the airport of Schiphol near Amsterdam. approximately 50°45' and 53°30' north 80year war of liberation (1568-1648). The country is flat, it is low-lying and is latitude and 3°30' an 7° east longitude. It is crossed by numerous water courses. amongthe smaller West European countries, During the 17th century, known as the with an area somewhat larger than that of 'Golden Age', the Dutch built up a world-wide In large parts of the country permanent Belgium and rather smaller than that of trading network, with trading stations occupation did not become possible until the Switzerland or Denmark. (factories) along many coasts. Large trading construction of dikes enabled people to companies often controlled wh ole states and withstand most of the onslaughts of the sea. The country is situated on the North Sea and complexes of states (including Indonesia, Sri Only in the extreme southeast do altitudes at the mouths of the rivers Rhine, Maas and Lanka, parts of Brazil and southern Africa). above 200 metres occur. Scheldt. Physically, the Netherlands is a delta and forms part of the pl. in of northern and In the Netherlands itself art and culture The Dutch have traditionallr made good use western Europe. flourished at that time (Rembrandt, Vondel). of the country's situation )n the sea and When the other European states began to rivers, so that it was precisely the western, fhe highest point is located in the extreme protect their own growing trade and industry, low-lying coastal areas which became the southeast at 321 m. and the lowest point is Dutch commerce entered a period of most densely populated. north of Rotterdam at 6.70 m. below sea level stagnation. (see map on p.7). 27% of the total land area The fact that the country's economic centre is below sea level and this part of the country During the Napoleonic period the of gravity has been located since the end of is inhabited by about 60% of the total Netherlands formed part of the French the Middle Ages in these areas, which later population. From its situation the Netherlands empire and in 1815, after the fall of Napoleon, became the provinces of North and South derives a temperate maritime climate, with the Kingdom of the Netherlands, including Hollard, has resulted in the Netherlands an average Januarytemperature of 1.7°C and what are now Belgium and Luxembourg, was becoming known abroad mainly under the a July average of 17°C. The total annual created. Belgium became independent in name of Holland, although the latter precipitation of nearly 800 mm is distributed 1839 and the personal union with designation refers, in fact, to only two of the fairly evenly throughout the year. Luxembourg ended in 1890. eleven (as of 1986, twelve) provinces. The climate brings both advantages and During the Second World War the The concentration of population in the disadvantages for the population and the governments-inexile of the Netherlands, western coastal provinces has also brought economy. The mild and moist conditions are Belgium and Luxembourg decided to problems in such fields as housing and favourable for livestock farming, as well as establish a customs union when the war recreation, traffic an environmental pollution. for the market gardening in the coastal areas. ended and in 1960 this was expanded into an Before these aspects are dealt with in the On the other hand, there is insufficient economic union, serving as a model for the following chapters, some general information summer sun for many arable crops. European Economic Community. is provided. Navigation is seldom hindered by ice during the generally mild winters. The many changes The Netherlands is a member of various Form of government in the weather (changeability is one of the international organisations including the The Netherlands is a parliamentary chief characteristics of Dutch weather) often United Nations, the OECD and NATO. democracy under a constitutional monarchy. result in fog and slippery road conditions head of state is H.M. Queen Beatrix. during the winter. In 1943, on the initiative of the late Queen Wilhelmina, a start was math on changing The Parliament consists of two houses: the Provinces and population the political relationship with the colonies, Lower House, the 150 members of which are The Netherlands is divided into eleven which could choose to become partners elected by universal suffrage, and the Upper provinces, which are divided in turn into 750 enjoying equal rights within the Kingdom. House of 75 members, who are elected by municipalities. With 14.4. million inhabitants Indonesia chose to go its own way in 1949 the members of the Provincial Councils. (1Jan 1984) - -i.e. an average of 424 per km2 and Suriname became independent in 1975. of landit is among the most densely The Netherlands Antilles six islands with a The capital is Amsterdam, but the seat of populated countries in the world. As from 1 combined area of under 1,000 square government is The Hague. January 1986, the IJsselmeer polders kilometresstill form part of the Kingdom of (southern and eastern Flevoland and the the Netherlands, although they enjoy a large North-East Polder) will together constitute measure of independence within the the twelfth province with Lelystad as its framework of the Kingdom. Only foreign capital. affairs and defence are matters falling within the competence of the government of the Historical notes Kingdom. At the beginning of the Christian era the southern half of what is now the Netherlands formed part of the Roman Empire. Cities such as Nijmegen and Utrecht arose as frontier settlements at that time.
During the Middle Ages the area consisted of a number of autonomous dukedoms (Gelderland, Brabant), counties (Holland, Zeeland) and the bishopric of Utrecht. During SCHIERMONNIKOOG *. 5° 0.1_ AmsterdamNational Capital AMELAND TERSCHELLING Groningen Provincial Capital Municipality > 100,000 inhabitants VLIELAND GRONINGEN 0 Other towns Leeuwarden Grangen Provincial boundary \ Important canal 1
TEXEL FRIESLAND Assen\
DRENTE
, NORTH- wolle
Haarlem FLEVOLAND OVERIJSSEL SEA O -Amsterdam Enschede( Apeldoorn -Ls ®Leiden s, ,, Utrecht; _; The Hague GELDER- es 0 SOUTH- -- Arnhem LAND 52° N.B. % HOLLAND (' UT ECHT %4:P Rotterdam dy VOORNE GOEREE Nijmegen OVER- SCHO UUIVEN LAND 0 's-Hertogenbosch ZEELAND < Ghent ki / BELGIE 1J i aastrich? Cologne ® Brussels O.Aken (710 10 20 30 10 10 ro km 0 1.0 20 50 miles (1985) THE NETHERLANDS NETHERLANDS IN EUROPE ANTILLES St. Maarten PUERTO RICO Saba.St..Eustatius ) a. 0 52° N.B. 15° N.B. ArubaCuracao e TRINIDAD ANDr ° Bonaire TOBAGO °LOMA/ 13 VENEZUELA 650 W.L 'N. The Nethertats 100 km to the sarronc63 6 The Nethetiends without dikes After the disappearance of the ice sheets the Topography If the Netherlands was to lose the protection north-westerly and westerly winds blew sand, The Netherlands owes its great variety of of its dunes and dikes, the most densely coming in part from the dried -up floor of the topography to this relatively complicated populated part of the country would be North Sea, over the Netherlands. This sand geological history. In the first place, there is inundated (largely by the sea, but in part also largely covered the ground moraine, the push the major division into the landscapes of the by the rivers). This part of the Netherlands, moraines and the river deposits. In the 'High' and 'Low Netherlands'. The High which generally does not lie higher than 1 ensuing Holocene period the climate became Netherlands is locally more accidented than metre above sea level, covers more than half warmer and the sea level rose. The North Sea the flat west and north. It has mainly natural the total area of the country. About a half of flooded the Netherlands as tar as the line drainage and has proportionately the largest this in turn, le. 27% of the total area of the GroningenUtrechtBreda. The cross-section area of forest and heathland. It is also the Netherlands, actually lies below sea level. of the western Netherlandsshows clearly that oldest inhabited area; until well into the This part of the country is called the 'Low the Pleistocene strata dip towards the west. Middle Ages Utrecht was the country's most Netherlands', while the area shown in grey on In the Low Netherlands, long piles once of westerly city. the map is termed the 'High Netherlands'. wood, but now of concrete for the This situation is the result of the course of the foundations of buildings, viaducts etc. have The landscape of the Low Netherlands is country's geological history. to be driven through the Holocene clays and much more dominated by the struggle peats into the underlying Pleistocene sand against the sea. It has largely been made Geology (see the :Tosssection). habitable by human effort and the necessary The rocks formed up to and including the civil engineering works are a marked feature Tertiary generally lie below the surface in the During the periods in which the rise in sea of the flat countryside, in the form of Netherlands, dipping from southeast to level took place, sand bars were thrown up in ubiquitous dikes, drainage canals, locks, northwest. Only at a few places in the the western Netherlands running parallel to windmills, pumping stations etc. southeast and east of the country do these the present coastline. In the course of time rocks, which include limestone, appear at the they were transformed into low dunes, now The finer detail of the landscape is the result surface. referred to as the 'old dunes'. In about the both of regional differences in the geological year 1000 AD. renewed dune formation history briefly described above and of the The surface of the Netherlands consists occurred. These 'yung dunes' are higher diversity in the forms of human occupation, almost entirely of sediments laid down during (the crests reach from 20 to 40 metres above expressed in such thinks as land use, type of the Quaternary period. In the penultimate sea level) and are situated partly to the west parcelling and farmhouses, urbanisation and Pleistocene glaciationthe Riss or Seale of and partly above the 'old' dunes. Behind traffic network. period large ice sheets pushed out from the old dunes a kind of lapon was formed, northern Europe over the Netherlands, with into which the sca was able to penetrate by outliers reaching to the line Haarlem- way cf gaps in the chain of dunes. Initially, Nijmegen. In the southnorth trending river clay was deposited in the lagoon, but later valleys of what are now the provinces of there was a growth of peat as the lagoon Utrecht, Overijssel and Gelderland (the became increasingly shallow. Sometimes the Central Netherlands) the valley walls were peat was washed away by the sea, particularly pushed sideways and upwards to form what in the south-west and northern Netherlands, are now elongated ridges (the 'push where further marine clay was deposited. In moraines', which reacha height of over 100 the central part of the Low Netherlands the metres and form a recreational area of peat was later wholly or partly dug away in national significance). many places, leading to the formation of lakes. Where the latter were subsequently Because of the considerable fall in sea level, drained, polders were formed, with z- floor of the coastline of the North Sea lay much marine clay or peat. farther to the northwest during the ice ages. After the ice had melted there remained an Peat formation also occurred in a number of extensive area of glacial drift in the north of marshy areas of the High Netherlands. The the country, consisting of sand, gravel, deposition of river sediments boulder clay and erratics. predominantly sands and clayswas limited during the Holocene period largely to the Even before the Ice Age the rivers Rhine and region e the great rivers The peat layers, in Maas had deposited thick layers of sand and particular, in the Low Netherlands have gravel, originating in the Alps and tile subsided relative to sea level since the European mittelgebirge, in the central and Middle Ages. This shrinkage of the soil northern parts of the Netherlands. resulted from the fact that it was necessary in this part of the country to control the groundwater level artificially, i.e. to lower it. 7 .;- , - High Netherlands L (= Pleistocene: mainly sandy soils) 0 \ Low Netherlands (= Holocene: largely clay and peat soils) Dunes Contour of 1 metre above NAP 1-1(Amsterdam Ordnance Datum) Leeuwa Southern limit of glacial INNENdeposits Assen Push moraines Land below sea level NORTH SEA 0's-Hertajeribosott 0 Breda 0 Tilbuig r I I N '6 Eihdheiren' e? f -7 aastricht o 70 20 33 83 53 60 ro 03 km 110esImm I 321 m. o "3 33 io 50 maes \ 11985 ) CROSS-SECTION THROUGH THE WESTERN NETHERLANDS +20 m. +20 m. +10 m. +10m. 0 0 10 m - 10 m. 20m. - 20 m do 80 901(111 8 ,._ avn n History In the 17th century, the 'Golden Age', a start The 20th century The rise in sea level after the last ice age was made on draining some of the lakes After 1900 land reclamation was undertaken greatly influenced the evolution of the referred to above, particularly in the province on a still larger scale. An ambitious plan was map outline of what is now the Low of North Holland. There were various reasons drawn up for reclaiming part of the Zuyder Netherlands. Before this rise in sea for this, such as the increased demand of the Zee. The first polder, the Wieringermeer, was level large parts of the North Sea were dry growing towns for food,the capital resources drained in 1930, by which date the steam land and Great Britain was joined to the and business enterprise of the An isterdam pump had been replaced by diesel and continent. Rivers such as the Rhine, the merchants, the everincreasing technical electrically driven pumps. In 1932, the Zuyder Thames and the Elbe flowed on well to the potential of the windmills and the fear of Zee subsequently called the Usselmeer north of their present courses and did not floods. The process continued until well into (Lake Ussel) was sealed off from the empty into the sea until reaching north of the 19th century, by which time the windmill Waddenzee by a 30kilometres barrier dam. what is now the Dogger Bank. After the sea had been replaced by the steam pump. An Four of the five projected polders have been level had reached approximately the present example is the 18,000 hectare completed (see further pp. 12 and 13). coastline, the rise became slower and more Haarlemmermeer (Haarlem Lake) southwest irregular. At times of relatively rapid rise, of Amsterdam, where the State actively Smaller areas reclaimed from the sea in the known as transgression phases, extensive participated for the first time in the drainage vc.ry recent past are the Lauwerszee (on the coastal areas were swallowed up bythe sea. work. The very lowlying polders in the area to north coast between Friesland and the north of Rotterdam were also created at Groningen) and the Maasvlakte, south of the After about 700 B.C. the sea sometimes this time. The bar chart shows the area of entrance to the New Waterway, reclaimed to advanced so far that areas of peat behind the land reclaimed in each century during the permit the expansion of the Rotterdam. dunes were washed away. In the southwest period from 1200 to the present day. Europort port and industrial zone. Landscape and northern Netherlands only islands experts and biologists, among others, raised remained. The former Zuyder Zee, which In the archipelago of the southwest great oojections to the partial reclamation of reached its greatest extent in about 1250 Netherlands ad in the coastal areas of the the Waddenzee. This sea, most of which falls A.D., was also formed in this way. northern i',Ietheriands land reclamation was drytwice a day because of its shallow depth already taking place in 1200, but this and great tidal range, forms an ornithological The inhabitants of the Netherlands have occurred in a different manner. The sea and recreational area which is unirlire in the themselves also contributed to the loss of flowed in twice a day at high tide and let world. It therefore appears extremely land through the digging of peat, which was behind sand and silt as it retreated. When this improbable that largescale reclamation will used as fuel and for the extraction of salt in process had continued for long enough, ever take place here. the coastal districts. In the peat region of the these areas came to lie above sea level, at provinces of North and South Holland and least if no storm surges occurred for a long With this completion of land reclamation, the Utrecht, in particular, the lakes continually time. The siltedup lands were surrounded by Dutch have won back virtually all the land increased in size. The struggle waged by the a dike to protect them against the sea. In the that had to be abandoned to the sea during inhabitants of these areas against the sea was north of Groningen and Friesland a system the course of the centuries. Archaeological at first purely defensive in character. They was developed in the 19th century to finds, such as those made in the Usselmeer first built homes or villages on artificial accelerate the accretion process. This took polders, have shown that many of the areas mounds know as 'terps'. When they began to the form of building low dams out into the reclaimed from the sea were inhabited in past link the 'terps' together by means of dikes, sea, behind and between which sand and sill ages. they also created The possibility of keeping could quietly settle. This process is still going the land dry. on today. In the north of Groningen and Friesland, in particular, but also elsewhere in the Low Netherlands and in the region of the, great rivers, there were thousands of these terps. Much later they were levelled, because the soil of which they consisted was an excellent fertiliser. Advances in technique, such as the building of windmills with an upper section which could be turned into the wind, enabled the inhabitants to pass gradually from defence to the attack. 9 Land reclamation 1200 - 1600 C7 Land reclamation 1600 - 1900 C-.5=Lauwersmeer Land reclamation 1900 - 1970 Groningen Leeuwarden 0 UUUUPossible land reclamation WADDEN- 0 111111111 ZEE 0 Assen NORTH SEA o Zaanstad Zwolle Haarlem 0 0 CI Leiden Enschede/ Maasvlakto , .- ,., ...... 1 ...... / , .." ..1 j Nijmegen ) t.... 1,, 0 's-Hertogenbosch I 0Bedar Midd 0Tilburg \ /"-- 1.--...; .-i , 0 i ) \ ; .7L.....r..". i \ ( i../1 Maastricht o m 20 33 80 50 83 70 80 km ra o 10 20 3) 80 (1985) LAND RECLAMATION PER CENTURY IN KM2 1200-1300 :350 1300.1400 L. ',MY. 1400.150017742 1500-1600FATO`441&-v1; 1600-1700 7.*ligalltIkAW 1700-1800 agli2y7,17 1800-1900 1900-1985 560 1060 1560 1900 km2 :74 Themes& if polders Polders do not necessarily lie below sea level, Pokier organisation Dunes and dikes protect the Low Netherlands although this is the case with the Usselmeer As early as the Middle Ages the inhabitants against flooding. Almost the whole of the west polders (3.5 metres below sea level) and with of the polders were faced with the task of and low north (c. 50% of the total sand area) the polders created by the drainage of lakes safeguarding an area by joint effort once it consists of polders: land which is usually (up to 6.7 metres, see p. 4). had been wrested from the sea. At that time surrounded by dikes and within which the the first 'waterschappen' (water control groundwater level can be controlled. The polders in the peat areas lie at about 1 boards), of which there are now still 200 were metre belowsea level. In the areas of young created (because of reorganisation the More water generally enters a polder than marine clay and along the rivers many number is continually decreasing). They are disappears from it naturally or is used. polders lie above the average sea level, which public bodies, falling under the jurisdiction of Particularly during the period September to means that it is not always necessary to the provincial authorities. The Water Control April there is a surplus. In order to keep the discharge the water by means of a pump. In Boards are elected by the 'ingelanden' land dry and the ground water at an the marine clay polders along the coast of (usually landowners in the polders). The acceptable level that surplus has to be Groningen and Friesland, for example, it is members of the executive of the water removed. sufficient to open the gates in the sluices of control boards charged with the task of the drainage canals at low tide. defence against the sea, the Usselmeer or Water economy of a pokier the great rivers are appointed by the Crown. The total number of polders is some 5,000. In Out The reason for this is that, in earlier centuries, The activities of the water control boards pumping was carried out by windmills which . precipitation . consumption traditionally lie in the field of the maintenance were unable to pump dry a large area. As. of the water defences, the water economy .seepage' . evaporation techniques became more sophisticated and and the roads and waterways. New duties . surplus steam, diesel and electric pumps were which have demanded increasing attention in successively employed, the polders ' water which enters the polder through the recent decades, relate to the safeguarding of increased in size (cf. the Usselmeer polders). soil and under the dikes via ground water. water quality,to nature conservation and the creation of opportunities for open air Pumping techniques In the polders, control of the water level, recreation. The financial means for carrying Two main types of polder can be distinguished rather than the nature of the soil, is the factor out these tasks are derived from a water on the map: which determines the form of agriculture. In control tax levied on the Ingelanden, the older polders, reclaimed before about supplemented where necessary by grants Ipolders surrounded by a dike and from the central or provincial government. 1850 and pumped dry with windmills, the still II a polder surrounded by two dikes, rather inadequate methods used often did separated by a ring canal. not permit the water level to be kept at more than Ph to 1 metre below the ground surface The first type includes the river and marine (in winter the water levels are on average iii polders situated respectively along a river or to 1 metre higher). In the polders created on the coast. Here, the surface water can during the 19th (steam pumps) arid 20th generally be discharged directly to the sea or centuries (diesel and electric pumps) it is rivers, with or without the aid of pumping. The possible to maintain the water level at over 1 second type includes the drained lakes, metre below the surface, even though the known as 'droogmakerijen', which are usually polders often lie at a considerably lower very lowlying polders. The inner dike, level. Because of the low water table, the soil situated around the former lake, is called the of these very lowlying polders can generally ring dike. It is surrounded by the ring canal, be used for arable farming. The more which borders the dikes of the neighbouring swampy soils of the older polders can often polders. be used only for grazing. The crosssection shows a muchemployed Water can Incidentally also be let into many system of water control. Each polder has a polders in the event of a threatened water specified groundwater level relative to the shortage during a dry summer. land surfacethe polder datum. The desired level is determined mainly by the use to be made of the land. If the water rises too high at a particular moment, the pump is started and the surplus water is raised to the 'boezem', situated at a higher level. The 'boezem' Is a system of lakes, canals etc., which functions as a temporary reservoir. From there the surplus water is discharged into the sea or rivets, either naturally, or by further pumping. 11 Dike Boezem J-4.50 Depth in metres below sea level Polder ditch External water (river and sea) i 4E4 Discharge sluice (without pumping station) Pumping station Direction of discharge of water Dike CROSS - SECTION A- B 0 / E1 POLDER RESERVOIR 2 Boezem Pumping station 3 Polder ditch 4 5 m. (" // A History Ninety per cent of the land consists of soil been reserved in the south of the polder At the beginning of the Christian era the which is excellently suited for agriculture while, in the northwest, there is an important Zuyder Zee was a relatively small lake into and, in particular, to arable farming. The land nature reservethe Oostvaardersplassen which various rivers drained and which had which becomes available is exploited by the (East Indiamen Lakes). Consequently, at a narrow connection with the North Sea. State during the first few years and then most 50% of the total area of this polder will Because of the action of the tides and, leased or sold to farmers who come from all ultimately be used for agriculture. particularly, of the wind, the lake was parts of the country. In each polder a number enlarged until it reached its ultimate, nearly of villages and one or more larger towns were Because of further changes of attitude, circular, outline around 1250. planned as service centres. Of these, occasioned by such factors as developments Lelystad is intended to expand into a centre in European agriculture, increased concern The oldest plans for drainage were those of for the whole of the southern IJsselmeer for the environment and the decline in Hendrik Stevin (1667). Towards the end of region. population growth, a discussion has been set the last century, by which time the drainage in train on the question of whether it is question had become a matter of national As of 1 January 1986, the North-East Polder desirable or justified to reclaim the final concern, the engineer C. Lely, who was and the two Flevoland polders will make up Zuyder Zee polder, the Markerwaard. secretary of the Zuyder Zee Association, the province of Flevoland. If the Markerwaard corked out the plan which was Liter to be polder is drained, it will also form part of the In 1980, the government declared itself in carried out in its broad outline. It took the province. principle in favour of reclamation, but the final form of: decisicr- not yet been taken, although the a broad dam from the coast of North The original intention was to use the five dike betwe.Lelystad and Enkhuizen was Holland to that of Friesland, turning the projected polders almost exclusively to completed as :,:ng ago as 1975. The latter, inland sea (Zuyder Zee) into a lake increase agricultural production, but after however, should not be regarded as (IJsselmeer); the Second World War the polders were also superfluous should it be decided not to along the coasts of the lake, where the zoned for residential and recreational use proceed with the reclamation of the bottom consisted largely of day, five large and as sites for industries and sevices. The Markerwaard, since it has an important polders, which would increase the surface result of this was a marked change in the function in the water economy in separating area of the Netherlands by about 6% (about allocation of land use (see the table on this the marginal lakes and the Markerwaard from 2,050 km2); page and alsobottom right on the map the remainder of the IJsselmeer. Moreover, in the north, where the majority of the pagethe differences in the layout of the the road over the dike provides a welcome sandy soils and the greatest depths occur, oldest and the most recent polders). shortening of the distance between the a reservoir fed by the Ussel and other Central Netherlands and the north of the rivers and connected with the sea via The reasons for this include changed province of North Holland. sluices in the dam for the discharge of circumstances (such as shifts in the surplus water. economic structure and urbanisation) and Impact on the surrounding areas the fact that the more recently drained In the 'old land' surrounding the IJsselmeer In 1920, when Lely was Minister of Transport polders are situated relatively close to the the flood danger has been greatly reduced and Public Works, a start was made on the Randstad conurbation (see also p.22). The and an improved water economy has execution of this plan, after a flood disaster in provisional layout plan for Southern become possible. The roads over the 1916 and food shortage during the First Flevoland, illustrated opposite, gives an Afsluitdijk and the dike between Enkhuizen World War had emphasised its necessity. The impression of what is intended. Like Lelystad, and Lelystad and those through the new first polder, the Wier;ogermeer, was drained the town of Almere will function as a polders mean a shortening of the traffic links in 1930. The 30kilometre long Afsluitdijk reception area for population and businesses between the surrounding areas. The (barrier dam) was completed in 1932. The from the agglomeration of Amsterdam in consequences were less favourable for a North East Polder followed in 1942 and particular. number of fishing villages around the former Eastern and Southern Flevoland in 1957 and Zuyder Zee, although three sets of locks in 1968, respectively. The main function of the Towards the end of the century Lelystad will the barrier dam permit the fishermen to margin& lakes fringing the two Flevoland have a population of 100,000, while Almere, continue their occupation on the open sea. polders is to prevent the groundwater level in which consists of a number of separate The fishermen of the former island of Urk, in the neighbouring higher areas of the 'old nuclei, has a potential population of 250,000. particular, avail themselves of this possibility. land' sinking too far. Shorebased and water An area for the planting of woodland has recreation have successfully developed on and along these marginal lakes. Land use in % Use of the reclaimed land Wieringer North East Eastern Southern After the land has been opened up and made meer Polder Flevoland Flevoland usable (a process which takes several years), the polders are laid out.1 he objectives of the Agriculture 87 87 75 50 planning of the polders are to achieve Woodland and nature areas 3 5 11 25 effective land division and optimum size of Residential 1 1 8 18 holding, good access by roads and canals and areas dikes, roads, water courses 9 7 6 7 appropriate vegetation cover. Discharge sluice and Coastline in 1920 i=>shipping lock Fixed bridge Dike WADDEN- 1--I with locks Dike under Bridge ZEE051/4 construction II Pumping station Fresh water Lowest point in m. 4.5 Salt water Wieringen below NAP (average sea level) Wieringerwerf C) VV1ERINGERMEER 1927-1930 20,000 ha. 5.0 EASTERN FLEVOLAND 1950-1957 0 Dronten 25km 'flAn (1985) 1 lr .-W,f. i LelystadA(EASTERN rula'nrke i '.,9FLEVOLAND ,. . Wiermaen . "--., ,-.,1- '1.,: t.' :Wieringelwed 7/ SOUTHERN 'FLEVOLAND WIERIN MEER ./ y ...-% LAND USE WIERINGERMEERAND SOUTHERN FLEVOLAND [7,1Woodland, recreation and 71 Agricultural area nature conservation area M Urban area 1--1 Primary road 0 5 10km .7.1,9gen The south-western part of the Netherlands As the dates in the table indicate, two changes in the traaitionally agricultural Delta consists of an area of islands and peninsulas, 'secondary' dams, situated farther inland, and region. It is to be expemd that industrial and between which the Rhine, Maas, Scheldt and the largest of the 'primary' dams, that in the commercial activities and the accompanying their distributaries find their way to the sea. Eastern Scheldt, have still to be completed. urbanisation will develop further, particularly The area has had an eventful history, as The whole project is due to be completed by in the north of the region (Rotterdam- shown by the constant changes in the map. 1987. The dikes along the open New Europort), in the east alongside the new land Much land was reclaimed as a result of Waterway and Western Scheldt have been and water links between Rotterdam and accretion and embanking and small islands strengthened. Antwerp (including the ScheldtRhine Canal, grew together to form larger areas. Gains which was opened in 1975) and in the south made in this way were, however, repeatedly The tidal range in the Delta region is about 3 along the Western Scheldt (Vlissingen, lost through fresh flooding. metres. The strong tidal currents Terneuzen). necessitated the development of new The disaster of 1953 techniques for sealing the estuaries. These The central zone must, however, retain its The execution of the Delta Project was included closing the final gaps by means of agricultural function, while the sea coast accelerated by the great storm surge which caissons (concrete chambers as large as with its wide area of dunes and the inland struck the lowlying polders of the South West blocks of flats) and the use of overhead lakes offer recreational possibilities, Netherlands on 1 February 1953, causing cableways to drop concrete blocks into the particularly to the inhabitants of the over 1,800 deaths and inundating 160,000 water. Seventeen large discharge sluices Randstad. hectares of land. This disaster was the result were built into the Haringvliet Dam (for the of a most unfortunate combination of purpose of these, see pp. 16-17), while the A radical scheme such as the Delta Project circumstances: a deep depression, with Volkerak Dam contains locks for the use of inevitably has its disadvantages. It was clear north-westerly winds blowing at hurricane shipping to and from the Scheldt-Rhine Canal. from the beginning that the coastal fisheries force straight onto the Dutch coast, coincided (mussels, shrimps etc.) and oyster cultures with the fortnightly spring tide when the sea Consequences would suffer serious damage and become in had an exceptionally high water level. Through the implementation of the Delta certain places impossible because of the Project the sea has largely been banished desalination of the water in the lakes behind The aims of the Delta Project were not only from the waters of the South West the barrier dams. During the course of the to reduce the flood danger through the Netherlands. Besides the great advantage of 1960s an increasing number of protests were construction of a number of dams, but also the reduced danger of flooding, this also made on environmental grounds.The debate to achieve a general improvement in the means that the struggle against the seepage on the environmental aspects which water economy and increased accessibility of salt waterthe enemy of farmers and continued for many years has ultimately of the archipelago. Land reclamation does growers in the whole of the Low Netherlands resulted in far-reaching changes in the plans not play a significant part in the scheme. can be waged more successfully. New for sealing off the Eastern Scheldt. The potential has also been created for the supply primary dam is now being constructed in the Implementation of drinking water and for water sports. form of a storm surge barrier incorporating As early as 1950 the Brielse Maas (an arm of 61 closable openings (to be closed only in the Maas) was closed off bya dam.The first A further important effect is the opening up the event of flood danger) which will enable work to be completed after the disaster of of this previously isolated archipelago by the salt water to enter the estuary and about 75% 1953 was a moveable storm surge barrier in roads v.hich have been or are being of the tidal movement to be maintained. As the Hollandse Ussel, east of Rotterdam. If the constructed over the ten dams and two a result, serious damage to the natural water in the New Waterway (not sealed off bridges. This has set in motion radical environment in the Eastern Scheldt will be because of the shipping interests of limited and the oyster cultures will not be Rotterdam) is ponded up during a gale, this destroyed. This change necessitates the barrier serves to safeguard a large part of the building of two additional secondary dams in polder land in the western Netherlands from order to separate the waters farther east flooding. from salt and tides. Dams and other civil engineering works in the Soutn West Netherlands No. on Structure Year of the map completion 1 Storm surge barrier in Hollandse IJssel 1958 2 Dam in Brielse Maas 1951 3 Dam with discharge sluices, Haringvliet 1971 4 Dam with drainage sluice, Brouwershaven Gap 1972 5 Storm surge barrier in eastern Scheldt 1986 6 Dam inVeerseGat 1961 7 Zandkreek Dam, with shipping lock 1960 8 Grevelingen Dam with drainage sluice and shipping lock 1965 9 Volkerak Dam, with locks 1970 10 Philips Dam, with locks 1987 11 Oester Dam, with sluice 1986 12 Haringvliet Brioje 1964 13 Zeeland Bridge 1965 14 Scheldt-Rhine Canal 1975 15 ROTTER 'AM B oWe-dh.. Roosendaal II / 11 ."-- 1 // IIr r Vlissingen ii! i.. II( -'*--- --...-1 11\II \ . II \ 1 II --11-'.% II ) II Terneuzen 11 1 ..../."-.. II ..... I. . BELGI ANTWERP 0 10 20 30 km 0 10 20 mill (1985) Dam Canal Salt Water, tidal Pier Dam Major Traffic Road Salt Water, non-tidal Proposed Storm Surge Barrier Fresh Water El Major Traffic Road Discharge Sluice Bridge [';Viiirl251Dunes Shipping Lock Subway Inundated in 1953 REDUCTION OF DISTANCES BY ROAD Distance from Rotterdam to Vlissingen before the Delta Project (via Roosendaalk 150 Km. Distance from Rotterdam to Vlissingen after the Delta Project (Ws Zterilczee): 110 Km. SHORTENING OF THE COASTLINE Length of the coastline from A to B before the Delta Project: 800 Km. Length of the coastline from A to B after the Delta Project: 80 Mi. General Water quality A great problem is the fact that nearly two In the w211watered and densely populated The account given above relates mainly to thirds of the Netherlands' water supply Netherlands a high level of water control is matter of quantity: ensuring sufficient comes from the heavily polluted Rhine. In an necessary, both in the soil and in the rivers, water for navigation and an optimum average year the supply is broken down as lakes and canals. Many purposes can be groundwater level, but there is also the follows: served by this, such as the prevention of increasing concern for water quality. Apart Rhine 63% flooding and salination, guaranteeing from the seepage of seawater, the water Maas 7% sufficient depth of water for navigation and supply is threatened increasingly by pollution minor rivers 3% providing a domestic water supply for farms from the cities, both of the Netherlands and precipitation 27 and industry. neighbouring countries, and from agriculture and industry. The rivers carry effluent from at Efforts are being made through international Rhine canalisation least five neighbouring and more distant agreements and domestic measures to The Zuyder Zee and Delta Works are of great countries into the Netherlands. There is more remove the causes of this pollution. In importance for water control, because they about this on pp. 42.43 (' Environme nt'). addition, attempts are being made in the give increased security and provide Special attention will be devoted here to the Netherlands to deal with the effects in freshwater reservoirs with a water level specific problems of drinking water supply. various ways, especially as they affect the which can be regulated. In combination with water supply. This is being done not only a third project, the canalisation of the Lower The supply of drinking water through the usual treatment processes, but Rhine, a better control of the water economy The supply of drinking water is a matter of also by storing up the water during periods of in virtually the whole of the Netherlands is special concern in the polder region of the high river discharge, i.e., when there is a now possible. Low Netherlands. The cross-section shows relatively low level of pollution. This is being that brackish and salt ground water come achieved by such means as injection in the Three weirs incorporating shipping locks close to the surface here. Among the reasons dunes and storage in reservoirs. In the river were built in the Rhine between 1958 and for this is that, before the dunes were formed, area known as the Biesbosch, for example, to 1970. They were a completely new type of this area was innudated by the sea. Moreover, the southeast of Dordrecht, three reservoirs structure, consisting of two semicircular the fresh surface water in the polders is being were constructed in the early 1970s. These 'visor weirs which can be lowered to hold continually discharged, while salt water are filled with water from the Maas, which is back the water, but under which shipping can seeps up from under the dikes and dunes considerably less polluted than the Rhine. pass freely when raised. The eastemmost of (see cross-section). As a result, the ground Water is conveyed from the reservoirs by the weirs enables more water to be water in this area cannot everywhere be used pipeline to large parts of the South West channelled along the Gelderse IJssel into the for drinking, as it can in the High Netherlands Netherlands, including the area of Rotterdam. lisselmeer, to the benefit, in particular, of and the dune areas. In order to prevent the navigation on the lissel and of agriculture in exhaustion of the store of fresh water under Open air recreation the North and East Netherlands. Without the dunes, river water, brought by pipeline, is Water plays a part in open air recreation in further measures, howev,r, the discharge of injected into the dunes at a number of places many ways. Hundreds of thousands of water to the sea by way of the River Lek (see also p. 43). people relax on the beaches and on the would be so diminished as to render shores of lakes, beside open air pools etc. navigation impossible. Moreover, the salt In the polder land, especially in the area Angling, practised particularly on lakes and water, which already penetrates inland above around Rotterdam, the population has to rely inland waters during the summer, is very Rotterdam at high tide, would be able to on surface water which, particularly if it has popular. There are now about 1.4 million reach even farther. To tackle the first to be taken from the rivers, is increasingly registered anglers (a licence is required), i.e., problem two further weirs were built subject to pollution. about 10% of the total population. downstream in the Lower Rhine and Lek. Water sports, forwhich a water area of 3,000 In order to prevent salination it is important km2 plus 30,000 km of waterways are that the waters of the Maas and Waal should available, are also expanding rapidly. be diverted to flow into the sea past Increasingly drastic measures are required Rotterdam by closing off the northern Delta for the control of water sports. There are waters. This is one of the main functions of lakes, for example, where the number of the dams in the Volkerak and Haringvliet (see speedboats is strictly limited, and nature pp. 14-15), but in order to prevent flooding in reserves where pleasure boating is the Rotterdam area, such as during periods completely forbidden. 'Traffic rules' have of high water discharge by the great rivers, been drawn up to prevent hindrance to 17 discharge sluices have been incorporated commercial shipping. Special locks for in the Haringvliet Dam. yachts have been built in the new major lock complexes such as those in the Volkerak and Philips dams. 17 Weir and lock in the Lower Rhine Coastline after completion of the Delta Works Primary discharge of Rhine water before the Delta Works Primary discharge of Rhine water after the Delta Works Groningen Primary discharge points of Usselmeer water Fresh water ° Assen Water supply for Agriculture ZUYDER ZEE WORKS 1 Lakes Important water sports areas Zwolle ff 0 t) Apeldoorn Enschede RHINE CANALISATION Arnhem DELTA WORKS Nijmegen 0 's-Hertogenbosch 0 Breda 0Tilburg ) -.._; .-; °Eindhoven L.,. / -11 aastricht (7) o 10 ?) 33 40 50 60 70 ao km I , - -1 0 10 20 30"40 50 miles (1985) High Netherlands Population growth The net migration gain in 1983 amounted to Population density Since 1830, when the first census was taken, only 5,900 persons, i.e., 9.4 per thousand. With an average of 426 inhabitants per the population of the Netherlands has Mainly because of the continuing decline in square kilometre of land at 1 January 1985 increased more than five times, from 2.6 the birth rate, the official estimate for the (1), the Netherlands is the most densely million to 14.5 million on 1 January 1985. In population of the Netherlands in the year populated country in Europe. The map shows general, immigration had only a small effect 2000 has changed in scarcely ten years from that, in this respect, the country forms an on this increase and it ha. largely to be 20 million to 15 million. It is now even entity with other densely populated areas in attributed to natural growth. anticipated that the population will begin to northwest Europe. Reference has already decline at the beginning of the 21st century. been made to the country's favourable The graph shows the changes in birth and situation on the North Sea and at the mouth death rates since 1900. The birth rate fell Age structure of major rivers. By making use of the from 31.6 per thousand in 1900 to 11.8 per Next to the total number of inhabitants, the possibilities afforded by this situation for thousand in 1983, firstly because of the fall in age structure of the population is important. trade and industry, the Netherlands, in spite the number of children per family and, The somewhat unbalanced structure of the of its the high population density, enjoys a secondly, because of a fall in the percentage population pyramid for 1984 reflects the high level of prosperity. of married women. The death rate declined effect of the Second World War on the birth from 17.9 per thousand in 1900 to 8.2 per and death rates. The 40.45 age group is thousand in 1983, thanks to improvements in rather weakly represented, while the post-war medical care, social conditions and hygiene, 'bulge' in the birth rate is reflected now in a as a result of which infant mortality in large group of 35 to 40 yeaolds.The decline particular was reduced. in births after 1970 is also clearly visible. Around the two world wars there were There is also a large group of old people. On sudden increases in both the birth and death 1 January 1984, 11.9% of the population was rates. At the end of the First World Warin aged 65 years or over. The average life which the Netherlands remained neutral, but expectancy at birth has increased from was affected by food shortagesa serious around 37 years in 1850 (high infant influenza epidemic caused many deaths, mortality) to nearly 76 years today (nearly 73 particularly among the elderly. The high years for men and over 79 years for women). death rates during the Second World War were mainly the result of the fighting at the beginning and end of the enemy occupation and of the food and fuel shortages during the 'Hunger Winter' of 1944-45. There was a 'bulge' in the birth rate shortly after both world wars. During the 1960s the death rate showed a slight rise as a result of the relative growth in the numbers of people in the highest age groups. The convergence of the birth and death curves reflects the fact that, since about 1960, the natural increase has greatly declined. In 1960, the Netherlands, with a natural increase of about 13 per thousand about the same as in 1900had by far the most rapidly growing population in Western Europe. Subsequently, the natural increase fell to 3.7 per thousand in 1983. This decline was incidentaliy partly compensated for between 1970 and 1980 by a considerable net migration gain, arising mainly from the arrival of immigrant workers and their families from the Mediterranean countries and of people from Surinam, which became independent in 1975. The picture of foreign migration before 1970 was quite different. Around 1950 thousands of Dutch people migrated to such countries (1) This calculation is bases on the true land as Canada, the United States, South Africa, area, i.e. excluding waters wider than 6 Australia and New Zealand. The peak year of metres. This area totals 33,935 km2. If the 1952 showed a net migration loss of nearly area incorporated into municipalities 50,000 persons. Around 1960 emigration (37,291 km2) is taken as a basis, the density is and immigration were approximately in 388 per km2. If the total areaincluding balance. The largest net migration gain, of estuaries, territorial waters etc., amounting 72,000 persons, occured in 1975. to 41,473 km2, is taken, the population density is 349 per km2. 9 0 50 inhabitants per km2 SWEDEN = 10 persons 50 -100 inhabitants per km per km2 NETHERLANDS 100 200 inhabitants per km 14.3 mho° inhabitants ; II1I over 200 inhabitants per km2 MIIIIIII O LAND JAPAN 1119 'Man inhabitants UI INDIA 711 mason Mabitants IAA I EGYPT 45 nilIon inhabdantsIl UNITED STATES 232 ration inhabitants III I -..,.. N., BRAZIL 1....:-...... 127 min loilaceaots SPAIN I co ALEWICER WEL 2ATIAS Source UNO 1982 1 1 1 POPULTION PYRAMID I MALES FEMALES AGE 85 SO $4 75.79 70 74 65 69 MAL /MN 60 64 55 59 'I. KW 50 54 4549 .., L..) 40 44 -wl 35 39 30 34 25 29 20 24 NM 1519 Wil VIII 1014 k.. II 59 IA 04 ...... 0...... 4 2 0 2 ; , auravramura I= x100.1300 SI I 1 4.1 7 7 1-1-1984 Regional distribution west to the north and elsewhere is partly the the countryside to find a livelihood in the The Dutch population is not evenly distributed consequence of the government's dispersal towns. At first it was mainly the large cities over the country. On the page opposite it will policy. The migration from the west to the in the west which grew as a result of this. but be seen (top right) that nearly a half of the southern and eastern regions of the country later the mediunsized towns in the east and total population lives in the three western can largely be seen as an expansion of the south were affected as well. provinces, while the remaining eight Randstad (see also p. 22). The transformation provinces, which cover 79% of the country's of the South West Netherlands from an After 1960 important changes occurred. In area, house only a little more than half of the emigration to an immigration region is mainly the town centres many dwellings were population. The most densely populated the consequence of better accessibility demolished to make way for shops, offices province is South Holland, with 1,080 resulting from the execution of the Delta and roads. The density of new development inhabitants per km2 of land, and the most Project (growth M industry and tourism; see was generally lower than that of the old and thinly populated is Drenthe, with 161 per km2 pp. 14.15). The considerable foreign the average dwelling occupancy also fell. As (1 January 1984). immigration has already been discussed in a result, the population of the large cities and, the preceding section. The picture for the after a while, of their agglomerations, began It is not the regional differences in rate of early 1980s does not differ greatly from that to fall. Many people left the cities and settled natural increase which are the cause of this for the period 1975.79 except that the in smaller places, attracted by a better uneven distribution, but much more the volume of the migration flows, and particularly residential environment and enabled to do so greatly varying economic potential of the of internal migration, has decreased by their greatly increased mobility. They regions and the migration flowpto which they markedly and that the southern provinces generally continued to work in the city, so give rise. The western provinces, situated on now show a modest net migration loss. This that suburbanisation brought with it a great the sea and rivers, have traditionally afforded reversal in the southern provinces of North increase in commuting. At the beginning of the best opportunities for successful Brabant and Limburg, which still enjoyed a the 1980s the trend began to reverse. The economic development. For many years considerable net migration gain during the volume of suburbanisation decreased and duringthe 19th and the first half of the 20th 1970s, is partly the result of the loss of people were again encouraged to live in the century the consequence of this was an manufacturing jobs in those areas. cities by such measures as the carrying out internal migration flow from the agricultural of numerous urban renewal projects in old areas in the rest of the Netherlands directed Urbanisation and suburbanisation residential areas, the building of homes round towards the rapidly growing ports and The pattern of internal migration up to about old dock basins and on old factory and industrial cities of the west. 1960 had largely the character of a barrack sites. movement to the cities. As the population Changed migration pattern grew and, at the same time, agriculture The map at the bottom left on the opposite became increasingly mechanised, people left page shows that the migration pattern described above still held during the 1950s. Particularly in the northern provinces there was a net migration loss. The migration gain in the west was compensated for by high emigration overseas (see p. 18). The adjoining map shows a picture for the second half of the 1970s which is completely opposite in almost every respect. The north land area population pop. per %growth in km2' x 1,000 km2of land and the southwest have a small internal 1Jan 80 to 1Jan 85 1 Jan 85 1Jan 85 migration gain and the eastern and southern provinces a very large one, while the west has Groningen 2,335 561.1 240 1.3 become an area of internal migration loss. Friesland 3,336 597.6 179 2.3 Drenthe The latter is again redressed by foreign 2,654 429.5 162 2.6 NORTH NETHERLANDS 8,324 1588.2 191 immigration, which now, particularly in the 2.1 Overijssel 3,811 1044.9 274 2.6 west, shows a considerable gain (see p. 18). Gelderland 5,006 1745.3 349 3.0 S. Usselmeer Polders- 974 121.2 124 85.0 The explanation for these drastic changes, EASTERN NETHERLANDS 9,791 2911.4 297 4.8 although complex, is to be found largely in Utrecht 1,332 936.1 703 4.5 the following fac co rs. The migration from the North Holland 2,668 2311.5 866 0.2 South Holland 2,907 3151.3 1084 2.2 WESTERN NETHERLANDS 6,907 6399.0 826 1,8 Zeeland 1,785 355.4 199 2.0 SOUTH WEST NETHERLANDS 1,785 355.4 199 2.0 North Brabant 4,957 2113.0 426 3.0 Limburg 2.170 1085.7 500 1.6 SOUTH NETHERLAND 7,127 3198.6 449 2.5 NETHERLANDS 33,935 14453.8 426 2.6 area excl. waters wider than 6 metres population of the NeUterlands including people with no fixed address entered in the Central Population Register SOO includes the municipalities of Almere, Dronten, Lelystad and Zeewolde, which had not been allocated to a province, and the 'Southern Usselmeer Polders Authority'. 21 Settlements with: Distribution of area and population between the °1C,00020,000 inhabitants western and remaining provinces, 1-1 1 984 o 20,00050,000 inhabitants Area 0 60,000100,000 inhabitantlf onMgen 0 ( over 100,000 inhabitants *'" o 10TH 0 yam FRIESLAND GRONINGEN Provincial boundary o 0 DRENIE 0 ;.,v/ OVERIJSSEL O VENT GELDERLAND 0 oo ZEELANO SOUTH 0 ° HOUND NORTH-BRABANT LIMBURG Haarlem 0 0 0' 0 0 0 01 lZ 01 21% 79% r --Ens de Den Haag ,o Population 0 °o fRIESLANO 0 NORTH-HOLLAND GRONINGEN DRENIE 0 O o OVERIJSSEL Breda ° o 0 0 o ULIECII1 ° GELDERLAND o 0 0 r-f*: Tilburg 01. ° ) ZEELAND 41tindhov°° en,' SOUTH-HOLLAND c), .... NORTH-BRABANT LIMBURG 44% 56% 6 Maastricht *".:.:1_ I I0 X ID II) SC IC A SIN %Nes 1984 Internal and overseas migration of the population JD& The Randstad --- On and characteristics Spatial overpopulation Planning poKcy The Randstad is a concept which was The Randstad as a whole has at present The basis of the policy for the Randstad and introduced in the 1930s to indicate the (1985) some 6 million inhabitants, of whom its place in town and country planning for the cluster of cities in the western Netherlands. nearly 4 live in the urban ring. Until Netherlands as a whole was considerably The concept has no official basis, however. about 1970 the population of the Randstad changed at the beginning of the 1970s. There is no precise definition of the increased quite fast, but since then the rate Before then (see Tweede Nota Ruimtelijke boundaries of the Rar dstad and, of growth has been declining rapidly, mainly OrdeningSecond Memorandum on consequentiy, no generally accepted figures because thenet loss from internal migration Physical Planning, 1966, p. 38) the first for its area and population. has exceeded the net gain from foreign objective was to restrain the growth of the immigration. The population of the major Randstad as far as possible in favour of the When the sea level rose after the Ice Age the cities in fact showed a marked decrease North, East and South of the country by major part of the area of what is now the during the 1970s. In the four largest cities means of a ne:onal dispersal policy. In order Randstad was transformed into a marshy the decease was around 15%. The to prevent the separate towns of the lagoon, so that towns developed late here, populations of the smaller places in the Randstad growing together physically and the generally not until during the course of the 'Green Heart' continued to increase during 'Green Heart' filling up, the population rowth Middle Ages. The favoured sites were higher that period, but in recent years the had to be accommodated ingrowth centres places on the edge of the swamps, such as differences have become smaller. The pace which had been mainly projected on the outer the dunes in the west (e.g. Haarlem, The of suburbanistion has abated and residence side of the Randstad urban ring. Hague), the Pleistocene sands in the east in the large cities is being encouraged (see (Hilversum) and the levees along the rivers p. 20). During the 1970s, however (Derde Nota (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Utrecht, Leiden). Ruimtelijke OrdeningThird Memorandum This explains in broad outline the structure Many problems in the Randstad stem from on Physical Planning 1974et seq.),there of an annular belt of towns around a more the spatial overpopulation in the proved to have been such a large degree of open central zonethe 'Green Heart'. In conurbations. Many towns have to contend spontaneous migration from the urban ring recent years, the name 'Randstad' has come with both quantitative and qualitative housing that the strict dispersal policy was partly to be used increasingly for the whole area of problems. Because of the pronounced fall in abandoned. It was feared that the Randstad cities, 'Green Heart' and fringe areas the average dwelling occupancy the need for would be weakened nationally and combined. residential space increases even if the internationally if the exploitation of its population ceases to grow. The marked rise obvious locational advantages continued to The two maps show how, during the course in the number of commutergives rise to be restrained. of more than a century, the towns and villages major traffic problems, particularly during the of the Randstad have grown towards each peak hours. The concern for retaining an open 'Green other. The cities have nevertheless retained Heart' has remained, although local their own identities, both in respect of their There is also a great lack of recreational concessions have had to be made, as at the physical pattern and of their function, space in and around the Randstad: the growth centre of Zoetermeer east of The character and the way they are experienced agricultural polder land of the 'Green Heart' Hague, as well as along the eastern rail line by their inhabitants. apart from th.: lakes does not lend itself between The Hague and Rotterdam and in to mass recreation. The damage to the the Haarlemmermeer, nearSchiphol airport. An essential difference between the Randstad environment from water, air, soil and noise and London or Paris, for example, is that, in pollution is becomingserious in some areas. During the past few years the growth centre the Randstad, the traditional functions such Moreover, the 'Green Heart itself is being policy has been largely abandoned and the as administration, industry and services are threatened by suburbanisationboth search for new building sites is now being not concentrated in a single centre, but are through an increase in the number of concentrated within the existing towns as distributed over a number of cities. residents and in activities in the secondary part of the 'compact city' policy (see also p. and tertiary sectors and bythe construction 40). Amsterdam and Rotterdam each in its own of roads, the building of second homes etc. way owe their origin and growth in part to The population density in the 'Green Heart' their special situation. They have long formed is already the same as the national average. points of entry to the European hinterland and have accordingly developed mainly as commercial and industrial centres. The Hague is the national seat of government (although Amsterdam is the country's capital). Utrecht, situated in the centre of the country, forms a node of road and rail communications between the different parts of the Netherlands and derives from this a faction as a centre for trade fairs and conferences. The bar diagram shows that the share of the Randstad in the total population of the country has inueased considerably since the last century. 91 Water Residential and Industrial Area Dual Carriageways niOther Roads Railway Canal River o ? 6 ri Qmie NORTH SEA Monster 's-Gravenzande Hook of onand Leerdarn Al blasser da m Papendrecht Hardingxveld- Giesendam 1850 III Built-up Area II Randstad E.a__Jin 1975 RANDSTAO REMAINDER OF THE NETHERLANDS 0 0,75 3 POPULATION IN MIWONS 6,0 14,4 Mabry Many of the inhabitants of Rotterdam find the The highrise development which has been In broad outline, many parallels may be largescale character of the rebuilt centre much used in these and other new observed in the historical development of the rather unattractive. By creating residential neighbourhoods does not meet the housing cities of Amsterdam and Rotterdam. Both areas wherever possible and by planting desires of the majority of the population. cities grew up at sites where, in the Middle trees, laying out cafe terraces, building small Families with young children, in particular, Ages, a dam was constructed in a small river shops etc., it is hoped to create something prefer single family houses with gardens. (the Amstei and the Rotte) in order to reduce more congenial. These are usually available only in more the danger of flooding. They subsequently remote small settlements, which are developed into the two largest port cities of The 19th century districts surrounding the becoming suburbanised (cf. p. 22). the Netherlands in the Golden Age. In about centres were put up rapidly at the time of the 1650, Rotterdam had some 50,000 industrial revolution in these and other cities The figures in the table show how the inhabitants, while Amsterdam had over three and the problems are comparable. Bad living populations of the municipality and the times as many. conditions necessitate radical improvements agglomeration have declined in both which have been too long delayed by Rotterdam and Amsterdam. Urban pattern economic depressions and world wars. After The adjoining maps show for each city, the the war there was an initial inclination to clear historic city centre, the districts built in the these neighbourhoods completely and Popula' 1 JanuaryAmster- Rotter- 19th and early 20th century, those built replace them with new development, partly lion dam dam between the wars and, lastly, the areas dating of dwellings, partly of offices, shops, Municipality from after 1945. recreational facilities and traffic 1969 845,821 699,245 1982 infrastructure. After some years a more 700,759 568,167 Agglomera-1969 Particularly since the Second World War the differentiated approach was evolved: only 1,046,0631,059,646 tion centre of the two cities have become the worst properties were completely 1982 945,0621,025,580 completely different in character. Amsterdam replaced (reconstruction), while the rest is famous for its rings of 17th century canals, were subject to 'renewal' i.e. improvement of its countless bridges and old merchants' the existing premises. Traffic houses. The historic centre of Rotterdam was In both cities the aim is to keep through road traffic out of the central area as far as not rebuilt in the old style after the bombing In both cities dwellings are now being built on possible. For this purpose an extremely of 1940. There arose instead a modern, smaller open sites in the central area. This is costly 'diamond' of motorways was largescale business and entertainment happening, for example, around old dock centre, crossed by wide traffic streets and basins which have lost their original function completed in Rotterdam in 1975. It is hoped to complete a similar road system around spacious pedestrian promenades. The because of the seaward shift of poil activities. Amsterdam by 1990. residential function was greatly reduced. In Old warehouses are also being transformed the centre today there are over 6,500 into living accommodations. dwellings, which is only 26% of the prewar To encourage the use of public transport, a modest start has been made in both cities total of about 25,000. Even before the Second World War and especially in the years which followed, there with the construction of 'metro' lines. In The preservation of the valuable historical arose a great need in both cities for land for Rotterdam a northsouth line has linked the centr" on the right bank of the Maas since character of the centre of Amsterdam residential expansion. The reasons or this demands great efforts. Nearly 7,000 were the growth in population, the 1968 with the zouthern part of the city and with the satellite town of Hoogvliet. In premises have been designated as replacement of destroyed or demolished 'monument', the restoration of which dwellings and the fall both in the average addition, the first section of an east'west link was completed on the right bank in 1982. In requires large sums of money. The historic dwelling occupancy and of the ave;:m Amsterdam a metro line has been operating centre is completely unsuited to modern number of dwellings per hectare. In both between the centre and the last great traffic, so that accessibility, particularly by cities space was found in the remaining car, is a great problem for the many shops territory of the municipality, enlarged, extension of AmsterdamSouth East (incl. the Bijlmermeer) since 1977. and offices. Many businesses have therefore particularly in Rotterdam, by the annexation moved out to the edge of the city or to fringe of hinge municipalities. Further growth took In both cities these lines run underground municipalities such as Am telveen and the place in smaller places in the vicinity, which only through the city centre and special Haarlemmermeer. In the latter municipality, developed greatly as commuter settlements. techniques had to be developed to build the airport of Schiphol, in particular, exerts a Both cities also developed a satellite town: them through the swampy and soft layers of strong attraction. More than 400 firms are Hoogvliet, southwest of Rotterdam, and the peat and clay. established there, providing employment for BijImermeer, southeast of Amsterdam. 27,500 people (late 1983). Moreover, during the past few years a number of new stations have been opened on the fringes of both cities along the existing lines of the national rail network 25 ;$ ":,,,L,m,,,"*JJ'',.,s,...',.,%1.?':,1-4. ':i,,.!(*.r .:4 .§ChCflingWOUCie 1111P.:Pjlitili.44::"100:2:./1474.1' AGeuzenveldiy.gotermeer et te.:el. e.itititypisr::" erain.:111: arlIiiiiisintfntutsidi:ti :::::psdorphi.:.;:i: :titn: "at'i' ii.:ii :Uri: 1:IP:: Schiphol Airport Built-up: LIM before 1850 1920-1940 LA. 8 5 0 - 1 9 2 0klijigpost-1945 Neighbouring places Scale 1:100.000 gig Parks, lakes, etc. Port and industrial sites Metro I?: rsber Major road .-0 Railway with station let ------1.1011000 International character mechanisation and automation, saturation of The three northern provinces remain an area The economy of the Netherlands has long particular market sectors and the stagnation where various measures are in force to had a strong international orientation. In this of the economy since 1973. The shift of stimulate the economy. Besides this connection, reference has'already been emphasis to the services sector is dearly 'development area', South Limburg was made in the introduction to this booklet to shown. designated as a 'restructuralisation area' the importance of the country's favourable where measures had to be taken to situation in relation to communications. During the 1970s and the early 1980s the compensate for the consequences of closing Fisheries and shipping stimulated the rise of rate of unemployment increased and all the coal mines within a short space of time foreign commerce and industry. reached 17.5% in 1984. This is the result not (see p. 30). only of the temporary stagnation in the During the past hundred years a further economy; there is also a considerable In addition, the province of Utrecht and large factor has come to play an increasingly measure of structural unemployment, parts of the provinces of North and South important part. The country has become arising, for example, from the processes of Holland and Gelderland (the Veluwe) were progressively more densely populated and is, automation and economies of scale referred designated as an area for the enforcement of moreover, relatively poor in natural to above. These have led to an impressive a policy of restraint. Here there was a need to resources. The logical consequence of this rise in labour productivity, but employment be able to prevent the establishment of new has been a great rise in the volume of has been reduced. Attempts are now being industries because of lack of space or the imports. To ensure a favourable balance of made through such radical measures as the damage they would cause to the payments, therefore, a large export of goods introduction of a shorter working week to environment. Because of the stagnation in and services is equally important. Until about reduce structural unemployment. the economy the restraint policy was in force 1970 it was never possible to cover the value only from 1975 to 1983. of the imported goods with that of the Regional differences exports. Attempts were made with varying In order to remove undesirable regional Viewing the problem as a whole, there has success to maintain a stable balance of differences in employment an,i income been a fundamental reversal of policy during payments by means of a surplus on the structure etc., the government has been the last few years. No longer is support given services account (invisible exports). From pursuing a socioeconomic dispersal policy in the first place to problem areas or to whole 1970 the balance was positively influenced since the 1950s. Initially, one of the principal branches of industry which find themselves by the voluminous export of natural gas. The aims was to improve the infrastructure and in difficulties (textiles, shipbuilding), but there dependence on foreign trade predisposes standard of education in areas which had a is selective support of enterprises and the Netherlands in favour of international high rate of unemployment relative to the industries which appear to have a future. This economic cooperation, as in Benelux and the national average. Firms received subsidies support also extends to firms in the Randstad. EEC, although the disadvantages of this are for the number of jobs created. Financial In the development and restructuralisation also clearly felt, as in the intensified foreign compensation was also paid to people who areas incentives are now also being given to competition. left such areas. The latter measure was service activities, with the government quickly abandoned when the pressure on the setting an example with the relocation of a Working population and employment western coastal provinces was found to be number of its own departments. The distribution of the working population assuming unacceptable forms, while the over the different sectors of the economy migration from the less prosperous areas In 1972 an ambitious,plan was drawn up to has changed since 1900 in a way which is was proving to be undesirably selective, move government departments employing a characteristic of all the industrialised leading, for example, to ageing of the total of 6,500 civil servants from The Hague countries. Certain clear stages may be population. to such places as Zwolle, Groningen, Emmen distinguished, as appears from the pie charts and Leeuwarden in the north and Heerlen in on the oppasite page: In 1958, four 'problem regions' were the south. (Such transfers had already taken designated (see map, top right), place in the 1960s, although over shorter 1. In 1900, the agricultural, manufacturing characterised by a decline in agricultural distances, such as to Arnhem and Apeldoorn and services sectors each comprised employment and an absence of alternative in the east.) This trend has stagnated in the about one third of the working population. sources of work. In these regions, the past few years, however, because of the high 2. In 1960, the proportion working in the establishment of firms, particularly in the costs, the objections of many civil servants to agricultural sector had greatly declined manufacturing sector, was encouraged by compulsory removal and the protests of the and that working in the manufacturing means of financial and other incentives. municipality of The Hague and the province greatly increased (cf. also the absolute of South Holland. The latter point out that figures plotted in the bar charts). The Since then, the policy has undergone a unemployment has also risen rapidly in the numbers employed in other sectors number of radical changes (see map, bottom region of The Hague in recent years. It was mainly the services sectorhad greatly right). It has been found possible to remove a decided in 1985 that no more transfers of increased. number of areas from the list, such as government departments would take place. 3. In 1983 the decline in the agricultural Zeeland, which is now better served by roads. The last major transfer will be that of the sector was found to have progressed still Headquarters of the Post Office from The further. Economies of scale, Hague to Groningen in 1986. mechanisation and loss of agricultural land to other uses were largely responsible. A striking feature is that the relative and absolute numbers of those working in the manufacturing sector have now also suffered a marked decline. Different factors play a part here. such as difficulties in selling goods at home and abroad, continuing 27 ;:. Agriculture and fishing Regional Policy 1958 Industry (inc. mining) Other occupations % WORKING POPULATION ) 0 elIPA (-) 'APO ® \ ® No .0 NO. OF EMPLOYED PERSONS X 1,000 .-0 t i N 3000 i l ,..\-\, i *---- _ .. '\ i7../ ---.7, ,...., c. k..._,..c.. .r Problem Regions 1960 * Major Growth Centres 6% Other Growth Centres 2000 27,9% Regional Policy 1985 1983 I)GRONiNEKik .s1 e I ENIV6,/,c-Y! MOUS u- ' --: 1000 c, C)APEWOORN. "1 LA r i <-.. t .. '',- ...-- ":, .../1 ..F. --..r r'--:./...t..../,- \Ns'? r ...' \ t N Development Areas :;:orffe Restructuralisation Area O Towns to which more than one government department have moved -- 0- 1900 19601J83 1900 1960 1983 19001960 1983 ev,2 Land use Horticulture is practised in many areas. Its schemes, which have been or are being As the bar chart shows, nearly two thirds of regional distribution is explained by both carried out throughout the country, must also the area of the Netherlands consists of physical and economic factors (domestic be viewed in this light. Their effect is to cultivated land and the greater part of this is and foreign markets). Behind the dunes south increase the size of holdings and parcels and grassland. Woods and nature areas together of Haarlem are the famous bulbfields. Along to reduce the numbers of people employed account fora little over 13% of the Dutch land the rivers there are many orchards (the in farming (see table). Moreover, the number area. Both the cultivated and the wild areas Betuwe). In other areas shown on the map of parcels per holding is reduced and the are constantly decreasing in extent because many kinds of vegetables, fruit, flowers and accessibility of the parcels is improved. The of the building of roads and the expansion of plants are produced. Salad cropstomatoes, aim is to achieve savings in costs through towns and industrial sites. This loss has been cucumbers and lettucesare particularly efficient farming practice. This is the only way partly compensated for by land reclamation, important and a high proportion of them are in which Dutch agriculture can continue to mainly in the Llsselmeer polders. grown in heated glasshouses, mainly in the play an important role, both in the EEC and in Westland, south of The Hague. Many other contexts. Agricultural regions horticultural products are exported, with fruit The map shows the regional distribution of and vegetables being sold, for example, to Statistics of land use, persons employed and the different forms of agricultural land use. the Rhine-Ruhr region of Germany. productivity The regional diversity can be explained mainly by reference to such factors as nature During the past few years there has been a The figures in the table illustrate the trends of the soil and the water economy. rapid growth in the cultivation of cut flowers just described, such as specialisation and pot plants under glass There are now (increasing relative importance of Arable farming is found mainly on fertile, already more flowers and pot plant growers horticulture), increased productivity and welldrained marine clays, such as occur in than producers of fruit and vegetables in the reduction in the number of persons employed the north and south-west Netherlands, in the Westland. The flowers and plants are in agriculture, both relatively and absolutely. drained lakes of North and South Holland, exported not only to countries in Europe, but and in the IJsselmeer polders. The most also in rapidly increasing quantities to North Organisation important crops grown are cereals, potatoes America. The Netherlands has a great variety of and sugar beet. The farms are quite large by agricultural and horticultural organisations Dutch standards (average 40 ha) and highly The importance of agriculture which promote the interests of their mechanised. The production of bread grains The role played by agriculture in the Dutch members in many ways. They encourage, for is not sufficient for home consumption, about economy has greatly changed during the example, the establishment of agricultural 80% of which consists of imported wheat. past century. When Dutch agriculture was and horticultural cooperatives, of which Arable farming also predominates in the confronted at the end of the 19th century there are over a thousand. The cooperatives 'peat colonies' of south east Gioningen and withthe import of cheap agricultural products concern themselves with such matters as the east Drenthe, where industrial potatoes and from overseas, such as grain from North advancement of credit, the joint purchase of sugar beet are grown. America, a process of adjustment set in, raw materials, machinery etc., with the which is, in fact still continuing. The process industrial processing of agricultural products Livestock farming occurs mainly on the less involves the reduction or abandonment of and with marketing. In the latter connection, welldrained clay and peat soils, where the the growing of crops which can be produced the cooperative auctions, such as the world's ground is mostly too soggy for arable more cheaply abroad and specialisation in largest flower auction at Aalsmeer, near farming. Here cattle farming predominates, highvalue products, which can also be Amsterdam, are well known. with milk (for home consumption) and dairy exported. The result is that some 20 to 25% products (partly for export) as the main of the Dutch export trade now consists of In addition to the work of the cooperatives, products. Mixed farms are traditional on the processed or unprocessed agricultural the high standard of Dutch agriculture and sandy soils of the eastern and southern products, the value of which greatly exceeds horticulture can be related, in particular, to a Netherlands, although the emphasis is being that of agricultural imports. Associated with broadly-based system of agricultural placed increasingly on livestock farming. this, there has been a continuing effort to education, intensive agricultural research Many small farms have begun to specialise in increase yields, both per hectare and per and a well organised agricultural advisory intensive pig and poultry farming (factory worker. The many land consolidation service. farming). In addition, many livestock farmers have started growing green maize on part of their land as a fodder crop. Since increasing use is being made of mixed feeds in all the Land use 1970 1975 1984 livestock areas, this has given rise to the Cultivated land (x 1,000 ha) 2143 2082 2016 large-scale manufacture of these products. of which (in%) arable land 32 32 36 grassland 62 62 58 horticulture 5.5 55 5.9 fallow 0.4 0.4 0.2 Employed population 1971 1975 1984 No of person employed in agriculture (x 1,000) 339 311 271 idem, as % of total working population 7 6.2 4.6 Productivity 1970 1975 1984 Liquid milk (kg per cow) 4390 4650 5230 1971-75 1976-80 1981-84 Winter wheat (tonnes per ha) 52 61 74 Sugar beet 46 47 53 Arable farming maw Livestock farming Mixed farming Horticulture Woodland, Heath, Dunes, etc. Other land use 1111111111111111 Bulb-growing District 7.1 eitland ---::K11:1:111/Rdfr g4NI 164INO1w1I VO:( '064 2 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 BO km V ' I 0 10 20 30 40 50 tleS LAND USE IN THE NETHERLANDS (excluding water) c* co . WOODS, BUILDINGS, ARABLE LAND 20%5 PASTURE 34,8% HEATHS, ROADS, c...)= DUNES, ETC. 28,3% ETC 13,3% 1983 30 . . History Natural gas Attempts were originally ma de also to restrict Until late in the 19th century it was thought In 1960 one of the largest gasfields in the exports to what had already been contracted, that the subsoil of the Netherlands was poor world was discovered under the North i.e. a total of about 950 billion cubic metres, 1 in minerals, although it was already known Netherla nds. The gas was formed through the but, in view of the estimated and proved that South Limburg was underlain by coal and carbonisation of peat layers dating from the reserves, efforts are again being made to marl, but the State and private enterprise Carboniferous period and was trapped achieve a modest increase in natural gas showed little interest in exploitation in this through being sealed off by the overlying salt exports. The proved reserves now exceed remote and, at that time, inaccessible part of layers. The gas has accumulated in Permian 1900 billion cubic metres. the country. strata at a depth of about 3,000 metres. Other minerals Coal The largest field is situated in the province of Petroleum, the third mineral which may be Around the turn of the century, when the need Groningen, near the small village of used as fuel and as a raw material for the for industrialisation became evident, there Slochteren. In that field alone there are chemical industry, also occurs in the wasgro wing interest in the coal reserves and already about 300 wells. Natural gas has Netherlands, although the quantities are very exploitation began with the sinking of twelve previously been found at other places in the limited. Extraction is carried on in southwest mines, at first with private and, later, with Netherlands, where it was associated with the Drenthe, in the area between Rotterdam and state capital. Both industrial and domestic occurrence of oil. Gas reserves were later The Hague and under the North Sea. The coals were mined at depths down to 1,000 also found under the Waddenzee and North reti:eries in the port of Rotterdam, which is metres. After 1960, the year in which great Sea (as well as petroleum). one of the largest refining centres in Europe, reserves of natural gas were discovered prccess mainly imported oil (mostly from the beneath the Netherlands, coal mining proved Exploration was greatly intensified after the middle East). The bulk of the finished to be no longer economic and, between 1966 energy crisis of 1973-74. Under the Geneva products are reexported. and 1975, exploitation ceased in all the mines Convention of 1958, the Netherlands was (see further pp. 34-35). allocated a block of the continental shelf of Dutch petroleum reserves (and those under the North Sea which is larger than the country the North Sea) account for less than 7% of The coal which is still needed, such as that itself: 57,000 km2. Gas production from the the crude oil refined in the Netherlands and for blast furnaces, is now imported. The table North Sea already supplied 12% of total for about 14% of the domestic consumption below, giving the total Dutch energy domestic consumption in 1983 and this of petroleum products (1983). consumption in percentages, shows how coal proportion is expected to rise still further. has been ousted by natural gas, which can Common salt is pumped up in large quantities be produced and trancoorted much more Purchase, transport and sale of the gas are in the form of brine in the eastern and cheaply, is more economical to use and in the hands of the Nederlandse Gasunie, a northeastern Netherlands. Annual causes less air pollution (see also the bar limited company in which shares are held by production is over 3 billion kilograms.The salt chart). DSM (Dutch State Mines), ESSO, Shell and is processed at Hengelo and Delfzijl. the Dutch state. Energy consumption in % 1963 1983 Surface minerals have been exploited for Coal 44 9 During the 1960s a pipeline network with a centuries. The limestone of South Limburg Natural gas 2 50 total length of over 10,000 km was laid over was formerly used as a building stone; it is Petroleum 54 36 the whole country and was extended beyond now also used forthe manufacture of cement Nuclear energy 0 4 its borders, so that Dutch naturalgas is now and calcareous fertiliser. There have been also used in the Federal Republic of Germany, violent protests against the damage done to Belgium, France, Switzerland and Italy. the attractive hill landscape of South Limburg by the quarrying of limestone. Thevolume of gas disposed of by the Gasunie increased constantly from the establishment Peat, which was formerly important as a fuel, of the concern in 1963 to reach a peak in is now dug only in southeast Drenthe and 1976. Sales at home and abroad were 94.5 used partly for soii improvement in billion cubic metres at that time. After the oil horticulture. Clay, sand and gravel are used crisis of 1973 and 1974 the official policy in the production of building materials, such was to restrain gas consumption in order to as bricks, roofing tiles and concrete. Sand is maintain natural gas supplies in the obtained from the beds of lakes and the North Netherlands for as long as possible. Added Sea, as well as from sandpits in the High to the effect of the international economic Netherlands. The main source of gravel is the recession, this resulted in a reduction in sales deposits laid down by the Maas in the centre to 70.8 billion cubic metres in 1982. The of the province of Limburg. The excavations annual turnover of the Gasunie has fluctuated there have created large lagoons alongside around this figure since then. the river, which are now used for watersports. Clay for the manufacture of bricks and roofing Somewhat less than half of the total gas tiles is mainly dug and processed along the produlion is exported. At home, natural gas great rivers. is used in nearly every household. It is also the primary raw material for :ndustry and electricity power stations. Some of these power stations, which had converted to natural gas during the 1960s, have been reconverted to burning coal. 31 0 Natural Gas A Petroleum Coal (mines closed) Salt Limestone Natural Gas Pipeline with export station C:7 ,'Groningen . 0: 4-3/ 10 .01rz,1:. Enschede i. Introduction The result of this has been that, in 1983, 34% Location On page 26, reference is made to the of the national income was derived from The historical development described above international orientation of the Dutch industry, while 84% of total exports consisted makes it apparent that industry in the economy as a whole. This is certainly true of of manufactures. Labour productivity has Netherlands has traditionally been Dutch industry, the development of which is greatly increased during this period, thanks concentrated in the ports. Later, industry due much more to the country's situation in to mechanisation and automation. The also developed elsewhere in the country, relation to communications than to the number of people in employment has been partly with government support (see p. 26). presence of large reserves of raw materials declining, both relatively and absolutely, Trends which have appeared in all industrial and fuels. The traditionally important foreign since about 1970. countries in respect of the choice of industrial trade and shipping encouraged the growth of locations have also played a part here. Firms shipbuilding and the processing of imported Other important new elements in the preferably establish themselves in the raw materials. developments after 1950 included the great vicinity of seaports (=relatively cheap expansion of the petrochemical industry and transport) and in large urban agglomerations History up to 1900 the growth in foreign investment. It was (= favourable industrial climate in relation to There was already a form of processing mainly firms from the United States which infrastructure, labour supply, markets etc.). industry in the Netherlands in the 17th established themselves in the Netherlands. Only the Randstad satisfies both conditions. century. Dutch merchant ships brought such Another important fact is that several major In the other parts of the Netherlands goods as grains and timber from the Baltic multinational concerns have their industrial development proceeded with countries and tropical and subtropical headquarters in the Netherlands. These much greater difficulty. On the sandlands of products from the Far East and include Philips, Shell and Unilever (the latter the south and east the peasants formerly Mediterranean region. These raw materials two have a second head office in London). carried on cottage industries, from which were refined in such places as Haarlem, developed the textile industries in towns Dore echt and the Zaan district (northwest of Reference has already been made on p. 26 to such as Tilburg and Enschede. It is precisely Amsterdam). The power was mainly supplied the stagnation of economic growth after these labour-intensive industries which now by the wind. Besides the windmills which about 1974 and, therefore, also that of find themselves in great difficulties, partly regulated the water economy, the industrial production. It can be seen from the because of international structural changes. Netherlands formerly had countless wind- index figures given above that the volume of The result has been factory closures and driven saw mills, corn mills etc. Peat was also industrial production even decline slightly at mergers. used as a source of power supply. the beginning of the 1980s. This decline was limited to industries which have already been Other areas, such as the province of Although these industries expanded further in the danger zone for twenty years. The Groningen and South Limburg, acquired during the 18th and 19th centuries (together production capacity of the chemical and industries when people began to process the wich the industries based on locally grown metallurgical industries has already been locally available raw materials. In this way agricultural products), there was no explosive underexploited for many years because of arose agriculturally.based industries in the growth in the Netherlands, such as occurred international economic stagnation, while the north and the chemical industry in the south. in Britain and Germany during the 19th competitiveness of the light, labour-intensive The presence of deep, navigable water led, century. industries has been adversely affected by the further, to the establishment of industry steep rise in wages. along the Western Scheldt in the southwest The 20th century and along the Eems in the northeast of the Not until 1890 did the Netherlands begin to Since it was assumed up to the early 1970s country. find its place among the industrial nations. that industry would continue to expand at a This was when the government began to play fast rate, there is now a surplus of vacant As a result of the decline of traditional a more active part, mineral extraction in the industrial sites in various parts of the country. industries, the establishment of foreign firms form of coal mining began to gather pace and and of regional socio-economic policies, the new industries, such as chemicals and distribution of industry over the country has electrical engineering were established. Two become more complicated in recent years. world wars and the economic depression, There is no longer a limited number of however, slowed down growth. After 1945 regions, each clearly dominated by a single there followed a few years of reconstruction industry. In broad outline, however, it is still and adaptation to the changed international possible to point to a number of important situation, including the gaining of inden pence concentrations, based on such factors as by Indonesia. international communications. The bar diagram emphasises the degree of The greatest expansion of Dutch industry concentration of industry in the western took place after 1945, as is illustrated by the coastal provinces and in the south of the index figures given below for the total volume country - centrally located between industrial of industrial production: regions in Germany and Belgium. The east and, particularly, the north lag well behind. In (1938 = 100) relative terms, however, industry is less important as a source of employment in the 1930- 96 1970- 500 western Netherlands, because of the high 1946- 74 1981- 673 concentration there of national and 1958- 204 1986- 660 international service activities. The south is relatively the most dependent on industry. NORTH- GREAT BRITAIN SEA twerp ssels Co log ERMANY FRANCE industrial Concentrations'1, Cities > 1,000,000 inhabitants Towns > 100,000 inhabitants National Frontiers Boundaries of the 5 regions of the Netherlands o 20 40 00 tOknl r I 10 20 30 40 50pndes Employment in Industry per Region as % of National Total, 1983 r10,0 19,3 38,9 2.4 29,4 I NORTH EAC.. WEST S.W. SOUTH The general introduction describing the origin This spatial expansion was accompanied by An iron and steel works began operating at and distribution of industry in the Netherlands a greater diversification of functions. the seaward entrance to the North Sea Canal will be fcliowed by a description of three Numerous industries were established in 1924. Iron ore and coal have to be important industrial regions: the port and around the new port basins, with imported from overseas. In this respect, the agglomerationrelated industrial zones along petrochemicals predominating. There are works, with its own docks on the seaward side the New Waterway (Rotterdam) and North five large oil refineries in the port of of the locks, has an ideal situation. Apart from Sea Canal (Amsterdam) and the Rotterdam with a combined capacity of some crude iron, steel and steel products are restructuralisation region of South Limburg. 90 million tons. From east to west these are manufactured, as well as cement and Shell, Esso, Chevron, the State oil company fertilisers in a subsidiary plant. Rotterdam-Europott of Kuwait (Gulf until 1983) and British Rotterdam was granted a charter in 1340 and Petoleum.These are the 'balancing' refineries There are now seven blast furnaces and the rapidly increased in importance during the which supply the smaller refineries and steel works has an annual capacity of 6 following centuries. This importance derived chemical works in the West European million tons, which is not fully utilised because largely from its trade with America and the hinterland with raw materials. The port also of the overproduction of steel in Europe. East Indies (now Indonesia) and from the ferry contains a number of chemical plants, while Collaboration with steel plants in West sevices with England. A decline set in during another important industry is the processing Germany, which has been going on for many the 18th and 19th centuries, caused mainly of vegetable oils and fats into foodstuffs and years, resulted in a merger with Hoesch of by difficulties in maintaining a channel to the soap and washing powders (Unilever). Dortmund in 1972 under the name of Estel. open sea. Silting made navigation increasingly This merger was dissolved again, however, in hazardous, while ships were constantly An important new activity is the offshore 1982. increasing in size. industry, which has grown rapidly in response to the increased exploration for oil and gas A rapid growth of the offshore industry is also The opening of the New Waterway in 1872, and their exploitation on the bed of the North occurring in the Ilmond zone. which involved cutting through the dunes of Sea.The building and repair of ships has long the Hook of Holland, made it possible to been an important activity of the port. In South Limburg benefit from the rapidly intensifying trading recent years there has been a decline in the Towards the end of the 19th century and contacts with the German hinterland construction of large vessels, mainly because during the first quarter of the 20th century, resulting from the rise of industry in the Runr of greatly increased foreign competition. twelve coal mines were opened in South region and the freeing of navigation on the Partly because of environmental objections, Limburg, financed at first with private capital, Rhine in 1868. it has been decided not to build an iron and but later also operated by the State. Mining steel plant on the Maasvlakte. ceased here completely between 1966 an Up to the Second World War, therefore, the 1975. The exploitation of the generally deep emphasis was very much on transit trade. Ainstenlam-Umond Ierrtivnce to the North and thin coal seams proved to be no longer About 75% of the goods imported into Sea Canal) economically justified. Greatly increased Rotterdam from overseas in 1938 were Up to the Second World War, Amsterdam labour costs and competition from the immediately transshipped (the present played an important role in Western Europe natural gas discovered in the Northern p;oportion is 30.35%). The port zone as an entrepot fr.( tropical products. Netherlands in 1960 largely contributed to expanded westwards from the centre of Subsequently, transit trade gained in this rapid and partly unexpected closure. This Rotterdam approximately as far as Schiedam. importance, but the city's geographical obviously confronted the region with great situation is much less favourable in this problems, particularly the eastern sector After the war and the phase of post-war respect than that of Rotterdam. The adjoining the German border, including reconstruction, the expansion westwards, connections both with the sea and the Heerlen etc. This area was more exclusively along the left bank of the New Waterway, hinterland (the Rhine) consist of canals dependent on mining than. a western continued at an intensified pace. First came, entered by locks: the North Sea Canal (1876) mining district, where a varied chemical in about 1955, a port zone with mixed and AmsterdamRhine Canal (1952). industry had grown up. With the supply of industry around the Botlek Subsequently, in petroleum and natural gas by pipeline this the 1960s, the Europort project was After the war the port and industrial zone of industry was able to continue after the completed on the island of Rozenburg, with Amsterdam also expanded in a westerly closure of the coal mines. The largest predominantly petrochemical industries. This direction. Amsterdam has the largest number complex here is that of DSM (Dutch State did not entirely satisfy the desire for port and of industrial workers of any Dutch city. In part, Mines), which consists of a polychemical industrial sites, however, and 1974 saw the the pattern of industry shcws marked plant (raw materials for plastics, paints and beginning of the layout of the Maasvlakte. parallels with Rotterdam: petrochemical and dyes, drugs and medicines etc.), a nitrogen Withthe dredging of a 40 kilometre channel food and drink industries, shipbuilding and fixing plant (for fertilisers) and a caprolactam in the floor of the North Sea, Europort has repair etc. Some of the industries of plant (raw material for nylon). been made accessible to ships of up to Amsterdam, however, are less tied to the port 300,000 to 350,000 tons. than those of Rotterdam and often have a In 1973 South Limburg was designated as a craft character (clothing, diamond cutting). 'rest ructuralisation region' under the regional socio-economic policy. This provides for The national airport of Schiphol is attractive measures such as retraining of labour, to international concerns, which have establishment of new industries and an established their European office and/or expansion of the number of jobs in the distribution centre in its vicinity. services sector (to be achieved in part by the transfer of government departments from the western Netherlands to Heerlen). Despite these efforts, the rate of unemployment in South Limburg is now running at over twice the national average. ri WO WO, NNW' .ZN, "' 0 el% \ ..* . ... .. 0 .:::: N A. ...::. A .:', \ ''' :::. ' .1 : ... ' . : : .--:-. %:. ' ::::. .:::ii:: ::::.': ..',., % 0,...... \i/ :.:::: 47....:'...y. 0 :'ii...... --.::::::.:::: .. ..._ ...... - Ak !,,.,..... ,., _. _, II - ,, O. N ..- :::: 1 ,.--N .. \ %... , \,,,, - I \ \ 0 . , -,; 1 -:.,..- 4.-;,.- :, ... ' $... ,::?,4:: o.. ...:.,.:...;:,, \ :: m::::. :.....:::. ::::::*:. i':':.:70..":* ,,..:....N..'::,.,.. \ i".:§,....7:0. Nx....' .... . ..1.1...... 1 .::::::.:::::::§::::;fv: OP: kk: \''::::::1/4:ii:::.:Ls *'':>\*X."6:.\.:....ss. N \ C,.,.:.'N:x.., ::_,.:.:.:;::: /7 t imil...._ 42, ..... x V yr IN" .- I .. vi4 -so\ t,t A war . . . : . . . \\ .\\4\ - . , . S- Foreign trade Inland traffic and transport Aviation The strong orientation of the Dutch economy The infrastructure maps showing transport by The Netherlands possesses in the airport of towards foreign countries has already been water, rail and road indicate the density of Schiphol, southwest of Amsterdam and the referred to in previous sections. This is these different traffic networks. The home base of the KLM, an important and reflected in the large volume of foreign trade. waterways map shows only those routes wellequipped airfield. Numerous airlines In 1983 imports amounted to 12,200 guilders where the maximum permitted capacity does operate regular European and inter per head of the population and exports to not fall below 1,000 tons. This accounts for continental services. Smaller civil airfields are 13,000 guilders per head. nearly half the total waterway network of situated near Rotterdam, Maastricht, 4,380 km (the many apparently deadend Eindhoven, Groningen etc. Because of the Manufactures were the most important items waterways are generally continued by short distances, internal air traffic is of very in both imports and exports (e.g. import of channels of a lower order). limited significance. motor cars and export of electrical apparatus). Second place amongst imports is The railway map shows all the lines in use for Government policy taken by raw materials and fuels (iron ore, passenger traffic. This network comprises The disadvantages of the uncontrolled petroleum), while agricultural products over 2,500 km, besides which there are a growth of traffic and the associated (livestock and horticultural products) take number of lines for goods traffic only. The infrastructure have become clear to many second place among exports. road map shows all the 'European' (E) roads., people in recent years. They include noise all the motorways and a limited selection of nuisance, air pollution, use of expensive The first map on the opposite page shows the the other important link roads. space and energy, danger to life and limb. countries with which the Netherlands does Recent government plans in the field of the most trade. A striking feature is the large The road network is being continually physical planning and traffic take these into share of the nine EEC partners. In 1983 they extended and modernised. The total lenght account. Many aspects of am enity are given supplied 54% of the imports and took 72% of of dualcarnageway roads was virtually careful consideration before decisions are the exports. The great importance of natural doubled between 1970 and 1984. The taken about extensions to the traffic gas exports and international services for the numerous river and canal crossings form a infrastructure. Such decisions are the subject Dutch balance of payments has already been hindrance to road traffic. Despite the building of detailed public participation procedures referred to on p. 26. It is mainly thanks to of an increasing number of major bridges and (see also p. 38). natural gas that the trade balance has shown tunnels, these crossings still give rise to long a surplus of some 10 billion guilders or over peak-hour traffic queues. In making the decisions, the aim is to achieve 6% in recent years (1982-83). The surplus on integration in a number of fields: the services account, which was once of such A comparison of the road and rail networks, integration of transport and other sectors significance, has largely disappeared. which exhibit a great similarity in broad of physical planning; for example, bringing Although the Dutch transport undertakings outline, shows that road traffic takes work and recreation closer to residential (shipping, road transport) still earn a advantage much more rapidly than do the areas reduces the volume of traffic; considerable surplus, this is largely cancelled railways of the opportunities afforded by land out by the deficit from international travel. reclamation works. The 'Schiphol Line' integration of the different forms of Dutch tourists spend annually some 5 billion between Leiden and Amsterdam, for transport: depending on local conditions, more guilders abroad than are spent by example, which was built across the priority is given to infrastructure provision foreign tourists in the Netherlands. Haarlemmermeer, was not completed until which will help motor traffic, public 1981, while the railway across the Flevo transport orthe use of bicycle and moped; Polders is planned to link Almere and Lelystad with the national rail network by integration in the policy sphere between 1987 and 1988, respectively. There are plans the various authorities themselves and to extend this line through the North East between the authorities and the transport Polder to Groningen. It now seems unlikely companies. that the plans to construct a northsouth line through the Delta region will ever be realised. It is hoped to reduce the mobility of the population by means of a variety of control measures relating not only to the number, but also to the length of journeys. VALUE IMPORTS AND EXPORTS DENMARK FEDERAL OTHER OF lit 48 11 /% frefi/ EE IljSRTC71:EN IREurfD UNITEDKINGDOM4/1 REST OF ASIA 1111, 1%t BELG144/ WESTZNA 'sH AND 0B LUXEMBOURy 1- OE /1 1 1/, 4 AFRICA FRANCE \ 41 11 UNITED STATES GREECE (1983) (1985) 10,000 million guilders INLANDSHIPPING 2. 5,000 million guilders 17%of inland goods transport in tons 1,000 million guilders 500 million guilders 26% of inland goods transport in ton-km ( 1983 ) RAIL NETWORK ROAD NETWORK Under Construction = Motorways Other Roads 11, (1985) (1985 ) TRANSPORT BY RAIL TRANSPORT BY ROAD 7% of internal passenger transport in passenger-km. 83% of internal passenger transport in passenger-km. 4% of internal goods transport in ton-km. (1983 69% of internal goods transport in ton-km. ( 1983 ) 110111111111 Evolution Orpoisation Public Participation In a densely populated country like the The organisation of physical planning in the Legislation has been passed providing for Netherlands, it is obvisiously essential to Netherlands as laid down in the act of 1965, detailed information and public participation prepare and implement plans for the future is based on the three existing levels of procedures in respect of all the plans, policy spatial organisation of the country. This government: central, provincial and documents etc. referred to above. In general, necessity is determined not only by the high municipal. the procedure is as follows: firstly, a draft plan population density and the associated is published by the authority concerned and intensive ,use of space, but also by the great Central government sets out the main lira. maximum publicity given to it by means of reduction in the amount of available space of planning policy documents and structure laying it open to inspection in numerous per inhabitant. plans. It also exercises supervision over the places, public meetings, notices in the mass policies of the lower tier authorities and media etc. Every citizen or interest group may There is, moreover, particularly in the Low settles differences between them. The comment on the plan, either in writing, or Netherlands, a long tradition of physical provinces may draw up subregional verbally at a public hearing. As far as national planning, because it was customary to parts of their areas and they exercise policies are concerned, a compilation of prepare plans not only for the drainage of the supervision over the policies of the these comments is published as part of the many areas reclaimed from the sea, but municipalities. 'Planologische Kernbeslissing' (Key Planning generally also for their layout. Decision) procedure. The authority then The act of 1965 assigns a very important task draws up a definitive plan, which takes the The legal framework for contemporary to the municipalities. In addition to the comments into account and has to be planning is contained in an act of 1965, which structure plans for the whole of tLir territory, democratically approved by Parliament, the was passed at the end of a long period of they draw up development plans. These provincial states or the municipal council, as evolution, beginning with the Housing Act of development plans are the most important the case may be. 1901. As a result of recent developments element of the present system of physical further legislation is in the course of planning. They differ from all the previously In view of the binding character of the preparation. mentioned plans in that: municipal development plan, it is the the municipality is obhgedto prepare them procedure for this plan which contains the The following are some aspects of postwar for the parts of its area which are most safeguards for the public. The re are, for developments: undeveloped and they are sometimes also example, ample opportunities for appealing physical planning was given a more prepared for other areas, such as a town against a development plan or for claiming scientific basis in the development of centre which is to be redeveloped. compensation. 'planologie' (planning science); once accepted by the municipal council an interest in rural planning vers added to and approved by the province, the Drawbacks that in urban planning; provisions of the development plan are The existing legislation has been found to in association with the above, there has legally binding for everyone. Building contain a number of drawbacks, which it is been an enlargement of scale: physical licences are issued only if they are in hoped to overcome in future amendments to planning should be practised not only in conformity with the development plan. the law. The strong emphasis on the response to local problems and interests, Failure to conform to the plan results in municipal development plan, for example, but also at the regional, national and prosecution, while any structures are does not accord with the efforts to achieve international levels; demolished at the offender's expense. economies of scale. the principle of establishing a structure for a particular point in time in the future has The map page illustrates the increasing detail Another drawback is that the wide been replaced by an attempt to achieve a of the plans at the regional, local and opportunities for appeal can result in lengthy more flexible response to constantly neighbourhood levels. Map A shows part of delays. so that the implementation of a changing trends (this is known as 'process the regional scheme for the central and development plan may be delayed by as planning); south-eastern part of the province of Utrecht, much as four or five years. greater thought is being given to the place published in 1974.The plan provides for the of physical planning within the whole field considerable expansion of a number of It is intended that a revised Physical Planning of social forces and, particularly, to its settlements to the south of the city of Utrecht Act should come into force in 1985. Its relationship with regional economic policy; to accommodate the overspill of the city's provisions will include the public participation more opportunities have been created for population. The largest of these settlements procedure for the 'Key Planning Decision' public participation in planning policy, is Nieuwegein, a new town to be built around referred to above. In view of the large amount particularly at the national and local levels. the old nuclei ofJutphaas and Vreeswijk. Map of time and money required by the B is an extract from the Structure Plan for experimental procedure adopted until now, a Nieuwegein, drawn up in 1969. Below it is a simplified version will be incorporated in the section from the Development Plan for one new act. of the residential neighbourhoods in Nieuwegein. This plan has now been implemented. 39 Ta),...,. .0 ...... _4_,_ . IBM .... -.f 4 ,. 9iv 9 of 11`if 910:4;r>-,'::\ ' r sifj4t klfg Iri v°f411919/94SIIIIIIII:\ ftiell * 111IP 177 LilltqL,. Vol . 4sPier :A* 4727:11'174.:4\issVildri 11;enlift ..'/:. al\5117.81111;::::111: -. s fillill \t"' 31 A ittiamaiirai.s.0\811474** INI, 14:4:: s 'NI. ,.,.. vcratti . 'Nt 7 A -.64.*;"4 ...4zirie;.,,,, ' s * Government Reports Urbanisation Report Rural area' After the First and Second Policy Documents The Urbanisation Report refers to a number Clearly under4 'g the Rural Areas Report is on the physical planning of the whole of conurbations in the West of the country the realisation that the nonurbanised part of country, which appeared in 1960 and 1966, which partly overlap each other to form the the country may no longer be regarded respectively, publication began in 1974 of northern and southern wings of the Randstad. purely as an area for agricultural production. the separate parts of the Third Policy This is where the greatest problems are Joint use by the nonagricultural population Document on Physical Planning in the located. The stringent dispersal policy and concern for nature conservation are Netherlands. The need for this new report, adopted during the 1950s and 1960s to playing an increasing role. In view of the often quite soon after the detailed Second solve these problems has been largely conflicting interests, this does not make the Document, derived mainly from the following abandoned. Further urban growth must be taking of decisions about the physical 10, considerations: accommodated within or in the vicinity of the planning of rural areas any simpler. In order certain basic assumptions, concerning, for Randstad wings. to bring some clarity into the situation, the example, population growth, proved to Rural Areas Report introduces a system of have been incorrect (see p. 18); The displacement of part of the urban growth zoning upon which planning policy can be important elements of the policy outlined to peripheral areas in the North East and based. The following zones are distinguished: in 1966, such as the migration to the North South East of the country is now being a. areas with agriculture as the principal and the restriction of suburbanisation in promoted less forcefully. By concentration in function. The first purpose of the policy the central zone of the Randstad, proved the conurbations and accomodation of the here will be to serve the interests of impossible to realise; growth in a limited number of growth towns agriculture. The areas concerned include assumptions about such matters as the outside the Randstad and in growth centres the marine clay districts in the North and achievement of economic growth and the in or near the Randstad, it is hoped to prevent South West Netherlands and in the increase of mobility were being radically both urban decay and the gradual Usselmeor polders. modified in response to the growing suburbanisation of the whole country. This is b. areas with a mixture of agriculture and concern for the environment and the the principle of 'concentrated other functions in larger spatial units. scarcity of fuels and raw materials. deconcentration'. According to circumstances, agricultural interests or those of recreation and nature The first part of the Third Document, the Within the agglomerations the problem of conservation will take first place. The area 'Exploratory Report', published in 1974, w..is congestion, as it affects homes and traffic, concerned are mainly the grassland areas concerned with these background aspects recreation and the environment etc., must be on clay and peat soils, as in Friesland and and took them as a basis for a number of tackled. Among the means of achieving this the region of the great rivers. policy proposals. are the bringing closer together of home and c. areas with a mixture of nature areas, work and encouragement of the use of public agriculture and other functions in smaller The 'Urbanisation Report' was published in transport and of bicycles or mopeds. spatial units. Preservation of attractive, 1976 as part two of the Third Document and varied countryside should receive priority the 'Rural Areas Report' appeared in 1977 as The quality of the urban residential here, but the interests of agriculture must part three. A revised edition of the Structure environment must be preserved or :proved, not be overlooked. This category is to be Map' (see map) forming part of the mainly through rehabilitation of the older round mainly on the sandy soils in the East 'Urbanisation Report' was published in 1983. urban neighbourhoods (cf. p. 24). This may and South of the Netherlands. The map on the opposite page illustrates the also help to restrain the widespread d. areas with 'nature conservation' as their major structural elements of the Urbanisation suburbanisation process (cf. 22). principal function. Conservation obviously an Rural Areas Reports. takes first place here and the interests of In the revised urbanisation plans of 1983 agriculture and recreation are Besides the three reports there are the even more emphasis is placed on providing subordinated to it. The areas concerned Structure Schemes', which deal with new housing within and adjacent to the include the dunes along the whole of the particular aspects of physical planning, existing towns and cities. No new growth North Sea coast and the forests and usually relating to infrastructure. Proposals towns or growth centres have been heaths covering the hills of the Veluwe. have been put forward, for example, relating designated and a number of the existing to domestic water and electricity supply, to growth mioicipalities will shortly lose their inland waterways, ports, airfields, public special status. housing, land use planning, open air recreation and conservation. 4.L 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 km 1-.1 . ' ' 1 ' s---' ., ' i 10 \ 0 20 30 40 50 ales ., Rural Areas Urbanisation = Areas with agriculture as principal function * Conurbations Areas with a mixture of agricultural and other Growth Centres/Towns ceasing to have special status functions, in larger spatial units r in the 1980s Areas with a mixture of nature areas, agncultural and Growth Centres/Towns to continue to have special 03 other functions 'n smaller spatial units status until the 1990s ro'r 1 4.-1r, Areas with 'nature conservation' as principal function Other Urban Centres AAA AAABuffer Zones In all the industrialised countries increasing measures based on voluntary collaboration Legislative measures pollution of both the natural and the man- by industry. The conversion from coal and oil The cooperation of industry and all parties made environment may be observed. Coping to natural gas during the course of the 1960s involved is necessary if the forms of with the problem requires ever greater had a favourable effect on pollution (cf. p. environmental pollution referred to above sacrifices. In the Netherlands, the pollution 30). However, since industry and electric and others, such as the thermal pollution of problem has certain specific aspects which power stations have partly resumed the use surface water, radio-active contamination of are closely linked with the geographical of coal, this effect has to a certain extent water and air, noise nuisance etc., are to be situation of the country. The maritime been reduced. Like the whole of Western countered effectively. Furthermore, most of situation, for example, together with the Europe, the Netherlands is suffering from the them can only be tackled with the aid of low-lying character of the coastlands, gives rapidly worsening problem of acid rain, the efficient legal measures. In 1970 laws came rise to a serious salination problem.The great effects of which are clearly evident in the into force dealing with water and air pollution; European rivers, the Rhine, Maas and country's few woodland areas. in 1977 followed a law dealing with the Scheldt, transport many waste products to pollution of seawater and a chemical waste the Netherlands. The high population density Sotl pollution act. The Environmental Protection (General and the associated intensive use of land also Instances of severe soil pollution as a result Provisions) Act coordinates the procedural increase the intensity of all forms of pollution. of the discharge or dumping of chemical aspects of the various environment acts. The prevailing south-westerly winds carry waste have been discovered in recent years They are all based on the principle that inland air pollution from the industries in numerous places in the Netherlands. In a pollution as such is forbidden. Under certain established in the coastal areas. number of cases residential areas conditions exemptions may be granted from subsequently built on contaminated land had this prohibition, for which the 'polluter must Water pollution to be temporarily evacuated or even pay'. The money received by the government The ground and surface water are polluted in demolished. A growing number of refuse in this way can be invested in the fight against the first place by the settlements and incinerator plants have come into operation pollution. industries in the country itself, but added to in order to reduce the discharge of domestic this is the heavily polluted water brought into and industrial waste; household waste is also International aspects the country by the great rivers, particularly used to make compost. In collaboration with As noted above, features of the geography of the Rhine. Many measures are being taken on industry, the government is investigating new the Netherlandssuch as its situation on the an increasingly large scale, both to remove methods of disposing of chemical waste and lower reaches of various great rivers make the causes of pollution (e.g. by limiting or seeking a method of collecting small amounts the environmental problem there an prohibiting discharges) and to deal with its of chemical waste. international one. The chief factor is the consequences (e.g. sewage treatment Rhine, which brings in no less than two thirds plants). Another form of soil pollution is caused by of all the water present in the Netherlands. the zonsiderable growth in intensive Before this river passes the Dutch frontier it A completely different threat to water quality husbandry (see p. 28), particularly in the flows among the homes and workplaces of is that of saltwater seepage. In rivers and Eastern and Southern Netherlands. The many tens of millions of Europeans. The canals the salt penetrates many kilometres surplus manure spread over agricultural land Rhine is consequently Europe's most inland from the sea. In large parts of the Low pollutes the soil (partly through and excess of polluted great river and improvement in this Netherlands fresh ground water is either nitrates an phosphates) and the ground situation can only be the result of close absent or present to only a shallow depth water. This can in the long term have an international cooperation. Talks have been (see the boundary on the opposite map and unfavourable effect on the drinking water going on for several years with France, for the cross-section on D. 17). This threat supply, two thirds of which is derived from example, concerning the discharge into the demands quite different measures, such as ground water. The ammonia released by the Rhine of waste salts from the potash mines in separation of fresh and salt water by means manure contributes further to the Alsace. International agreement is also of dams (as in the Delta Project), air bubble acidification of the soil and air. urgently necessary to combat pollution from screens in lock complexes and the the Maas, the Waddenzee, the North Sea etc. construction of dams and weirs to ensure an In order to combat this problem, the Minister The map illustrates another example of adequate discharge of fresh water (see p.16). of Agriculture prohibited the further transfrontier pollution: the high sulphur expansion of pig and poultry rearing dioxide content of the atmosphere in the Air pollution throughout the country at the end of 1984. South East Netherlands, largely caused by Large complexes of basic industries, such as industry in the nearby Rhine/Ruhr area. the petrochemical industri,...: of Rotterdam- The soil is also polluted as a result of the Europort, are the greatest culprits with dumping of contaminated sludge dredged up regard to air pollution. In addition, there are in order to maintain Ct.. navigability of port offensive smells caused by traffic and basins and waterways. This is a problem of polluted surface water etc. Countermeasures considerable proportions, especially in the up to the present have been very incidental in vicinity of Rotterdam. Plans exist to build character, e.g. the installation of dust filters in special basins along the coast in the chimneys etc. A network of 220 measuring Maasvlakte area to store the most highly stations came into operation in 1978. Only in contaminated sludge. the area around Rotterdam, where such measuring stations have been in existence for several years, can unfavourable readings lead immediately to the adoption of 4==> C.. n../ -/ OA NORTH SEA 173 mg/I P-(1983) Scheldt o 20 40 eo BO kfn 54mg/I o 10 20 30 40 60 ivIdes P41983) Sulphur Dioxide in the Air: Drinking Water Supply 1982/83 0 Drinking Water Reservations 60 microgrammes/m3 >60 tam Dune Filtration Areas 141 I 141 River Water Aqueducts - >70 Boundary of Salt Penetration in Ground Water 11111 > 80 Concentration Areas of Intensive Husbandry 1111 >100 (excess manure) > 120 Refuse Incinerator Plants