Atlantic Slave Trade 1

Atlantic Slave Trade 1450-1870 Dr Vanessa Mongey Syllabus and handbook created in 2018/2019

Isaac Julien - Western Union Series No. 1 (Cast No Shadow) 2007

Introduction

This module explores what W.E.B. Du Bois called the "most magnificent drama in the last thousand years of human history." The slave trade between 1450 and 1870 was the largest migration of people in the early modern Atlantic world and transported millions of Africans away from their native lands. Lectures and seminars will be geographically and chronologically wide-ranging, travelling back and forth between Africa, the Americas, and Europe for over four hundred years to study the politics and the economics of the trade as well as various slave experiences.

The Middle Passage refers to the horrific voyage across the Atlantic suffered by more than 12 million enslaved Africans between the fifteenth and nineteenth century. Most early Portuguese slave ships were small and tight, and sailors expected so many of their chained passengers to die that they called them “floating tombs.” Using a combination of first-hand accounts by slaves and slavers, ship logs, works of fiction, and analyses by historians, this module will consider the origins and the expansion of the trade, the development of plantation economy in the Americas, and finish with the abolition movement. This module tries to understand how historians approach the slave trade and the more recent debates about the Middle Passage and its representations in music, book, and film. Core Reading  Vincent Carretta ed., Unchained Voices: An Anthology of Black Authors in the English-Speaking World of the Eighteenth Century

 David Northrup ed., The Atlantic Slave Trade THIRD EDITION

 Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History

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 Sowande’ Mustakeem, Slavery at sea: terror, sea, and sickness in the Middle Passage

Historical fictions / reflections: Sacred Hunger by Barry Unsworth

Feeding the Ghosts by Fred D'Aguiar

Zong by M. NourbeSe Philip

The Book of Negroes by Lawrence Hill Assessment A 2000 word essay (including footnotes but excluding bibliography) worth 30%.

Prompt: You will discuss the value of using one type of primary sources for the study of the slave trade in order to address a (or a set of related) research question. You can choose from one type of sources among the following. You can use others as comparison / contrast / complement but focus on one type of sources to stay within the 2000-word limit: 1) Material culture (objects, archaeological sources, images etc.) 2) The slave trade database 3) Slave narratives 4) Archival material from local collections

You need to come up with your own research question. There are generally two ways of coming up with research questions: either problem driven or source driven. In the first case, you look at the sources, become interested in an aspect or a theme and turn that interest into a research question. In the second case, you have identified a question, perhaps from lecture materials or readings we have done in class, and then you do research with primary sources.

Your question(s) have to be tailored to the type of sources you've chosen. A precise research question will help you make a precise argument and select examples from the primary sources. For example: "An Evaluation of the importance in using material culture when studying the Atlantic Slave Trade" is not a proper research question. But "What measures did the slave traders take in an attempt to control the captives? How useful is material culture as evidence of this?" is.

You need to come up with your own research question. There are generally two ways of coming up with research questions: either problem driven or source driven. In the first case, you look at the sources, become interested in an aspect or a theme and turn that interest into a research question. In the second case, you have identified a question, perhaps from lecture materials or readings we have done in class, and then you do research with primary sources.

To get started, ask yourself the following questions: What is the value of this kind of sources for historians? What do we learn from studying them? What do they reveal or not reveal? How do they contribute to understanding the slave trade in general? Are they helpful in reconstructing a particular aspect of the history of the slave trade?

I HIGHLY recommend using the Oxford Bibliographies online: search 'slave trade' (around 800 articles!) and narrow it down by region or by theme: slave trade and women / gender; slave trade and material culture; slave trade and resistance; slave trade etc.

Bibliography, list of sources, marking rubrics, checklist etc. on Blackboard > Assessment Information

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You have the option to submit a detailed outline for peer review (instructions & templates on Blackboard > Assessment).

• Basic formatting rules: - Put in italic: newspaper, journal, and book titles: The Guardian; Slavery at Sea etc. - The footnote goes AFTER the punctuation: full stop, comma, etc. - Be careful of long quotes (more than three lines) unless they are strictly necessary and you analyse them carefully. Single-space and centre them if they go over 100 words. - Do not put quotes in italic.

Note on language: We will discuss why people are reluctant to use of the word slave as a noun and instead uses terms such as enslaved people, enslaved Africans, and captives. Listen to a short 5’ summary here. Course Outline Week 1 Key themes: Overview of the subject and chronology; history of the slave trade and slavery in Europe and Africa; what was new about the transatlantic slave trade.

Lecture 1: Introduction

- Art of the day: “Oceans” by Jay-Z and Frank Ocean, in Magna Carta Holy Grail, 2013 - David Eltis, “Europeans and the Rise and Fall of African Slavery in the Americas: An Interpretation,” American Historical Review 98 (1993): 1399-1423 - Confronting the Middle Passage podcast (Sowande ‘ Mustakeem)

Lecture 2: Enslavement of Africans

- Art of the day: “Redemption song” by Bob Marley (1979) - Rediker, Slave Ship, Chap 3 - Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea, chap 2

Seminar 1: Key concepts

- Rediker, Slave Ship: introduction & chap 1 - Vincent Brown, “Social Death and Political Life in the Study of Slavery,” The American Historical Review, 114: 5 (2009): 1231–1249 - Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea, intro and chap 1

1. What are Rediker and Mustakeem’s arguments about the slave trade? How does they want to study it? Why does they think it is an important historical topic? 2. What is the concept of ‘social death’? Who first articulated it? How does Brown use it to study slavery? The Brown article is a nice summary of recent scholarship of slavery and the slave trade: make a list of the references and associate each reference with 4-5 keywords. It will be useful when you decide on a research topic for your essay later in the semester (for example: Ian Baucom, Spectres of the Atlantic: Zong, law, capital accumulation, abolition, poetry, Britain)

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Week 2 Key themes: impact of the sugar revolution and the rise of the plantation complex. Overview of global and local infrastructures supporting the slave trade.

Lecture 3: The sweet and the bitter, or the sugar “revolution”

- Art of the day: A Subtlety, or the Marvelous Sugar Baby, an Homage to the unpaid and overworked Artisans who have refined our Sweet tastes from the cane fields to the Kitchens of the New World on the Occasion of the demolition of the Domino Sugar Refining Plant by Kara Walker (2014) - B. W. Higman. "The Sugar Revolution" The Economic History Review 53: 2 (2000): 213-236

Lecture 4: Organisation of the trade

- Art of the day: Colston (RESTORATION series) by Hew Locke (2006) - William A. Pettigrew, “Free to Enslave: Politics and the Escalation of Britain's Transatlantic Slave Trade, 1688-1714” The William and Mary Quarterly 64:1 (2007): 3-38 - Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea, chap. 3

Seminar 2: Why were Africans enslaved?

- Art of the day: Gates of Return by Julien Sinzogan (2007) - Unchained Voices: intro, Gronniosaw, p. 32-58 - Atlantic Slave Trade, p. xi-xv and 1-26: intro, Eric Williams, “Economics, not Racism, as the Root of Slavery,” David Eltis “Cultural Roots of Slavery,” David Brion Davis, “Ideas & Institutions from the Old World,” and Linda M. Heywood and John K. Thornton, “European and African Cultural Differences”

1. How do the authors interpret the slave trade as a human, political, or economic institution? How do Williams, Eltis, Davis and Heywood/Thornton interpret the relationship between slavery and racism? 2. How did Gronniosaw depict their childhood? How they were enslaved? How they became free? 3. Until the recent discovery of an obituary, the Narrative (first slave narrative in English) was the only significant source for the life of Gronniosaw. Compare these two sources to see what is lost and/or recovered about Gronniosaw’s life Chester Chronicle, dated 2 October 1775: "On Thursday died, in this city, aged 70, James Albert Ukawsaw Gronniosaw, an African prince, of Zoara. He left the country in the early part of his life, with a view to acquire proper notions of the Divine Being, and of the worship due to Him. He met with many trials and embarrassments, was much afflicted and persecuted. His last moments exhibited that cheerful serenity which, at such a time, is the certain effect of a thorough conviction of the great truths of Christianity. He published a narrative of his life. Chester St Oswald's Burial 28th Sept. 1775: James Albert (a blackm), aged 70." Week 3 Key themes: Slave trade & slavery in West Africa; conditions of the Middle Passage

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Lecture 5: West African side of the Atlantic Slave Trade

- Art of the day: Kwame Akoto-Bamfo, In Memoriam: Portraits of the Middle Passage, In Situ, Cape Coast Castle, Ghana (2017) - Atlantic Slave Trade, p. 27-54: Mungo Park, “West Africa in the 1790s,” P.E.H. Nair, “African Narratives of Enslavement,” Joseph c. Miller, “West Central Africa,” Joseph E. Inikori, “Guns for slaves,” John Thornton, “Warfare & Slavery.”

Lecture 6: Conditions aboard slave ships

- Art of the day: Lubaina Himid, “Between the Two my Heart is Balanced” (1991) - Rediker, Slave Ship, chap 2 - Stephanie E. Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora, chapter 3 - Sowande‘ Mustakeem, “She Must Go Overboard & Shall Go Overboard’: Diseased Bodies and the Spectacle of Murder at Sea," Atlantic Studies 8: 3 (2011): 301-316

Seminar 3: Takes place at the XX museum and their West African collections. In preparation, you should read: - Rediker, Slave Ship, chap 6 & 7 - Object biography of a Manilla: Pitt Rivers Museum If you cannot make it to the museum, or if you want to read more about slavery in the Northeast, see the online exhibit http://collectionsprojects.org.uk/slavery/

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Week 4 Key themes: material history of the slave trade.

Lecture 7: Resistance and survival aboard slave ships

- Art of the day: Insurrection! (Our Tools Were Rudimentary, Yet We Pressed On) by Kara Walker (2000) - Rediker, Slave Ship, chapter 9 - Sowande' Mustakeem, ""I Never Have Such a Sickly Ship Before": Diet, Disease, and Mortality in 18th-Century Atlantic Slaving Voyages," The Journal of African American History 93: 4 (2008): 474-496 - David Richardson, “Shipboard Revolts, African Authority, and the Atlantic Slave Trade,” The William and Mary Quarterly 58: 1 (2001): 69-92

Seminar 4: Reconstructing a slave ship

- Unchained Voices: Venture Smith, p. 369-387 - Check the exhibition website and read at least one short essay in the “research” section http://www.melfisher.org/henriettamarie.htm - Browse the website “Voyage of the Slave Ship Sally” http://cds.library.brown.edu/projects/sally/ - Merchants’ letter to Captain Earle 1751 http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/ism/slavery/europe/earle_letter.aspx - Letter from African agent Egboyoung Offeong 1783 http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/ism/slavery/africa/agent_letter.aspx - Extracts from slave trader John Newton’s journal 1754 http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/ism/slavery/middle_passage/john_newton.aspx

1. When did the Middle Passage begin? 2. How were enslaved Africans acquired? What kind of merchandise did traders favour? Where did they get it? What is the guns-for-slaves cycle? 3. Reading John Newton’s journal, do you think a slave ship was a dangerous place? 4. How does Smith describe his homeland? Would you call his Narrative an autobiography? Why or why not? Week 5 Key themes: themes and issues in using first-person narratives to study the slave trade

Lecture 8: Memoirs of the Middle Passage

- Art of the day: “Middle Passage” by Robert Hayden (1945) - Randy M. Browne and John Wood Sweet, “Florence Hall’s ‘Memoirs’: Finding African Women in the Transatlantic Slave Trade” Slavery & Abolition 37: 1 (2016): 206-221 - Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea, chap 5 and 6

Lecture 9: Telling stories of the Middle Passage

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- Art of the day: The Middle Passage: White Ships/Black Cargo by Tom Feelings (1974-1995) - Jerome Handler, “Survivors of the Middle Passage: Life Histories of the enslaved Africans in British America,” Slavery and Abolition 23:1 (2002): 25-56

Seminar 5: Methodology of studies of the African diaspora

- Unchained Voices: Equiano, p. 185-318 - Rediker, Slave Ship, chap 4 - James H. Sweet, “Mistaken Identities? Olaudah Equiano, Domingos Álvares, and the Methodological Challenges of Studying the African Diaspora,” American Historical Review 114: 2 (2009): 279-306

1. How does Equiano end up enslaved? How does he describe the “Middle Passage”? How does slavery in Africa as described by Equiano differ from slavery in the Americas? What factors enabled Equiano to gain his freedom? How unique do you think his experience was? 2. How important to Equiano’s story is his experience with Christianity? How does the author view himself, as an ex-slave or as an Englishman? Does he call himself Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa? How does this dual identity manifest itself in the memoir? 3. Historian Stanley Elkins argued that the Middle Passage psychologically eviscerated the captives (and that the experience of slavery was psychologically infantilizing to enslaved Africans), would Rediker agree with this argument? How does he describe the “fictive kinship” on the ship? Notice that he relies on Equiano as a source in his book, since you’ve read Equiano, do you agree with Rediker’s interpretation? 4. 'The life-history of each of us is caught up in the histories of others’ (Paul Ricoeur). What is Olaudah Equiano’s Interesting Narrative (1789) caught up in? What is the controversy over Equiano’s birthplace? Did the controversy alter the way we read and evaluate his Interesting Narrative? 5. Are Creolization and Retention useful theoretical frameworks to study the slave trade and the African diaspora more generally? Week 6 Key themes: Writing a good history essay. Quantitative approach to the study of the slave trade

Lecture 10: Researching the slave trade - the art of the essay

- Art of the day: Sound installation The Dark created by Braunarts (2007) - Danielle Skeehan, “Deadly Notes: Atlantic Soundscapes and the Writing of the Middle Passage” The Appendix, 1.3 (2013)

Seminar 6: Slave trade database

We’re doing a two-hour workshop on the slave trade database. In preparation, read: - Introduction essays on slavetradevoyage.org> assessing the Slave Trade > Essays > A Brief Overview and > Seasonality in the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade - Atlantic Slave Trade, Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua; Philip Curtin, “A historian’s Recount,” Herbet S Klein, “Profits & Losses, David Eltis & David Richardson, “Achievements of the Number Game,” pp. 55- 86 - Robin Law, “Individualising the Atlantic Slave Trade: The Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua of Djougou (1854)” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 6:12 (2002):113-140

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1. Few topics in the study of the slave trade have provoked more debate than the numbers of slaves transported from Africa. Why? What is the “Numbers game”? 2. What did you learn about the survival of the transatlantic slave trade in Baquaqua’s biography? What is the value of using European sources –accounts of merchants and ship captains, quantitative data derived from port records etc- to understand the slave trade? What are the risks? 3. Practice using slavetradevoyage.org and 1) look up the ship that brought Venture Smith from the Gold Coast to Barbados: it is the Voyage 36067. 2). We know that Mahommah G. Baquaqua was enslaved in what is now western Nigeria in 1845 as a 20-year old and was first taken to Recife in Brazil. Can you find his journey in the database? How did you do it?

Week 7 Key themes: African cultures and identities in the Americas; slave auctions; plantations.

Lecture 11: Life in the "New" World

- Art of the day: “Naming the Money” by Lubaina Himid, (2004) - Ira Berlin, “From Creole to African: Atlantic Creoles and the Origins of African- American Society in Mainland North America,” The William and Mary Quarterly 53: 2 (1996): 251-288 - Read one or more of the following articles: - Flávio Gomes, "‘Atlantic Nations’ and the Origins of Africans in Late-colonial Rio de Janeiro: New Evidence" Colonial Latin American Review 20 (2011) - Peter Caron, ‘Of a nation which the others do not understand’: Bambara slaves and African ethnicity in colonial Louisiana, 1718–60,” Slavery and Abolition 18: 1 (1997); 98-121 - Michael A. Gomez , "Muslims in Early North America " The Journal of Southern History 60: 4 (1994): 671-710 - David Northrup "Igbo and myth Igbo: Culture and ethnicity in the Atlantic World, 1600–1850," Slavery & Abolition, 21:3 (2000): 1-20

Lecture 12: The World of the Plantation

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- Art of the day: “Daughters of the Dust” by Julie Dash (1993)

- Richard S. Dunn ,"Dreadful Idlers" in the Cane Fields: The Slave Labor Pattern on a Jamaican Sugar Estate, 1762-1831" The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 17: 4 (1987): 795-822 - Vincent Brown, “Spiritual Terror and Sacred Authority in Jamaican Slave Society,” Slavery & Abolition 24:1 (2003): 24-53

Seminar 7: Gender and slavery

- Group reading: Group 1 Job Ben Solomon, Some Memoirs of the Life of Job Ben Solomon Group 2 Sibell's story B Group 3 Unchained Voices: Belinda, p. 142-144 - Wendy Anne Warren, “The Cause of Her Grief”: The Rape of a Slave in Early New England,” The Journal of American History 93: 4 (2007): 1031-104 - Barbara Bush, “‘Daughters of Injur’d Africk’: African Women and the Transatlantic Slave Trade,” Women’s History Review 17: 5 (2008): 673-698

1. For each story, pay attention to the ways each person was enslaved, where they were taken in the Americas, or they achieved their freedom (when it happened) and where they went after that. Look at the way gender played a role in their life story: what opportunities were available to them? What opportunities were denied? 2. What are Warren and Bush’s arguments? What evidence do they use?

Week 8 Key themes: Main figures of the abolition movement in Great Britain; why did the abolition movement emerge in the country that benefited the most from the slave trade? Why did it emerge in the late eighteenth century, and not before or after?

Lecture 13: How? Rise of the abolition movement

- Art of the day: “La Bouche du Roi” by Romuald Hazoumé (2007) - Rediker, Slave Ship, chap 10 + epilogue - Seymour Drescher, "Whose Abolition? Popular Pressure and the Ending of the British Slave Trade " Past & Present 143 (1994): 136-166

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Lecture 14: Why? Interpreting the abolition movement

- Art of the day: “The Swing (after Fragonard)” by Yinka Shonibare (2001) - Atlantic Slave Trade, p. 132-146: Eric Williams, “Slavery, Industrialization, and Abolition;” David Brion Davis, “Morality, Economic, and Abolition.”

Seminar 8: Successes and failures of the British abolition movement

- The Zong massacre http://www.understandingslavery.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=373&Itemi d=236 - Somersett's Case http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory/rights/docs/state_trials.htm - William Cowper "Pity for Poor Africans" 1788 B - Petition of Liverpool to the House of Commons, 14 February 1788 http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/ism/slavery/europe/liverpool_petition.aspx - Thomas Clarkson on abolition http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/ism/slavery/europe/thomas_clarkson.aspx - Atlantic Slave Trade, p. 146-175: Alonson Sandoval, “Questioning Slavery’s Morality,” Adrian Hastings, “Black Abolitionists,” Osei Bondu & Eyo Honesty II, “African Opponents of Abolition,” Michael Craton, “Slave Revolts & the End of Slavery.” - Group reading: Unchained Voices: Group 1: Sancho, p. 77-109; Group 2: Cugoano, p. 145-186; Group 3: David George p. 333-350

1. What was the impact of the Zong and Sommerset cases on the abolition movement? What were the key legal arguments in favor of abolition? 2. Did the fact that Sancho and Cugoano (and Equiano) were former slaves shape their arguments against slavery? Did that strengthen or weaken their legitimacy as abolitionists? In advocating for the abolition of slavery, were they more radical than other abolitionists? 3. Why are Osei Bonsu and Eyo Honesty opposed to the abolition of the slave trade? 4. Summarize Hastings and Crayton’s argument about the end of the slave trade and of slavery? What, according to each of them, was the deciding factor? Week 10 Key themes: impact of the 1807 abolition act; transformation of the slave trade in the Atlantic World; transformation of slavery in Africa

Lecture 15: Consequences of the British abolition of the slave trade: Africa

- Art of the day: Chester Higgins, "The House of Slaves at the Door of No Return" (1972). Carrie Mae Weems, "Elmina Cape Coast Ile de Gorée" from The Slave Coast Series (1993). Isaac Julien, “Western Union Series No. 1” (Cast No Shadow) (2007) Read one of the following: - Nemata Amelia Blyden "Back to Africa:" The Migration of New World Blacks to Sierra Leone and Liberia” OAH Magazine of History, 18: 3 (2004): 23-25 - Allen M. Howard, "Nineteenth-Century Coastal Slave Trading and the British Abolition Campaign in Sierra Leone," Slavery & Abolition 27 (2006): 23-49 10 Atlantic Slave Trade 11

- Martin A. Klein, “Slaves, Gum, and Peanuts: Adaptation to the End of the Slave Trade in Senegal, 1817–48” William and Mary Quarterly 66 (Oct 2009): 895-914

Lecture 16: Consequences of the British abolition of the slave trade: Americas

- Art of the day: “Sheol” by Rod Brown (1998) - David Eltis, “Was Abolition of the U.S. and British Slave Trade Significant in the Broader Atlantic Context?” The William and Mary Quarterly 66: 4 (2009): 715-736 - Anthony E Kaye, “The Second Slavery: Modernity in 19th South and Atlantic World,” in The Second Slavery Mass Slaveries and Modernity in the Americas and in the Atlantic Basin, edited by Javier Laviña and Michael Zeuske (LIT Verlag, 2014):. 175-202

Seminar 9: The Age of Revolutions

- Unchained Voices: John Marrant, p. 110-133 - Laurent Dubois, Why Haiti Should be at the Center of the Age of Revolution Aeon (2016) - Podcast on the Haitian Revolution and /or Crash course world history video - Crash course video on the US Revolution 1. Marrant was an itinerant black preacher: how were his critiques of slavery and the slave trade articulated in terms of free-will evangelical Christianity and the Great Awakening? How did he define themselves in a racial context that linked blackness to sin and servitude? 2. Was the Age of Revolutions (U.S., France and Haiti) a turning point in the history of the slave trade and of slavery? Why? Why not? 3. According to Dubois, how did African political and social theories influence the Haitian revolution? Did they influence other revolutions?

Week 11 Key themes: We will discuss two foundational scholars: Walter Rodney’s argument that the slave trade & European exploitation of Africa fueled the growth of capitalism in the West & undermined economic and social development in Africa, and Eric William's thesis that the plantation complex created the conditions for Industrial Revolution in Britain.

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Lecture 17: The impact of the slave trade on Atlantic societies: Africa

- Art of the day: “Akua’s Surviving Children,” by El Anatsui (1996) - Anne C. Bailey, African Voices of the Atlantic Slave Trade, chapter 6 - Stephanie E. Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery, Chapter 7 - Atlantic Slave Trade, p. 87-117: Walter Rodney, “The Unequal Partnership between Africans and Europeans,” Patrick Manning, “Social & Demographic Transformation,” and John Thornton, “Africa’s Effects on the Slave Trade.” - Babacar M'baye, "The Economic, Political, and Social Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa," The European Legacy: Toward New Paradigms 11: 6 (2006): 607-622 Lecture 18: The impact of the slave trade on Atlantic societies: Europe and the Americas

- Art of the day: Hank Willis Thomas, Absolute Power (2003) and Afro-American express (2004) - Atlantic Slave Trade, p. 119-132: Judith Carney, “The African Roots of American Rice,” David Eltis, Philip Morgen, David Richardson, “Problems with the ‘Black Rice’ Thesis.” - Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade on the Americas podcast 15’ History Seminar 10: Reparations

- Henry Louis Gates, "Ending the Slavery Blame-Game" The New York Times - "Jamaican reparations: British taxpayers are not to blame for the horror of slavery" Telegraph - Verene Shepherd "David Cameron, you still owe us for slavery" The Guardian - The Guardian editorial (2015) 1. What is the "blame game" discussed by Henri Louis Gates? Who did participate in the trade? Who benefited from it? 2. How far back do you have to go to understand present-day conditions? 3. What are the proponents of reparations demanding? What are their arguments? 4. Is the idea of reparations new? Do you know any historical precedents? Week 12 Lecture 19: Conclusions and the slave trade today

- Art of the day “The Sea is History” by Derek Walcott - Saidiya Hartman, Lose Your Mother: A Journey Along the slave trade route (2006) - Kevin Bales, "Slavery in the 21st century" (2017)

Where are your monuments, your battles, martyrs? Where is your tribal memory? Sirs, in that grey vault. The sea has locked them all. The sea is history.

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