ISFM 2012: Still an Exotic? Syncretism in a Hindu Insider Movement: K. Subba Rao’s Legacy by H. L. Richard

Editor’s note: Th is article is the revised version of a case study presented at a special ISFM-sponsored track held during the 2012 North American Mission Leaders Conference (Missio Nexus) in Chicago, Illinois. urrent discussions and controversies related to insider movements are overwhelmingly related to issues in the Muslim world. But the dis- Ccussion of insider movements has been deeply impacted from Hindu contexts, where insider phenomena have deep roots. India has produced more notable insider individuals than insider movements, Brahmabandhab Upadhyay (1861-1907) and Kandaswami Chetti (1867-1943) being two early examples.1

By far the most striking insider movement story in church history is the account of the Secret Sannyasi Mission told by Sadhu Sundar Singh (1889- 1929); however there is no historiographical reason to believe that such a mission ever existed.2 A peculiar variety of insider movement developed in the city of Sivakasi in the far south of India starting in the second decade of the twentieth century and continues to the present time, the main peculiarities being that the movement has been predominantly among women and relates in intriguing ways with existing churches.3 Th e movement that developed around K. Subba Rao in Andhra Pradesh, south India, beginning in the 1940s is the best documented and most viable insider movement to have appeared in the Hindu world. Subba Rao was syncretistic in his teaching and practice, and that will be the focus of this analysis of the Hindu insider move- ment that developed around his life and work.4

The Life and Work of Kalagara Subba Rao (1912-1981) Subba Rao’s movement is a specimen of folk religion, and as such there has been little concern within the movement for its history or for the documents H. L. Richard has been involved in ministry in the Hindu world for three it produced. Yet the events surrounding the Subba Rao movement are recent decades and is one of the founders enough that the central incidents can be quite reliably dated. Subba Rao was of the Rethinking Forum. He has published numerous books and articles born in 1912 and married in 1937. In 1942 he experienced a vision of Christ on the Christian encounter with that transformed his life and led to the Jesus movement that continues to Hinduism, and directs the Institute of Hindu Studies. this day.5

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 29:4 Winter 2012•177 178 Syncretism in a Hindu Insider Movement: K. Subba Rao’s Legacy

Both the account of Subba Rao’s in the midst of a vibrant critique of all towards Jesus Christ. Along with these vision of Christ and the ministry of religious traditions. In practice—and emphases the idiosyncratic teaching healing in Christ’s name that eventu- surely this was related to the associa- or philosophy of Subba Rao marked ally developed have been preserved tion of Christianity with Jesus—Subba the movement. It is very diffi cult to with hagiographical rather than histo- Rao’s critique of religious traditions estimate the numbers of adherents to riographical concerns in mind. Subba centered on a critique, almost always Subba Rao’s teaching. Th ere was no Rao wrote a song about his conversion a mocking, of Christianity. It is thus formal organizational structure, and experience and that song appears fi rst no surprise that his early years were as will be noted there was opposition in the current collection of his compo- marked by rather severe confl ict with to baptism and sacramental practice. sitions.6 Stories of the development of the established churches. His fi rst Th e movement developed a slogan of his healing ministry lack time frames English publication in 1958 was “no caste, no creed, no religion,” but and dates but are believable. My re- a deeply critical tirade against the in fact was and is solidly rooted in the search, however, did uncover a blatant church and its ministry, fi ttingly en- Kamma (“clean Shudra” in the caste contradiction in accounts of Subba titled Retreat, Padri! A second edition hierarchy) community. Rao’s pre-conversion experience. Th e released in 1972 suggested that church received story is that Subba Rao had relations had improved. The Question of Syncretism no contact with Christians that might The fi rst edition was couched in Th is paper rather boldly proclaims that have infl uenced his vision in 1942. But language commensurate with the Subba Rao and his movement are syn- in fact he had met the noted Pente- unrelenting attitude of the Christian cretistic, but it must be admitted that costal evangelist Lam Jeevaratnam due syncretism is not as simple a matter as to his wife seeking (and fi nding) relief it seems. Hopefully some razor-sharp under Jeevaratnam’s ministry (Richard critique of aspects of Subba Rao’s 2005:45f.). work will be presented here, and in the Fundamental to any understanding of process syncretism will be shown to be Subba Rao is his reactionary rejection a dull knife. Th ere is room for a great of Christianity and its institutions, and Syncretism is not as simple deal of diff erence of opinion regard- this attitude likely explains why infl u- ing exactly what is syncretistic, and ence from Pentecostal Christianity was a matter as it seems. even when it is agreed that a practice ignored. Within the Subba Rao move- or idea is syncretistic there is room ment there is no traditional account for for diff erence regarding what exactly why Subba Rao fi rst rejected Christian- constitutes the syncretism. ity, perhaps because it is considered an For a simple example, consider the obviously right path. Dr. B. V. Subbam- ritualistic opening of Subba Rao ma, who became acquainted with Subba meetings. A large crucifi x (where Rao after commending his work in her religionists and padres towards me, dripping blood plays a signifi cant part) study of New Patterns for Discipling and my own antipathy for them and is central to the manifest devotion. Hindus (1970:94-97), recounted to me their ill-conceived religious routine Is the crucifi x itself syncretistic? Th e that Subba Rao attended the Lutheran and belief of years long past. Strong participants all remove their shoes. Is church in the village of Munipalle for a words were needed then, to express that syncretistic? Or is the Western time, with others of his caste status fol- my uncompromising feelings in the early days of my ministry for my Gu- wearing of shoes syncretistic? Are lowing along due to his infl uence in that rudev, Jesus Christ. The feelings are both neutral? Does motive (as much society. But he and his friends were not still inherent in me, but my voice has as act) indicate syncretism? Dozens of well received by the Christians of Dalit been mellowed by the open mind of candles are lit at the foot of the cross/ background; there was a fi ght about my listeners. (Richard 2005:49, from crucifi x, and handfuls of incense are who got to sit on chairs and who sat on 8 Rao 1972:5) then burned on live coals held in a the fl oor and the Christians claimed the Nothing like actual cooperation censor. All stand with hands folded church had been built for them and not ever developed between the Subba (palms together against the chest) and for these newcomers.7 Rao movement and the established sing the thoroughly orthodox Trini- By the 1950s Subba Rao had become churches. Th e movement continued its tarian “Holy, Holy, Holy” song that known for his healing ministry. He central focus on physical healing, but is sung by all Protestant Christians was also uncompromisingly focused was also certainly a devotional (bhakti) in Andhra Pradesh. Are these acts syn- on Jesus Christ, whom he proclaimed movement centered on faith and love cretistic? Why? Why not?

International Journal of Frontier Missiology H. L. Richard 179 No sacramental practice exists in the indu devotional movements are not book centered; Subba Rao movement; is that syncre- tism, or just aberrant teaching/prac- the Christian method of cross-referencing tice? Th e Bible is honored in theory, various biblical statements seems odd to Hindus. but hardly in practice. During meet- H ings there is a reading from the New The Book is a dense jungle; Certainly that was the case regarding Testament, randomly chosen without What do you seek in there? the practice of baptism. advanced preparation, with some com- It is nothing but a fence to guard the ments from the leader following the earth-stained sinner. Baptism was the central point of reading. At the close of meetings there The heavenly guru himself told that confl ict between Subba Rao and is a time of “blessing” where leaders the letter kills; traditional Christians. Subba Rao’s opposition to baptism was neither place their right hand on the foreheads Why don’t you leave that deaden- ing load and go forward? (Richard subtle nor sophisticated. of attendees. At times something very 2005:87-88) like intercessory prayer is off ered, but Forgetting the spirit they held onto the some leaders merely pronounce the Before also off ering a critique let me body and got caught in lustful ways; name of Jesus over people (following fi rst suggest an appreciative reading of They clip the sacred tuft of hair, wipe Subba Rao’s procedure for healing). this stanza. Th ere is a sense in which off our forehead marks, and change Th e hand-on-forehead routine seems the Bible is a dense jungle, and there our clothes; They immerse us in water, wipe away clearly borrowed from Pentecostal is a focus on Bible study that leads to neglect of obedience. In such situations our old names and compose new practice. Is the mere pronouncing names. it is entirely appropriate to call people of the name of Jesus syncretism or That, they say, is the way to salvation. to leave “that deadening load” and go acceptable biblical practice? If the O God, if a pig is immersed in the theology behind the practice is semi (if forward. But how does one fi nd the holy river not completely) monistic, is that error, way forward? Surely the way forward is Does it become an elephant king? or syncretism, or both? Often oil or found in a proper reading of the Bible, (Song 9, stanza 2; Richard 2005:92) or at least of the teaching of Jesus? water is blessed and sprinkled or car- Th is mocking of baptism was in ac- Yet this stanza suggests that Jesus (the ried away by devotees, another practice cord with Subba Rao’s wider teaching heavenly guru) teaches that the letter that challenges simplistic assumptions against all ritualism. Song 2 stanzas kills. Th ose words are in fact a state- about syncretism. three to seven provide a good example ment by Paul in 2 Corinthians 3:6, and of this, while also illustrating Subba are a reference to the Old Testament Rao’s Christo-centrism and other Subba Rao’s Syncretism law. Jesus said the exact opposite about themes that will be considered shortly. Th is paper is not a challenge to the his own words, which are “spirit and concept of syncretism, so I will now life” (Jn 6:63). Despite sympathy for Outward cleansing is useless; move to some clearly erroneous teach- Subba Rao’s point, the denigrating of Only inner purity will give me heaven, ings of Subba Rao, at least some of the Bible, which is at least implied here, he said. which are without doubt worthy to be can only be considered harmful to true Only the divine sacrifi ce made on labeled as syncretistic. A cautionary spiritual life. the cross note is necessary, however. Subba Rao Is the way and the truth leading to was not a systematic thinker; hyperbo- Is this approach to the Bible syncre- eternal life. le and paradox (perhaps contradiction) tistic? A strong case could be made for defi ning matters in this way. Hindu There is no use for shadows on are abundantly present in his teaching. the curtain, devotional movements are not book Th ere are also remarkable tensions But he called me to seek the truth between his teaching and his practice centered, and the traditional Christian that is hidden behind the curtain. method of cross-referencing various in some areas, as will be pointed out as Destroying ignorance is true knowledge; part of this analysis. biblical statements seems odd to Hindus. On the other hand, Subba And that cannot be done by rituals, he said. Subba Rao’s neglect of the Bible and Rao’s life and work are marked by a sacraments has already been noted. reactionary spirit (Richard 2005:154f.). Leave the illusion of looking for Th e casual use of the New Testament Th e example of Bible-toting Christians heaven elsewhere; in meetings is consistent with clear who did not suffi ciently manifest the Leaving that illusion, see heaven teaching that decentralizes Scripture. reality of Christ in their lives was more within yourself. (Richard 2005:82f.) Th e third stanza of the sixth song is a likely the stronger factor in Subba Rao’s In one of his few published prose works, good example. problematic decentralizing of Scripture. Subba Rao stated that “Ceremonies are

29:4 Winter 2012 180 Syncretism in a Hindu Insider Movement: K. Subba Rao’s Legacy useless. Th ey are harmful. Th ey mis- by analysis and critique. Song 23 I am the creator and also I am lead. Prayer and worship are the worst stanzas 13-17: the creation; forms of ceremonial” (Rao 1965:9). I am the male form and I am the I am no more in the futility of Subba Rao was certainly reactionary female form; differentiating “I” and “mine.” I am omnipresent and I am being, against popular religion and its ritual- Without me where are you, my Jesus? ism. To Christian friends he affi rmed consciousness and bliss; Now I understand the secret mystery, I am eternal life without birth or that baptism was not a problem if my beloved; death. (Richard 2005:137) accompanied by a change of life Then why the foolishness of (Richard 2005:75, nt. 25). Yet despite worshipping you? I suspect, perhaps even hope, that the anti-ritualism of the teaching, a I forgot myself and I created you (in some of you are wondering at this distinct ritual developed under Subba my place); stage why such a strange person Rao’s own leadership. Th e ritualistic The forgetfulness has gone and should even be studied by orthodox singing of the Protestant “Holy, Holy, knowledge has dawned, my Jesus, disciples of Jesus. Th e answer lies in Holy” hymn is especially striking in I have seen myself in you, my beloved; the last (sixth) stanza of this strange light of the dubious teachings to be I know now that I am the supreme spirit. song 34. noted below. Upon questioning, I was I have begotten and I am begotten; To break down the guard and to ruin informed that Subba Rao himself I have to worship myself, my Jesus; the castle of religion, introduced that song and its regular, That is the total sum of your teaching, To release Jesus who is imprisoned ritualistic use. my beloved; in it, I brought him out by hand and Th e denigrating of ritual and baptism showed him to all; are related to the rather overwhelm- So come, brothers, following (him) is ing dualism in Subba Rao’s teaching, salvation. (Richard 2005:138) where the body is repeatedly consid- ered bad while the spirit is good. Th is Why should such a Th ese thoughts certainly represent perspective is present in the last two syncretism with a pantheistic or advaitic songs quoted above, and often is much strange person even or monistic worldview, yet as the clos- more explicit, as in song 20 stanza ing line above shows it is a completely four and song 27 stanza seven which be studied by orthodox Christocentric syncretism focused on a refer to the body as “a leather puppet disciples of Jesus? life of discipleship to Jesus. It is also a of pus and blood” (Richard 2005:110, syncretism that in many ways is in theory 124). Subba Rao’s denigration of the rather than in practice. Th e comments physical body is particularly remark- against worshipping Christ in the stanzas able in light of the central focus of his above are affi rmed in prose in a strangely ministry, which was physical healing. absolute polarity: “Th ere are only two “Syncretism” does not seem to be an That is the essence of the meaning of alternatives: (1) Living like Jesus so as your life. adequately comprehensive rubric for to become Christ; or (2) worshipping, analyzing and discussing Subba Rao’s I saw you and forgot myself; praying, and do all the rest of things 9 issues related to dualism, denigration In me I saw you, and I become both except living like Him” (Rao 1965:13). of the body, reactionary stances and earth and heaven, my Jesus; Yet nothing is more fundamental to the There is no more the bondage of sin radical inconsistency between teaching Subba Rao movement than the deep and virtue, my beloved. heartfelt devotion and worship towards and practice, matters that nonetheless There is no more slavery to the law. Jesus Christ that is evident in their sing- need to be critiqued. You became me and I became you; ing, particularly the “Holy, Holy, Holy” Th e central area for identifying syn- How can I worship you any more, song already mentioned, which includes cretism in Subba Rao’s thought lies my Jesus? the stanza “Holy Son, incarnate ocean of in a number of concepts that overlap How can you worship me, my beloved? love, saving men” and closes with “Father, traditional categories of anthropology How can separation be between Son and Holy Spirit, God, three in one, (the doctrine of man, not the modern you and me any more? (Richard to Th ee forever belongs the great glory” discipline), soteriology, Christology 2005:117-118) (Richard 2005:139). And there is neither and pneumatology—indeed, every Th is is by no means a singular statement, anything whatsoever in their practice realm of traditional Christian thought. as demonstrated by stanza three of song that suggests a worship of one’s self, nor To begin let me quote some truly 34; the refrain of this song is “My brother anything resembling a worshipful attach- jarring statements, to be followed Jesus kindly taught me that I am all.” ment to Subba Rao.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology H. L. Richard 181 While exhortations to “become Christ” and “worship yourself ” certainly trans- his type of response to other insider movements gress Christian orthodoxy, there are will almost certainly drive them into deeper further problems regarding some mas- sive oversights in the teaching of Subba isolation. A pastoral response is vitally important. Rao. One such is a total neglect of the T devotion; is there a biblical basis to Despite his anti-sacramental, anti-orga- teaching of God’s forgiveness of our ignore fellow disciples of Christ due to nizational and anti-church teaching, a sins, related with neglect of any concept syncretism and error? movement developed that has the marks of atonement. Another is complete of a New Testament ekklesia (church). neglect of the New Testament empha- Subba Rao was ardent in his advocacy For all their reaction against Christian- sis on the indwelling of the Holy Spirit for Jesus, however much we may ques- ity, the Subba Rao movement is warmly as the supreme blessing of the new tion and oppose some of his interpreta- welcoming towards disciples of Jesus who covenant. Th e latter point (and arguably tions. Th is ardent advocacy is standard approach them as humble disciples of the former as well) is closely related to in insider movements, yet somehow it is Jesus. What is Subba Rao’s legacy to the Subba Rao’s strange anthropology (doc- often suggested that insider movements wider Christian world? Even during his trine of man), which might be called are marked by covert or private faith that lifetime, friction with Christian teachings an advaitic (or monistic) anthropology. fails in public profession of Christ. It is and institutions had moderated. Lesslie At times the exhortation to worship obvious that if there is a “movement” Newbigin, certainly not unaware of aber- yourself seems tied to one’s becoming of any kind, there is vibrant sharing of rant teachings, opined that he would wel- Christ, but there is a constant stress faith. Subba Rao was not a Christian and come the Subba Rao movement into the throughout Subba Rao’s writings that avoided any formal association with in- World Council of Churches, although he Christ indwells all things, and it seems stitutional Christianity; yet he was bolder recognized that they themselves would to me that this focus on an immanent in proclaiming Christ among Hindus not desire this (Th omas 1977:124). and omnipresent Christ accounts for than most Christians can ever be.11 the neglect of Christ’s indwelling of his What is the legacy of Subba Rao to a people by the Holy Spirit as a special Th e reactionary element in Subba Rao’s Christian world in light of the stunning new covenant blessing. life must be taken into account when growth of insider movements all across considering a proper response to him the world in the early 21st century? Part Th is is just a sampling of erratic and his movement. It is important to statements that could be quoted and of it is certainly the recognition that refl ect on how deeply the entire develop- insider movements are a conundrum.12 analyzed, but the point is surely suf- ment of insider movements is related fi ciently clear that Subba Rao was a No simple formulaic response is pos- to similar reactions against established sible. An insistence that insider individ- follower of Christ who was syncretistic Christianity, though in my understand- in various ways.10 uals and movements must associate with ing few insider movements are remotely institutional Christianity will almost as reactionary as Subba Rao was. Yet certainly compound the polarization Properly Responding to avoidance of association with Christian- Syncretistic Insider Movements between traditional Christian Jesus ity is pretty much the defi ning mark of movements and these new Jesus move- When I began (and titled) this paper I insider movements. A purely theological ments.13 Th e Subba Rao movement had did not imagine that I would conclude assessment of Subba Rao’s syncretism and has much to learn from tradi- that “syncretism” is an inadequate accompanied by a simple dismissal (or, tional Christianity, but is that a one-way paradigm for analysis of diffi cult is- worse still, rebuke) of this man due to his street? Subba Rao lamented that sues in Subba Rao’s life and thought, errors would only feed the separatist re- and even now I desire that to be a actionary spirit that marked his thought Christians think that they have noth- ing to learn from me, but everything secondary conclusion, with a focus on and his movement. Similarly, this type to teach me. They are too blind to problems in insider movements and of response to other insider movements appropriate responses to such matters. see how Christ is glorifi ed through will almost certainly drive them into a religionless man like me. Religion Th e easiest response to Subba Rao’s deeper isolation and (potentially) error. syncretism is simply to dismiss him is their only concern. Baptism is their A pastoral response to insider move- only concern. Not Christ. (Quoted in and his movement as aberrant and ments is thus vitally important. Airan 1965:89-90) not worthy of any further engage- ment. But, in line with evidence from Eighty years have passed since Subba It seems that a consensus has formed other insider movements, Subba Rao Rao’s life-changing vision of Christ. His that “indigenous churches” need to was a sincere lover of Jesus Christ and legacy to his own movement (and to the be self-theologizing as well as self- pointed many others to like sincere Hindu world) is his Christo-centrism. governing, self-propagating and

29:4 Winter 2012 182 Syncretism in a Hindu Insider Movement: K. Subba Rao’s Legacy self-supporting; does this not surely 7 Interview of April 30, 2002; Subbam- Madras: Th e Christian Literature also apply to Jesus movements beyond ma was a convert from Subba Rao’s Kamma Society. Pp. 207-214. Christendom? Th ere also seems to be community to Lutheran Christianity. Dobe, Timothy 8 a consensus that the Western church “Gurudev” was Subba Rao’s preferred 2010 “Flaunting the Secret: Lineage title for Jesus Christ, meaning “Divine Guru.” Tales of Christian Sannyasis and needs to learn from the developing Missionaries.” History of Religions, 9 Th is idea is expressed in verse song 28 churches of the non-Western world; vol. 49 no. 3. Pp. 254-299. stanza three: Hodge, Charles surely this also applies to Subba Rao In my madness of devotion I 14 1885 Systematic Th eology. Volume 1. New and insider movements. worshiped you and thought the York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. Th is consideration of Subba Rao and worship of your feet Was real love; I vexed you, I wept, Hoefer, Herbert E. his remarkable movement is cer- and I made you weep. 2001 Churchless Christianity. Pasadena: William Carey Library. tainly not defi nitive for analysis of the I worship you no longer, but live phenomena of insider movements. like you and follow you. (Richard Kent, Eliza It might in fact further muddy the 2005:126) 2011 “Secret Christians of Sivakasi: 10 Gender, Syncretism, and Crypto- waters rather than clarify. But theo- It is perhaps necessary to note that I Religion in Early Twentieth- retical clarity that is out of touch with do not consider Subba Rao’s refusal to identify Century South India.” Journal of ground realities is quite the opposite with Christianity or his ongoing identifi cation the American Academy of Religion, as a Hindu as aspects of his syncretism. vol. 79 no. 3. Pp. 676-705. of biblical wisdom. In wrestling with 11 the theory and practice of insider-ism, B. V. Subbamma recounted to me Lipner, Julius J. how Subba Rao would berate Hindus for may we seek and fi nd the wisdom that 1999 Brahmabandhab Upadhyay: Th e Life following Krishna as an excuse for their im- and Th ought of a Revolutionary. New comes from above; “pure, peace-loving, morality, something Christians dare not do Delhi: Oxford University Press. considerate, submissive, full of mercy but which Subba Rao could do as he spoke Rao, K. Subba and good fruit, impartial and sincere” as a Hindu to his fellow Hindus (interview 1958 Retreat Padri! N.p. ( James 3:17). IJFM of Oct. 7, 2003.) 1965 Th ree Letters: Don’t Pray, Become 12 An aspect of the conundrum is related Christ, Man Created God. Vijay- Endnotes to people who appreciate and desire to support awada: N.p. such movements, yet themselves are not and 1972 Retreat Padre. Revised edition of 1 Upadhyay’s remarkable story is told cannot be insiders. Th us these well-intending Retreat Padri! Michilipatnam: by Julius Lipner (1999). See Chetti’s own people (among whom I include myself ), like all Triveni Press. account from 1915 of why he stayed out of cross-cultural workers, necessarily taint as well Richard, H. L. Christianity while following Christ (Chetti as hopefully assist sincere movements to Christ. 2005 Exploring the Depths of the Mystery 1969[1915]). Herbert E. Hoefer’s study of 13 Many opponents of insider move- of Christ: K. Subba Rao’s Eclectic Churchless Christianity (2001) drew attention Praxis of Hindu Discipleship to Jesus. ments stress New Testament teaching on to the variety and vast dimensions of “insider Studies in the Gospel Interface the unity of all followers of Christ, yet their individual” phenomena in south India. with Indian Contexts. Bangalore: insistence on such unity on their own terms 2 See Sharp (2004:63-65) and Dobe Centre for Contemporary in fact compounds the disunity. (2010). A reductio ad absurdum case against Christianity. 14 the existence of the movement is on the sur- I personally have benefi ted from Sharpe, Eric J. face of the fantastic stories told in Zahir 1919. Subba Rao’s anti-religion apologetic, and al- 2004 Th e Riddle of Sadhu Sundar Singh. New though I do not think he arrived at a proper 3 On the Sivakasi movement see Delhi: Intercultural Publications. enunciation of this teaching, he pointed Hoefer 2001:21-26, Wingate 1997:139-147 Subbamma, B. V. me to the neglected reality of the indwell- and Kent 2011. 1970 New Patterns for Discipling Hindus. ing of Christ in every human personality 4 See my fuller study of Subba Rao Pasadena: William Carey Library. (cf. Charles Hodge, God is “present also in Th omas, M. M. (Richard 2005) for biographical details and every human soul” (1885:385)). analysis and particularly for a translation of 1977 Some Th eological Dialogues. Indian the 34 songs written by Subba Rao that are Christian Th ought Series number both the primary source for understanding References Cited 14. Madras: CLS for the Chris- tian Institute for the Study of his thought and the center of the devotional Airan, C. D. Religion and Society. appeal of the movement. 1965(?) Kalagara Subba Rao: Th e Mystic of Munipalle. Vijayawada: N. Wingate, Andrew 5 Leadership in the Subba Rao move- Kutumba Rao & Co. 1997 Th e Church and Conversion: A Study ment is still with immediate disciples of Chetti, O. Kandaswami of Recent Conversions to and from the founder. His immediate successor, Sri Christianity in the Tamil Area of Kesava Rao Chowdary, passed away on Jan. 1969[1915] “‘Why I am Not a Christian’ —A Personal Statement.” In South India. Delhi: ISPCK. 24, 2006, but leadership has not yet passed Pioneers of Indigenous Christianity, Zahir, Alfred, ed. on to a new generation. ed. Kaj Baago. Confessing the 1919 Christ’s Secret Disciples: A Sketch of 6 A detailed study of this song is pre- Faith in India No. 4. Bangalore: the “Secret Sanyasi Mission” in the sented in my study of Subba Rao (Richard Th e Christian Institute for the Words of Some of Th eir Own Mis- 2005:57-77). Study of Religion and Society and sioners. Agra: Moon Press.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology