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Gender, Migration Regimes and Frames of Deservingness: the Gendered Management of Women’S Care Migration from Armenia to Turkey

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Gender, Migration Regimes and Frames of Deservingness: the Gendered Management of Women’S Care Migration from Armenia to Turkey Gender, Migration Regimes and Frames of Deservingness: The Gendered Management of Women’s Care Migration From Armenia to Turkey F. Armagan Teke Lloyd Mcmaster University, [email protected] Gender, Migration Regimes and Frames of Deservingness GENDER, MIGRATION REGIMES AND FRAMES OF DESERVINGNESS: THE GENDERED MANAGEMENT OF WOMEN’S CARE MIGRATION FROM ARMENIA TO TURKEY BY F.ARMAGAN TEKE LLOYD, B.A, M.A. A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Philosophy McMaster University @ Copyright by F.Armagan Teke Lloyd DOCTORATE OF PHILOSOPHY (2015) McMaster University (Political Science) Hamilton, Ontario TITLE: Gender, Migration Regimes and Frames of Deservingness: The Gendered Management of Women’s Care Work from Armenia to Turkey AUTHOR: F. Armagan Teke Lloyd, B.A. (Bilkent University), M.A. (Carleton University) SUPERVISOR: Professor Robert O’Brien NUMBER OF PAGES: V, 338. ii Abstract This thesis investigates the ways in which women’s international migration from Armenia to Turkey is governed by the production and re-production of appropriate feminities and masculinities by macro-level state policies, legal texts and by everyday cultural discourses. Through an analysis of policy documents, legal texts and data collected through interviews with policy makers both in Armenia and Turkey, this thesis shows that gendered norms and rituals are implicated in how states regulate, intervene or simply ignore who are allowed or denied entry. Border regulations are affected and in return discipline the ideas and norms revolving around how the deserving feminine subjects of society should act and think. This thesis demonstrates that in focusing on a South-South migration from the perspective of gender challenges the dominant analysis of International Relations (IR) on migration, which has framed international migration mostly as a question of international security. In contrast, this thesis brings the rich political histories, social contexts and economic concerns – framed by gender, class and racial hierarchies – to bear on the flows of migrant women from Armenia to Turkey. This framework developed here has two important implications for how migration is studied in IR: one, it paints a much more complex picture of state-migrant interactions that goes beyond simplistic security/exclusion claims; and secondly, it allows for a multi-faceted conception of women’s agency. This thesis argues that migrant women develop several methods of managing their identities in order receive acceptance and legitimacy in the context of the gendered regulation of migration by Armenia and Turkey. They actively participate sometimes to challenge their characterization as “illegals”, as immoral mothers and women, and as useless workers. Their relationships with their families, employers, police officers and compatriots are carefully described and analyzed. The findings suggest that migrant women’s experiences are multifaceted and cannot be subsumed under a category of “irregular” migrant. iii Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the generous financial support I received from the Institute on Globalization and Human Condition at McMaster University. I’m also thankful to the Migration Institute of Koc University, who made the fieldtrip to Armenia possible with its generous funding opportunity. McMaster University has provided a challenging and stimulating environment for a PhD thesis to be pursued. I’m also thankful to every NGO on the ground that accepted to share their experiences with me. It was especially difficult to make the initial contacts in Armenia and thanks to the Istanbul-based Armenian newspaper, AGOS, staff who helped to arrange my visit there. Thank you to every Armenian migrant woman who welcomed me as a friend and as a researcher. Without their willingness to share their stories, hopes and struggles with me, the thesis would not have been possible. Especially among them, thanks to Narine, who trusted me, put me in touch with other workers and welcomed me in Armenia as well. They have been the “invisible” heroes of this thesis. They won’t be forgotten. Thanks to my supervisor, Dr. Robert O’Brien, who always laughed at my jokes, even when they were not funny and encouraged me to continue with my work even when I felt down. His comments and guidance have been helpful. Thank you to Dr. Tony Porter, Dr. Alina Sajed, and Dr. Peter Nyers for their engagement and comments on my work. Thanks to my friends in Canada and Turkey, Jessica Foran, Caitlin Craven and Sengul Apari, who made the Canadian winters bearable and who would often commiserate with me about life, death and politics. And finally, thanks to my partner, Morgan Lloyd, who has been with me through ups and downs and who kept me sane with his interesting ideas and knowledge about a wide range of eclectic topics. I’m grateful for his help with the editing of the thesis. iv Table of Contents Introduction: Identifying the Research Problem, Defining Concept…1-30. Chapter 2: Research Methodology and Methods: EnGendering Migration-Regimes, EnGendering Women’s Experience of Mobility …31-69. Chapter 3: Armenia: A Land Where Men Migrate and Women Mother…70-113. Chapter 4: Moral Deservingness and The Role of Motherhood….114-143. Chapter 5: Welfare Regime and Gender Relations in Turkey: …144- 197. Chapter 6: Turkey’ Migration Policy: The Rise of Gendered Migration Regime: …198- 227. Chapter 7: Being Hard-Working, Modern and Loyal: Social Acceptance of Migrant Women in the Domestic Care Industry…228-251. Chapter 8: Self-Management: Emerging Subjectivities and Insecurities…252-290. Conclusion: Importance and Implications:…291-310. Works Cited: 318-338 v PhD. Thesis – F.A.Teke McMaster University – Political Science Introduction: Identifying the Problem, Defining the Concepts Is the international migration of women always met, as some suggest, with strict regulation on the part of receiving states or with the blatant rejection, racialization and exclusion of migrants? What is at stake for nation-states in regulating international migration? In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the patriarchal social arrangements that are inherent within the regulatory regime that governs international migration, and this has involved a critical attempt to rethink migration through the perspective of sexuality and gender (Andrijasevic, 2009; Luibheid 2002; Spijkerboer and Walsum, 2007; Bhabha 2007; Fincher 1997; Benhabib and Resnik 2009). This research has revealed the role of the politics of gender in shaping the practices of exclusion and inclusion that characterize the responses of states towards international migration. It is argued that borders and states are gendered, relying upon delineated roles for women and men to vary opportunities for both (Resnik, 2007; 46; Schrover 2008; Kofman and Raghuram 2015). Feminist engagement with migration politics in various disciplines should inform the gender-blind accounts of migration within International Relations, in which migration is only conceptualized in relation to concerns with authority and sovereignty on the part of states, as if these were gender-neutral, and in which states seek only to exert control over irregular migrants. In this thesis, I, first and foremost, ask how we can differently understand the regulation of international migration of women if we take gender seriously at the macro and micro levels. I also ask what types of political control in the lives of migrant women can be identified if we start from a feminist perspective that takes the voices of migrant women seriously. 1 PhD. Thesis – F.A.Teke McMaster University – Political Science This thesis focuses on the international migration of women from Armenia to Turkey as domestic care workers. It argues that there is a border-crossing transnational migration regime between Turkey and Armenia and that women’s migration is governed by the continuous production and reproduction of appropriate feminities and masculinities by macro-level state policies, discourses and legal structures and by micro-level everyday actors. Through an analysis of primary policy documents, I argue that in Armenia, the state-induced discourses about the appropriate roles for men and women in society, family and the market impact who goes and who stays and under what conditions. The Armenian state, as a sending country, does not have an explicitly articulated migration policy, but it is through creating gender hierarchies, norms and expectations in society that it shapes women’s migration in profound ways. In order to examine how these gendered notions are produced, I engage in a textual analysis of several different policy edicts issued by the Armenian government as well as the cultural discourses concerning gender, sexuality and the nation that are primarily articulated by the Armenian intelligentsia. In Turkey, migrant care workers (both legal and illegal) are seen as essential to the preservation of the gendered and neoliberal economic status-quo in society, and, so long as they remain as submissive workers and adopt appropriate feminine moral norms, their illegality is tolerated by the formal state officials and informal actors such as employers, families etc. I pursue this argument through a careful analysis of secondary resources on Turkey, gender and migration as well as primary sources on migration policy and interviews in which I solicit the views of relevant bureaucratic personnel. As such, what I’m engaging
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