DOCSLIB.ORG

The Anglo-Dutch Relations from the Earliest Times to the Death of William the Third

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Anglo-Dutch Relations from the Earliest Times to the Death of William the Third Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek Tirol The Anglo-Dutch relations from the earliest times to the death of William the Third Bense, Johan F. 's-Gravenhage, 1924 Chapter I. Before the conquest urn:nbn:at:at-ubi:2-15859 CHAPTER I BEFORE THE CONQUEST The Anglo -Saxons — the Germanic forefathers of the present English nation — emigrated from the country between the Rhine and the Elbe at various times during the fifth and sixth centuries; at least , towards the end of the latter century the Anglo -Saxons or English were masters of the land , and from that time dates the development of their dialects , which together form what is now usually called Old English. Yet we read of Low Dutch people in the British Isles long be¬ fore the fifth century , even before Caesar conquered the country, when people who lived in what is now known by the name of Flanders , were compelled by floods to emigrate , and came in sailless vessels and settled in the Isle of Wight and on the neigh¬ bouring south coast , arriving as friendly guests and remaining as invaders 1). Agricola is said to have fought the battle of the “Grampius” — in 83 or 84 A.D . — with the aid of 8000 Hollanders and Brabanders 2). In 285 Carausius was made Admiral of the British seas , which were “sore troubled by the pirates of the Frankes and Saxons ”, and in or before 292 Constantius “building ships to pass over hither 8) first assayled luckily the Hollanders, which had revolted to Carausius”. Holland was “then holden by certaine Frankes ” 4). If these stories be true, we shall find that the continental fore¬ fathers of the Anglo -Saxons did exactly what their continental kinsmen were to do after the Conquest , when we hear of Flemish *) Th. I. IS; with a reference in note 1 to Trioedd ynys Prydain No. 6, The Myvyrian Archaiology of Wales vol. II . p. 58.—Belgae (Jul. Caesar, de Bello Gallico). *) Ann. 35-36. See also Hermes, Zeitschrift fiir Classische Philologie XVI . 553; Pau- lys Real-Encyclopadie in Cohors 251 ff, and in Agricola 139;Tacitus, Agricola cap. 36, where Batavi and Tungri are mentioned. * *) To “Brytain”. — *) Ann. 42. Bense, Low Dutch Element 2 BEFORE THE CONQUEST mercenaries and adventurers in every part of Great Britain and Ireland ; of Flemings who sought refuge in England from the floods , and of Flemish and other Low Dutch pirates harassing the British coasts. Before the Angles and Saxons invaded England , the trade route from the Low Countries to England lay straight across the Ger¬ man ocean from the mouth of the Rhine . This was the route taken by the Frisian merchants who did the import and export trade for the inhabitants of England even before the invasions of the Anglo- Saxons , who followed the same route 1). That there must have been Frisians in various parts of England in those early times is evident from the following place-names : Firsby , East and West (Lin.) 2), Firsby in Spilsby (Lin.) 3), Friesthorpe (Lin.) 4), Fri(e)s- tonin Caythorpe (Lin.) 6), Frizinghall (Yks .) 6), Fryston (Yks .) 7), Frisby -on-the-Wreak (Lei.)8), Old Frisby (Lei.)9), Freston (Stf .)10 ), Friston (Sus.) 11), Frizington (Cum.)12), Frizenham (Dev .)18). It is uncertain whether these names point to an individual settler known as “Fresa" or the Frisian in each case, or to a genitive plu¬ ral denoting “of the Frisians " u ). These names are the earliest known forms. Those ending in “by " must have come into exist¬ ence at the time when or after the Danes , who were sometimes accompanied by Frisians , invaded Great Britain and Ireland ; the others may be of an earlier date , for it is known that Frisian mer¬ chants or traders lived in England in the 8th century , and when, in the days of Liudger at York , a Frisian merchant had killed an Earl , it is said that the other Frisian residents fled from that town ; and if the channel between Scotland and Ireland were real¬ ly called “mare Fresicum ”, as Nennius calls it , this would be evi¬ dence of the early presence of Frisians in those remote parts ;only, the variant reading “mare Frenessicum " in some manuscripts and Camden’s translation “beyond the Frith ” throws some doubt upon it 15). There is further evidence of Frisians in England in the facts that in 855 Danes and Frisians took up their winterquarters in the island of Sheppey in the mouth of the Thames ; that Ubbe *) W. 27. — *) DB . Friseby. — *) 1316 Frisebi. — 4) 1100 Frisatorp. — *) DB. Fristun. — •) Edw. I. Fresinghale. — 7) DB . Friston. — ®) DB . Frisebie. — *) DB . Frisebie. — 1#) DB . Fresetuna; c. 990 Fresentun. — “ ) Edw. I. Fristun. — **) 1259 Fresinton. — 1#) DB . Friseham. 14) Fresing may be for Fresingaof" the descendants of the Frisians,” or it may be Fresingbelonging“ to Fresa or the Frisian.” — l5) W. 27,370. BEFORE THE CONQUEST 3 or Ubbo, dux Fresonum , also called dux Fresciorum, besieged York in 867 with an army of Scaldingi x), as if they had come from the Scheldt country , though it is more likely that they came from the country between the rivers Lek and IJssel and were Frisians; and that in 896Frisians aided the Anglo-Saxons against the Danes. We must not forget that the name of Frisian was sometimes given to leaders who had distinguished themselves with honour in their fights with Frisians 2). There is a story that Hengest the Saxon, on his return out of England , cast up at Leyden a very steep artificial mount , as a place to retire to in case of any sudden inundations 8), and in his “Rise of the Dutch Republic" Motley refers to the “tower of Hen¬ gest" in that town. If this story be true , we might infer from it that Hengest , if no Frisian himself, at least lived among them for some time, though we have some idea that Hengest, as well as his fellow-leader Horsa , are mere legendary characters. The relations between the Anglo-Saxons and their continental kinsmen appear to have been religious as well, for Irish missiona¬ ries laboured among the Frisians of the northern seas in the 7th century 4); Boniface and Willibrod worked in Friesland and other parts of the Low Countries as well as in N. W. Germany in the 7th and 8th centuries , while Willibrod became Bishop of Utrecht . It is of importance to remember that Boniface called to his aid priests , monks and nuns from England , whom he distributed through the various countries 5), and that Willibrod took eleven friars with him, when he went to the continent fl), for it may be through these Englishmen in the Low Countries that were brought about the early literary relations ; for they must have become ac¬ quainted with the learning and literature of the continent . We need only refer to 11.235-851 of Genesis, an OE. poem long attri¬ buted to Caedmon, until Sievers found out that these lines were an Anglicised version of a portion of an Old Saxon paraphrase of the Old Testament , long lost, composed by the author of the He- liand . Portions of the Old-Saxon original have since been found in the Vatican library . This work belongs to the latter part of the 9th century , and the OE. version may have been written by an Old Saxon monk, resident in England , or it may be a somewhat im- *) Symeonis Historia de Sancto Cuthberto, I. 202. — *) W. 197-200, 393. — *) E, 1. 26. - *) Gr . 23. - «) Ch. Enc. - •) deH . I. 73. 4 BEFORE THE CONQUEST perfect translation from Old Saxon by some Old English monk 1). In connexion with these literary relations it is also worth noting that a part of the great 10th century monument of OE. literature, Beowulf, relates events that happened on Low Dutch soil among the Frisians and Franks about the year 520A.D. a) At the same time we should remember that probably the best and most intellectual part of the Low German tribes had settled in England , for how else to explain the fact that England became a centre of learning and scholarship long before we hear of such things in their former continental homes ? In the early years of the 8th century strangers , among whom there may have been Low Dutch students , flocked to Bede’s school of Jarrow 8), and it was in the same century that the famous Liudger, of Frisian descent, was for four years a pupil of Alcuin’s at York 4). The inroads and subsequent ravages of the Danes in the 9th and 10th centuries drove the learned men and learning with them to the continent , where they were heartily welcome among others to Charlemagne, who invited scholars from all parts of Europe to his courts at Aix-la-Chapelle and Nimeguen, Alcuin being one of them . Not without reason did Alfred complain “hu man dtanbor- des wisddm ond l&re hieder 6n lond sohte, ond hii we hie mi sceol- don xite begietan , gif we hie habban sceoldon” 5). The great centres of literary culture in the Low Countries in the 10th century were Li&ge and Utrecht , which latter place owed its importance to Willibrod ; its cathedral school was famous in the days of Charlemagne e). Thus we see how the centres of learning had been removed from England to the Low Countries, which for many centuries remained ahead of England in many ways, as we shall see, in spite of the endeavours made by Alfred to restore learning to his kingdom, among others by sending for the learned Grimald of St. Omer to preside over the abbey which he founded at Winchester, and by fetching, probably from the Westphalian Abbey of Corbay, John the Old Saxon to rule a monastery in the marshes of Athelney 7).
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Resettlement Into Roman Territory Across the Rhine and the Danube Under the Early Empire (To the Marcomannic Wars)*
    Eos C 2013 / fasciculus extra ordinem editus electronicus ISSN 0012-7825 RESETTLEMENT INTO ROMAN TERRITORY ACROSS THE RHINE AND THE DANUBE UNDER THE EARLY EMPIRE (TO THE MARCOMANNIC WARS)* By LESZEK MROZEWICZ The purpose of this paper is to investigate the resettling of tribes from across the Rhine and the Danube onto their Roman side as part of the Roman limes policy, an important factor making the frontier easier to defend and one way of treating the population settled in the vicinity of the Empire’s borders. The temporal framework set in the title follows from both the state of preser- vation of sources attesting resettling operations as regards the first two hundred years of the Empire, the turn of the eras and the time of the Marcomannic Wars, and from the stark difference in the nature of those resettlements between the times of the Julio-Claudian emperors on the one hand, and of Marcus Aurelius on the other. Such, too, is the thesis of the article: that the resettlements of the period of the Marcomannic Wars were a sign heralding the resettlements that would come in late antiquity1, forced by peoples pressing against the river line, and eventu- ally taking place completely out of Rome’s control. Under the Julio-Claudian dynasty, on the other hand, the Romans were in total control of the situation and transferring whole tribes into the territory of the Empire was symptomatic of their active border policies. There is one more reason to list, compare and analyse Roman resettlement operations: for the early Empire period, the literature on the subject is very much dominated by studies into individual tribe transfers, and works whose range en- * Originally published in Polish in “Eos” LXXV 1987, fasc.
    [Show full text]
  • Bullard Eva 2013 MA.Pdf
    Marcomannia in the making. by Eva Bullard BA, University of Victoria, 2008 A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS in the Department of Greek and Roman Studies Eva Bullard 2013 University of Victoria All rights reserved. This thesis may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author. ii Supervisory Committee Marcomannia in the making by Eva Bullard BA, University of Victoria, 2008 Supervisory Committee Dr. John P. Oleson, Department of Greek and Roman Studies Supervisor Dr. Gregory D. Rowe, Department of Greek and Roman Studies Departmental Member iii Abstract Supervisory Committee John P. Oleson, Department of Greek and Roman Studies Supervisor Dr. Gregory D. Rowe, Department of Greek and Roman Studies Departmental Member During the last stages of the Marcommani Wars in the late second century A.D., Roman literary sources recorded that the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius was planning to annex the Germanic territory of the Marcomannic and Quadic tribes. This work will propose that Marcus Aurelius was going to create a province called Marcomannia. The thesis will be supported by archaeological data originating from excavations in the Roman installation at Mušov, Moravia, Czech Republic. The investigation will examine the history of the non-Roman region beyond the northern Danubian frontier, the character of Roman occupation and creation of other Roman provinces on the Danube, and consult primary sources and modern research on the topic of Roman expansion and empire building during the principate. iv Table of Contents Supervisory Committee .....................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • 1.1. the Dutch Republic
    Cover Page The following handle holds various files of this Leiden University dissertation: http://hdl.handle.net/1887/61008 Author: Tol, J.J.S. van den Title: Lobbying in Company: Mechanisms of political decision-making and economic interests in the history of Dutch Brazil, 1621-1656 Issue Date: 2018-03-20 1. LOBBYING FOR THE CREATION OF THE WIC The Dutch Republic originated from a civl war, masked as a war for independence from the King of Spain, between 1568 and 1648. This Eighty Years’ War united the seven provinces in the northern Low Countries, but the young republic was divided on several issues: Was war better than peace for the Republic? Was a republic the best form of government, or should a prince be the head of state? And, what should be the true Protestant form of religion? All these issues came together in struggles for power. Who held power in the Republic, and who had the power to force which decisions? In order to answer these questions, this chapter investigates the governance structure of the Dutch Republic and answers the question what the circumstances were in which the WIC came into being. This is important to understand the rest of this dissertation as it showcases the political context where lobbying occurred. The chapter is complemented by an introduction of the governance structure of the West India Company (WIC) and a brief introduction to the Dutch presence in Brazil. 1.1. THE DUTCH REPUBLIC 1.1.1. The cities Cities were historically important in the Low Countries. Most had acquired city rights as the result of a bargaining process with an overlord.
    [Show full text]
  • Britain and the Dutch Revolt 1560–1700 Hugh Dunthorne Frontmatter More Information
    Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-83747-7 - Britain and the Dutch Revolt 1560–1700 Hugh Dunthorne Frontmatter More information Britain and the Dutch Revolt 1560–1700 England’s response to the Revolt of the Netherlands (1568–1648) has been studied hitherto mainly in terms of government policy, yet the Dutch struggle with Habsburg Spain affected a much wider commu- nity than just the English political elite. It attracted attention across Britain and drew not just statesmen and diplomats but also soldiers, merchants, religious refugees, journalists, travellers and students into the confl ict. Hugh Dunthorne draws on pamphlet literature to reveal how British contemporaries viewed the progress of their near neigh- bours’ rebellion, and assesses the lasting impact which the Revolt and the rise of the Dutch Republic had on Britain’s domestic history. The book explores affi nities between the Dutch Revolt and the British civil wars of the seventeenth century – the fi rst major challenges to royal authority in modern times – showing how much Britain’s chang- ing commercial, religious and political culture owed to the country’s involvement with events across the North Sea. HUGH DUNTHORNE specializes in the history of the early modern period, the Dutch revolt and the Dutch republic and empire, the his- tory of war, and the Enlightenment. He was formerly Senior Lecturer in History at Swansea University, and his previous publications include The Enlightenment (1991) and The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Britain and the Low Countries
    [Show full text]
  • The Worlds of the Seventeenth-Century Hudson Valley
    1 The Seventeenth-Century Empire of the Dutch Republic, c. 1590–1672 Jaap Jacobs he overseas expansion of the Dutch Republic, culminating in the “First Dutch Empire,” is a remarkable story of the quick rise to prominence of a small country in northwestern Europe. Much smaller Tin population than European rivals like Spain, England, and France, and without considerable natural resources, the Republic was able within a few decades to lay the foundation for a colonial empire of which remnants are still part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands nowadays. This First Dutch Empire, running roughly from the beginning of the seventeenth century until the early 1670s, was characterized by rapid expansion, both in the Atlantic area and in Asia. The phase that followed, the Second Dutch Empire, shows a divergence in development between the East and West. In the East, ter- ritorial expansion—often limited to trading posts, not settlement colonies— continued and trade volume increased, but in the Western theater the Dutch witnessed a contraction of territorial possessions, especially with the loss of New Netherland and Dutch Brazil. Even so, Dutch trade and shipping in the Atlantic was not solely dependent upon colonial footholds, not in the least because the Dutch began to participate in the Atlantic slave trade. This Second Dutch Empire ended in the Age of Democratic Revolutions, when upheavals in Europe and America brought an end to both the Dutch East and West India Companies and led to the loss of a number of colonies, such as South Africa, Sri Lanka, and Essequibo and Demerara on the Guyana coast.
    [Show full text]
  • The Polycentric Metropolis Unpacked : Concepts, Trends and Policy in the Randstad Holland
    UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository) The polycentric metropolis unpacked : concepts, trends and policy in the Randstad Holland Lambregts, B. Publication date 2009 Document Version Final published version Link to publication Citation for published version (APA): Lambregts, B. (2009). The polycentric metropolis unpacked : concepts, trends and policy in the Randstad Holland. Amsterdam institute for Metropolitan and International Development Studies (AMIDSt). General rights It is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), other than for strictly personal, individual use, unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons). Disclaimer/Complaints regulations If you believe that digital publication of certain material infringes any of your rights or (privacy) interests, please let the Library know, stating your reasons. In case of a legitimate complaint, the Library will make the material inaccessible and/or remove it from the website. Please Ask the Library: https://uba.uva.nl/en/contact, or a letter to: Library of the University of Amsterdam, Secretariat, Singel 425, 1012 WP Amsterdam, The Netherlands. You will be contacted as soon as possible. UvA-DARE is a service provided by the library of the University of Amsterdam (https://dare.uva.nl) Download date:26 Sep 2021 The Polycentric Metropolis Unpacked Concepts, Trends and Policy in the Randstad Holland Bart Lambregts The Polycentric Metropolis Unpacked Concepts, Trends and Policy in the Randstad Holland Academisch Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof.dr.
    [Show full text]
  • A FRISIAN MODEL Henryk Sjaardema
    THE INDIVIDUATED SOCIETY: A FRISIAN MODEL Henryk Sjaardema Preface It has long seemed to me that the dynamic of human activity is directly related to ecological variables within the society. It is the intimate rela- tionship of-the individual to the requirements of his society that not only channels human energies, but provides a framework for value orientations as well. It is as if society were a vast complex of machinery and man the kinetic force driving it. As machinery falls into social disuse, malfunction and inoperation, man must turn to new or alternative avenues or see his kinetic energy fall into disuse. When the crucial social machinery becomes patterned and routinized a surplus of human energy is made available. The stable society has a way of rechanneling these energies into other roles. Where these addi- tional roles are not present-where energy becomes constricted--social revolu- tions transpire. This study has been directed toward one socio-economic segment of Western man in which the role of the individual has been measured against the ecological requirements of the society. This pilot study is an attempt to probe variables which seem crucial to the rise of the individuated society. Introduction Purpose. To investigate the individuated basis for Frisian society. If the total society can be considered in its broadest sense, as a social configuration which transcends the normal limits of thinking built into political conceptions of the totalitarian state, my meaning will be made clear- er. This social configuration is one which places the requirements of the commun'ity on all levels above that of the commnity's individual constituents.
    [Show full text]
  • The Art Market in the Dutch Golden
    The Art Market in the Dutch Art 1600–1700 Dutch Golden Age The first great free market economy for art This painting is occurred in the Dutch Republic of the 1600s. an example of the This republic was the most wealthy and “history painting” urbanized nation at the time. Its wealth was category. based on local industries such as textiles and breweries and the domination of the global trade market by the Dutch East India Company. This economic power translated into a sizeable urban middle class with disposable income to purchase art. As a result of the Protestant Reformation, and the absence of liturgical painting in the Protestant Church, religious patronage was no longer a major source of income for artists. Rather than working on commission, artists sold their paintings on an open market in bookstores, fairs, and through dealers. (c o n t i n u e d o n b a c k ) Jan Steen (Dutch, 1626–1679). Esther, Ahasuerus, and Haman, about 1668. Oil on canvas; 38 x 47 1/16 in. John L. Severance Fund 1964.153 Dutch Art 1600–1700 Still-life paintings like this one were often less expen- sive than history paintings. (c o n t i n u e d f r o m f r o n t ) This open market led to the rise in five major categories of painting: history painting, portraiture, scenes of everyday life, landscapes, and still-life paintings. The most prized, most expensive, and often largest in scale were history or narrative paintings, often with biblical or allegorical themes.
    [Show full text]
  • Tacitus, Germania, 98 CE Tacitus Was Probably Born in 56 Or 57 CE in Northern Italy Into an Equestrian (Minor Noble) Family. He
    Tacitus, Germania, 98 CE As to the Germans themselves, I think it probable that they are Tacitus was probably born in 56 or 57 CE in Northern Italy into an indigenous and that very little foreign blood has been introduced either by equestrian (minor noble) family. He had quite a successful career in invasions or by friendly dealings with neighbouring peoples. For in former Roman public service, holding both military and civil offices, culminating in becoming the proconsul of the Roman province of Asia, 112-113 CE. He times it was not by land but on shipboard that would-be immigrants wrote a several literary and historical works, many of which criticize faults arrived; and the limitless ocean that lies beyond the coasts of Germany, and in Roman society by comparing them to others. Germania is not a travel as it were defies intruders, is seldom visited by ships from our part of the story, nor even a personal account. Instead, Tacitus drew upon earlier writers, and possibly talked to contemporaries who had been there to world. And to say nothing of the perils of that wild and unknown sea, who compile an ethnographic and geographical description of Germania would have been likely to leave Asia Minor, North Africa, or Italy, to go to (which includes parts of present-day France and Germany), especially the Germany with its forbidding landscapes and unpleasant climate - a country customs and culture of the various tribes who lived there, whom the Romans generally called “barbarians.”1 that is thankless to till and dismal to behold for anyone who was not born 1.
    [Show full text]
  • The Example of the Dutch Republic for American Federalism
    The Example of the Dutch Republic for American Federalism J.W.SCHULTENORDHOLT We may derive from Holland lessons very beneficial to ourselves. John Marshall in the Convention of Virginia 1788. I History is philosophy teaching by examples. That famous saying expresses the eighteenth-century approach to the past better than long explanations. The philosophers and political scientists of the Enlightenment were eager to find examples to justify their actual deeds and opinions. Perhaps the deepest reason for this quest for an imitable past is to be found in their belief in the unity of Western civilization. There was a great chain of being, not only in space, as has been so magnificently described by Arthur Lovejoy, but also in time. The presupposition of such a belief in the cohesive patterns of the past was the conception that there had been, through the ages, a certain uniformity in human behaviour. Man had never changed, that is why history could be used as a model. As David Hume put it: Mankind are so much the same, in all times and places, that history informs us of no­ thing new or strange in this particular. Its chief use is only to discover the constant and universal principles of human nature. The task of the historian was not in the first place to understand the past for its own sake, but, as Carl Becker remarks, to choose between good and evil, 'be- tween the customs that were suited and those that were unsuited to man's nature'.1That is exactly what men like James Madison and his friends were to do during that long summer of 1787 when they drafted the Constitution.
    [Show full text]
  • Maiestas in the Dutch Republic
    Maiestas in the Dutch Republic The law of treason and the conceptualisation of state authority in the Dutch Republic from the Act of Abjuration to the expiration of the Twelve Years’ Truce (1581 – 1621) Wessel Willem Peter Damen 315792 Master Thesis Early Modern Intellectual History Erasmus University Rotterdam Supervisor: Em. Prof. Dr. L. Winkel Brussels, March 2017 Contents Part I – Introduction and Historiography 2 1. Introduction 3 2. State of the art & theory 5 Part II - Reconstructing the legal framework of treason 15 3. Roman law 17 4. The constitution of the Dutch Republic 23 5. Statutory law of treason 33 6. Summary of the reconstructed legal framework 43 Part III – Five cases of treason 45 7. Cornelis de Hooghe (1583) 47 8. Jacob Spensis (1601) 51 9. Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, Hugo de Groot, and Rombout Hogerbeets (1619) 54 10. Jacob Mom, Adriaen van Eynthouts, and Elbert van Botbergen (1621) 67 11. Reynhart van Tijtfort, Rempts ten Ham, and Jorjen Stuyver (1621) 73 12. Summary of the case studies 78 13. Conclusion 84 Bibliography 86 - 1 - Part I Introduction and Historiography Allegory depicting Atlas, Kronos and Historia. Title page to: N. Gueudeville, Le Nouveau Theatre du Monde (Leyden 1713). Print by François van Bleyswijck. Rijksmuseum RP-P-BI-1234. - 2 - Chapter 1: Introduction Waiting for the metro to arrive one summer night in Rotterdam, a line of graffiti sprayed on one of the walls of the tunnel caught my eye. “Question all Authority” – it read in giant red letters. Just below it, this time in black, there was a written response: “Why?”.
    [Show full text]
  • A Short History of Holland, Belgium and Luxembourg
    A Short History of Holland, Belgium and Luxembourg Foreword ............................................................................2 Chapter 1. The Low Countries until A.D.200 : Celts, Batavians, Frisians, Romans, Franks. ........................................3 Chapter 2. The Empire of the Franks. ........................................5 Chapter 3. The Feudal Period (10th to 14th Centuries): The Flanders Cloth Industry. .......................................................7 Chapter 4. The Burgundian Period (1384-1477): Belgium’s “Golden Age”......................................................................9 Chapter 5. The Habsburgs: The Empire of Charles V: The Reformation: Calvinism..........................................10 Chapter 6. The Rise of the Dutch Republic................................12 Chapter 7. Holland’s “Golden Age” ..........................................15 Chapter 8. A Period of Wars: 1650 to 1713. .............................17 Chapter 9. The 18th Century. ..................................................20 Chapter 10. The Napoleonic Interlude: The Union of Holland and Belgium. ..............................................................22 Chapter 11. Belgium Becomes Independent ...............................24 Chapter 13. Foreign Affairs 1839-19 .........................................29 Chapter 14. Between the Two World Wars. ................................31 Chapter 15. The Second World War...........................................33 Chapter 16. Since the Second World War: European Co-operation:
    [Show full text]