Facets of the Crystalline: Study of a Motif 1900-2020 Cliona O’Dunlaing
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Facets of the Crystalline: Study of a Motif 1900-2020 Cliona O’Dunlaing A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Philosophy and Art History University of Essex December 2020 i For Brendan ii Acknowledgments My interest in the crystalline stems from my Master’s dissertation which included a section on Robert Smithson’s Spiral Jetty (1970). I concluded then that Smithson understood the crystalline as a means of resisting entropy, but there was insufficient scope at Master’s level to investigate this fully. This became the germ of an idea, propagated via discussions with my supervisor, Margaret Iversen, to whom I am very grateful. Margaret has pitched questions to challenge me, made suggestions to guide me, and been generous with her time and ideas. I shall not downplay the role of luck, or more accurately, the seizing of chance opportunities, has had in this dissertation. The most crucial was a period of sabbatical in the autumn of 2016 which permitted a lengthy stay in Washington DC. While there, I immersed myself in Smithson’s archive, and visited the Great Salt Lake to witness Spiral Jetty first hand. I am indebted to my partner, Scott Adams, who has always been a willing participant in (countless) gallery visits and expeditions to far flung places. His confidence in me outshines my own, and is the main catalyst behind my seizing (and sometimes, making) opportunities. Thank you to my daughters, Giulia and Sadb Marrani for having patience with me and for being forgiving when my attention has been elsewhere. I am grateful to my family for their support; to Fran, for everything; to Brendan for patiently asking me about my progress and reminding me that the champagne is on ice; and to Cian who has helped with German translations. My close friends, particularly Una and Melanie, have been towers of strength. Una’s robust determination has been inspirational. Melanie has engaged me in numerous discussions about nuanced detail, which have helped me to organise my thoughts and strengthen my arguments. I am indebted to staff in the School of Philosophy and Art History at the University of Essex for creating a rich scholarly environment and for awarding me scholarships for both my MA and PhD. And to my employer, Anglia Ruskin University, I give thanks for allowing time to complete this research alongside my full-time role as Director of Studies. This acknowledgment would be incomplete without mention of my mentor Jules Lubbock. Reflecting on my experience as a student and then a teacher has helped me identify why Jules has been so inspirational to me. Many years ago, Jules was leading a seminar for a group of second year art historians on Masaccio’s Brancacci Chapel frescos (1422-8). Despite being a subject expert, Jules welcomed opinions from all directions. This instilled the idea that no idea can be disregarded without due consideration, and that value is not determined by experience or appearance. iii Abstract In 1908, the German art historian, Wilhelm Worringer (1881-1965) published Abstraktion und Einfühlung(Abstraction and Empathy), a book that would have far reaching consequences. He claimed that the history of art alternates between inorganic and organic forms; from ‘abstraction’ or ‘primitive’ art to Classical, humanist art. For Worringer, the crystal exemplified the inorganic, meaning that, in art history, the crystalline motif expressed a rejection of humanist art. Worringer was not the first to identify the crystal’s symbolic potential. The controversial Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919) had already inspired crystalline forms amongst the Berlin avant-garde in the 1890s. Nonetheless, it was Worringer’s thesis that drove the development of the motif among the new generation of German Expressionists. In early twentieth century work, it symbolised a rejection of classical ideals while retaining a notion of transcendence. It optimistically heralded a new order with some proponents even predicting crystalline landscapes. This utopian vision faded in the Twenties and the motif was largely dormant until Robert Smithson (1938-73) revived Worringer’s interpretation in the Sixties. As an autodidact, Smithson harvested ideas from a variety of disciplines and, in doing so, he evolved the motif, placing it centre stage in several key works. Discontent with Worringer’s time- limited view, Smithson sought to encompass aeons of development. In his mature work, Smithson rejected a traditional artist’s palette, instead manipulating the physical world. Smithson’s use of the crystalline motif reaches a climax in Spiral Jetty (1970) through its interaction with the Great Salt Lake. The work of contemporary artist Josiah McElheny (b.1966) also centres on the crystalline motif, reflecting and evolving its meaning. Consequently, references to Expressionists and Smithson abound. As a skilled glassmaker, McElheny maximises glass’ material characteristics. He uses the crystalline to shatter any sense of the past as a single narrative, suggesting instead a multitude of possibilities. iv Table of Contents Chapter One - Introduction ............................................................................................................ 6 Chapter Two – The Crystalline Motif 1897 - 1921 ...................................................................... 24 Ernst Haeckel ..................................................................................................................... 25 Haeckel’s Influence on practice ......................................................................................... 30 Behrens’ Crystalline Motif .................................................................................................. 37 Wilhelm Worringer.............................................................................................................. 43 The Crystalline – symbol of an absolute ............................................................................ 50 Worringer’s influence on practice....................................................................................... 60 Paul Scheerbart ................................................................................................................. 77 Scheerbart’s influence on practice ..................................................................................... 82 The Decline of the Crystalline Motif ................................................................................... 99 Chapter Three - Entropy and the Crystalline in the work of Robert Smithson .................... 107 Rejecting Humanism ........................................................................................................ 112 The Problem with Perspective and Smithson’s Crystalline Solutions ............................. 132 Landscape as Media ........................................................................................................ 142 Crystals and Entropy ........................................................................................................ 152 Spiral Jetty ....................................................................................................................... 164 The Film ........................................................................................................................... 168 The Spiral Metaphor......................................................................................................... 172 Living sculpture ................................................................................................................ 178 Negentropy, and the suggestion of zero entropy ............................................................. 190 Increased Entropy ............................................................................................................ 196 Chapter Four - Josiah McElheny & Alternative Histories ....................................................... 205 Part One: Kristallhäuser ................................................................................................... 207 Part Two: Infinite Reflections ........................................................................................... 237 Scepticism and Repetition ............................................................................................... 238 Dislocation, Reflection and, Inclusion .............................................................................. 250 Perspective and Infinity .................................................................................................... 259 Crystalline time ................................................................................................................. 265 The Shape of Time........................................................................................................... 273 Chapter Five - Reflections and Refractions ............................................................................. 278 Figure List .................................................................................................................................... 289 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................ 292 Chapter One - Introduction .............................................................................................. 292 Chapter Two – The Crystalline Motif 1897 – 1921 .......................................................... 293 Chapter Three - Entropy and the Crystalline in the work of Robert