416 | Godel | Revisiting 1923 es, aswelltwooftheschool’sEuropean for avarietyofhistoryandtheorycours Architecture. Heisateachingassistant working towardsathree-yearMasterof ton SchoolofArchitectureatOhioState, Addison GodelisastudentattheKnowl The OhioStateUniversity - - represent contemporarytechnology. of architecturetosymbolicallyadaptand and largerculturalforces,theefforts include therelationshipbetweenstyle travel-abroad programs.Hisinterests Addison Godel DAS ERBE DER MODERNE | 417 1 -

- - was - New p. 77. p. Wingler, Hans Ma Hans Wingler, their genre’s sup since —Walter Gropius, April 1924. —Walter Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1969, Press, MIT Mass.: Cambridge, The present enterprise is to understand that 2

it, and Expressionism lived on in the late 20s, there it, and Expressionism lived on in the 81. before Art and politics in the Weimar period: The New Sobriety, 1917–1933. period: The New Sobriety, Art and politics in the Weimar

But while Def Leppard has released more albums But while Def Leppard has released more are consciously fighting superficial acceptance of “isms” and dogmas.” “It is only natural that such an experimental institute is especially sen sitive to fluctuations in the developments of the times [...] But the value of the Bauhaus lies directly in the fact that the masters teaching here The Bauhaus: Weimar, Dessau, Berlin, Chicago. Chicago. Berlin, Dessau, Weimar, Bauhaus: The In “The Intellectual Basis of the Staatliche Bauhaus in Weimar,” reprinted in in reprinted Weimar,” in Bauhaus Staatliche the of Basis Intellectual “The In Willett, John: ria: ria: 2 1978, p. Pantheon, York: 1 a change; in Schlemmer’s words, “in lieu of cathedrals, the machine for living in a change; in Schlemmer’s words, “in lieu of cathedrals, the machine for living […] retreat from medievalism.” retreat as fully as possible without investing entirely in any one narrative. The ism out the door. posed death than short-hands, often at the behest of the newly-born: X has lost all relevancy, there of the newly-born: X has lost all relevancy, at the behest short-hands, often saw Expression Hair metal was done in by Nirvana. And Functionalism is only Y. are less courteous than births—which, while not always clear-cut, often announce often while not always clear-cut, are less courteous than births—which, new “isms” and so on. Demises, if they themselves with manifestos, exhibitions, whimpers than bangs, and so we invent convenient happen at all, are more often In discussing the “demise of Expressionism” we confront the fact that demises In discussing the “demise of Expressionism”

Bauhaus, of Hist’ry In The Muddle REVISITING 1923 418 | Godel | Revisiting 1923 nology: ANewUnity”willserveasacasestudy. circumstances surroundingthe1923exhibition attheBauhaus—“Art andTech 7 6 5 Little Bro 4 as propagandathanprecisehistory. 3 or the Faguswerk job, initially won by mailing every known potential patron. dismissed as “undistinguished and eclectic, [bowing] to the desires of the client,” of his own—or perhaps the customer was always right. Consider his early houses— architecture. Perhaps Gropius was exploring techniques, working towards a style reer shows a sequence of projects that run the gamut of early-20 entrusted with interesting commissions.” tion that “such a position would give me strong backing and the possibility of being available means,” afloat. Ifhewasarhetoricalandartisticchameleonwecanhardlyblamehim. (very complicated)personallifetosupport,andmostimportantlyaschoolkeep to followanyexternal trend.Thisisn’ttodenigratehim;hehadafirm run,a chitect withparticularlong-terminterests—andashrewdbusinessman,happy Gropius, ourstory’sprotagonist,himselfseemsbothaninternally-motivatedar and the discussed ingreaterdetail:the as amomentofdiscursiverebranding.Butfirst,twospecificpointsthatmustbe tive taleservingmainlytogiveFunctionalismcredibilityastheavant-garde. internal, andsecond,withinthenarrative,expression versusfunction—areduc seek todisrupteasydualitiesattwolevels:first,thisbinarybetweenexternal and the socialcircumstancescannotfullyexplain “why the concernsofarchitecture the internalpreoccupationsofan“autonomous,evenautopoietic”discipline?For values,” doesitnecessarilyfollowthattheonlyotherexplanation canbefoundin Banham, Reyner: Ibid., p.29. Ibid., p.44. Isaacs, Reginald: Drost pointsoutthattheantithetical positionestablishedbyPevsner &Giedionismoreuseful But it’s clear that Gropius “sought recognition and commissions through every Mr. Gropius Accommodating The “YourMomentum”: As we’llsee,bothpairingscanbenegotiatedbyunderstandingthesituation If thedevelopmentofBauhauswas wn, 1991. context oftheGermanhyperinflation. p. 98. Gropius: An illustrated biography of thecreatorBauhaus. biography Gropius: Anillustrated 4 A concrete Atlantis: U.S. industrial buildingandEuropeanmodernar U.S.industrial A concreteAtlantis: and originally reacted to the Weimar job offer with the observa qua character architecturecannotfullyexplain “why 5 The progression of his architectural ca ofBauhausdirectorWalter Gropius not “guided bydestinyandblindto this.” This investigationwill th -century German now 7

Boston: 3 ”; - - 6 - - -

- DAS ERBE DER MODERNE | 419 - - - - - The poe Nerdinger, Nerdinger, Zevi, Bruno: Zevi, Bruno: 186. In the end, the commission and his interest in prefabrica 9 34.) see Banham, note 7, or

11 Behrensstil— . Trans. Jacqueline Gargus. London: Academy Editions, unpu London: Academy . Trans. Jacqueline Gargus. 187, also see note 4, p. 26. The non-typological aspects of the 187, also see note 4, p. 26. The non-typological – Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1986, p. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. . Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1971. . Chicago: Of course, Gropius was ahead of the curve in talking about the Of course, Gropius was ahead of the curve 8 . Berlin: G. Mann Verlag, 1985, p. . Berlin: G. Mann Verlag, This gesture paid off when Van de Velde named Gropius as a top candi named Gropius as a de Velde This gesture paid off when Van The architect Walter Gropius: drawings, prints and phtoographs from Busch- Gropius: drawings, The architect Walter 10 p. 11. But it was after the war that Gropius would fully, if briefly, embrace individual if briefly, Gropius would fully, the war that But it was after The 1914 Model Factory, with its equivocation with its equivocation between industrial and Egyptian Model Factory, The 1914 As well, the Fagus building’s ostensibly radical appearance is largely that of ostensibly radical appearance is largely building’s As well, the Fagus Ibid, p. 44. As an indicator for how non-functionalist Gropius was at this point, van de Velde’s indicator for how non-functionalist Gropius was at this point, van de Velde’s Ibid, p. 44. As an Banham, see note 7, pp. 182 quoting Gropius’s January 1911 talk in Hagen, Westfalen. See note 4, p. 25, Ibid, p. 33.

thought at this point, see “Gropius and the 1914 Werkbund Controversy” in Francisco, Marcel: Controversy” in Francisco, thought at this point, see “Gropius and the 1914 Werkbund theories the ideals and artistic Weimar: Gropius and the creation of the Bauhaus in Walter of its founding years 10 11 a thorough investigation of Gropius’s Endell. For alternate choice of architects was August building can be largely explained as explained building can be largely tics of Neo-Plastic architecture blished, 9 Winfried: Reisinger museum 8 chitecture, 1900–1925. was a magistrate in Alfeld. (See came through networking: Gropius’s brother-in-law Expression. Disoriented by war and romantic headaches, he searched hopelessly Expression. Disoriented by war and romantic crowd of the Arbeitsrat für for work and fell in with the rougher Expressionist artist.” date for his own replacement in Weimar. aesthetics, reflects this balance. In the Werkbund conference, Gropius would pay Werkbund aesthetics, reflects this balance. In the “freedom for the de Velde’s and Van homage both to Muthesius’s standardization architectural virtues of “light, air and cleanliness,” architectural virtues of “light, air and tion seems genuine and enduring. the decision to switch halfway through the project to this unknown architect, who halfway through the project to this the decision to switch on in as an expert motives” to establish himself also had “purely professional dustrial building. an American “Daylight Factory,” a type established by 1903 and admired by the a type established by 1903 Factory,” an American “Daylight for a more American look explains Reyner Banham, the client’s desire client. For 1919. Fig. 1: Feininger, program, Fig. 1: Feininger, 420 | Godel | Revisiting 1923 17 16 purchase ofanoldteakboat. puts thelietocharmingstory that thehousedesignwasdrivensolelybyclient’srecent unbuilt Gropius/Meyerlumberfacility, evenmoreemphaticallywooden thanthehouse,which and loansfortheschool,and,later, fundingfortheHausamHorn.Hewasalso theclientforan Bátki. NewYork: CentralEuropeanUniversityPress,1995,p. 15 14 13 German architecture. 12 practice theircrafts. can alsobeexplained asGropiusthemagnanimousteacherlettinghisstudents younger generationdelightsincarvingitsideaslogs.” feld, withtimberbecoming“ Gropius’s 1920essayin of theclient:alumbermagnateandcrucialfinancialsponsorBauhaus. read asbothalastmanifestationofthisExpressionistphase,andcelebration imitating thepersonnelchangesatBauhaus.) explain larger shifts inarchitecture—unlesstheentireworldwasbreathlessly rehashing thegreatItten/Gropiusbattle.Thoughthrilling,itistooparticularto against themysticspiralsofJohannesItten.(Incidentally, Iwillrefrainfrom of abiggerchangeinthearts 1919, hewasalreadyframingExpressionismasmerelyoneofthe“firstsymbols” possible kingdoms,refusingtoinhalethedreamyvaporstoodeeply. ByDecember cultic buildings.” program thusimaginestheproductionofUtopianprojectsfor“communaland seek “thecrystallineexpression ofman’snoblestthoughts.” Kunst. ThiswastheGropiuswhowouldcallutility“thecurseofthisage”and

Pehnt, Wolfgang: Posener, Julius: See note4,p.72. See note13,p.111. See note13,p.111; See note4,p.86. In anycase,thetimber From Schinkel to the Bauhaus: five lecturesonthegrowthofmodern the Bauhaus:five From Schinkelto 13 Expressionist architecture. Expressionist architecture. ButwhileGropiusjoinedtheGlassChain,hepublishednoim Forgács, Éva: New York: G.Wittenborn,1972,p. 17 Butalloftheabovewouldbecomeawkwardquickly, as Der Holzbau Gesamtkunstwerk the 14 , anditwasn’tlongbeforehesideddefinitively The Bauhausideaandpolitics. buildingmaterialofthepresentday,” as“the readslike anadvertisementforSommer New York: Praeger, 1973,p. ofthe 46. 102. Sommerfeldprovidedland

Sommerfeld Housecanbe 16 Inthislight,thehouse haus Exhibition,1923. Promotion fortheBau fig. 2:GerhardMarcks, 12 ThefirstBauhaus 107. Trans.John - -

15 -

DAS ERBE DER MODERNE | 421

- 20 - - - - - traded for every Cambridge University . Ed: Gerald Feldman, et al. . Ed: Gerald Feldman, An observer in 1923 com 21 Papiermarks 10). Culture and inflation in Weimar Ger Culture and inflation in Weimar Widdig, Bernd: 386. The inflation ended in November 1923—abruptly, “like “like 386. The inflation ended in November 1923—abruptly, 11. – 110 Economics and politics in the Weimar republic. Economics and Weimar politics in the Die Deutsche inlfation: eine Zwischenbilanz

57. 19 Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001, p. Berkeley: 18 21. – Artists and architects were among those particularly hard-hit, as their pay Artists and architects were among those “In AIt Week Will Be Worth Only Half”: The German Hyperinflation Generosity to students, incidentally, also covers the Haus am Horn. This signa This Horn. am Haus the covers also incidentally, students, to Generosity See note 13, p. 116. Balderston, Theo: Balderston, Theo: Forgács, note 15, p. Forgács, L.: “Economic interest, social attitudes, and creditor ideology: popular re Hughes, Michael

many. many. 21 Press, 2002, p. sponses to inlation.” 1982, p. de Gruyter, Walter New York: a dream or a collective hallucination” ( 18 19 20 adjusted slowly and investment in buildings was low. adjusted slowly and investment in buildings than bricklayers—school directors less plained that architects were paid less the war ended) to “about one cent” (when the inflation was halted in late 1923). image of this bizarre period—wheelbarrows of day goods—only hints at the intensity and duration of this economic disaster, when the paper assets of Germany went from a value of 200 billion Marks (when For the majorFor challenge faced by Gropius in theperiod Weimar was neither Expressionism nor any of its avatars, but the infamous inflation. The signature statement that “your momentum, even if it’s madness, is the spirit of our exhibi statement that “your momentum, even ideologue but of a teacher and tion”; these are the words not of a functionalist peacemaker. ture piece for the 1923 exhibition would seem like a dream project for the school’s a dream project for like would seem exhibition ture piece for the 1923 when it became clear he relinquished control to Muche architect-director—but by the latter’s design. Consider Gropius’s that the students were more excited error.” 1920 aesthetics “an atavistic whiter pastures and called craft Gropius moved on to Fig. 3: Sommerfeld House, Fig. 3: Sommerfeld House, 422 | Godel | Revisiting 1923 is blamedforthecancellationofatleastSommerfeldofficecomplex, theKal than janitors! 30 29 28 27 26 p. 35.Thecalculationhereapproximates theOctober1919values byinterposition. and Wingler, note1,p.26.Ahelpfultableofinflation valuescanbefoundinBalderston,note21, ground oftheBauhaus.” 25 24 (Nerdinger, note7,p.68). times listedasavictimofinflation,butitappearstobemorecase ofold-fashionedgrifting 23 22 and Thüringen—canbelinked totheinflation.Themiddleclass,“hopingfora inflation. the of months climactic the in place took which expo, the visit easily more could currency) strong had notes, mark 2-million and 1 design to er Bay Herbert for opportunity the beyond inflation, the to upside any was there If 1922. December in time, possible worst the at dismissed be to had and Bauhaus the of slander public a in joined manager financial school’s the miseries, the to creations. its for outlets industrial profitable establish to begun just will beworthonlyhalf.” instruction: “Pleaseextricate therestofmoney[…]verysoon;inaweekit family heirlooms,includingNapoleon’ssilvertableservice,withthedesperate to keep pace. budget wouldhavehadtoadjustfrom163,000marks1.13 would havebeenworthoneten-thousandthofapenny;theoriginalproposed tion, beginningSummer’22,theonemillionmarksGropiushadraisedin1919 amounts toonlyabout1/3¼”oftheprewarworth.” Bauhaus budgethadtotake thisintoaccount,notingthat“thevalueofmoney ater wasrescuedbythelocally-basedZeissconglomerate. gone thesameroutebutforinterventionofSommerfeld,whileJenaThe lenbach house,andthe ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� See note2,p.82. Forgács, note15,pp.81– See note1,p.5. Hardly theonlyoneinthosedays! SeeBalderston,note21. Letter fromWalter Gropius toLilyHildebrant,August 1922,inseenote4,pp.96 For Bauhausfiscalfiguresseenote 4,pp.83,96,aswell����������������������������� Letter ofGropius,February 28,1919. (seenote1,p.26.) See note4,pp.73 Widdig, seenote20,pp.181–182. But eventheimpetusforshow—pressurefromgovernmentsinW experiment curious a been always Fiscally,had school the Pronounced butnotunprecedentedinflationbeganwiththewar. Theearliest 25 22 NowonderGropiussenthisloverLilyHildebrantabroadtosell Gropius,anarchitect – 75 and114, ��������������������������������������������������������� Bauhaus 1919–1928. 82. Siedlung 26

Forgács, note15,p.������������������������������������� for the’23expo. TheHausamHornwouldhave and New York: TheMuseumofModernArt,1938,p. 30 aschooldirector, felttheheat:inflation it was that foreign visitors (who still still (who visitors foreign that was it 102.ThePhilosophyAcademy issome Dorner, Alexander: “Theback 24 Butafter thehyperinfla 23

quadrillion 27 —and it had only only had it —and 28 – Adding Adding 97. marks eimar - 18 - - - - 29 -

DAS ERBE DER MODERNE | 423 -

- 32

38 Of ; that it 37 33 , the landmark Architecture and politics The Gropius-Itten clash 39. Even Feininger, in a letter of in a letter 39. Even Feininger, 36 – Art Gallery of New South Wales, Art Gallery of New South Wales, the ‘widows and orphans,’ the house- real goods, which in inflation While the debates over the Bauhaus While the debates 35 rentier, Lane, Barbara Miller: Sachwerte, might indeed have been annoyed by the kite-fly have been annoyed might indeed 31 but 74. Gropius was also not enthusiastic about exhibiting so soon, was also not enthusiastic about exhibiting 74. Gropius – 42. 2nd. ed. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985 2nd. ed. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, Sachlich . They only grew angrier after the inflation’s end, as their assets the inflation’s end, after They only grew angrier Two masters of the Weimar Bauhaus. Two masters of the Weimar 34

39 budget But in 1923, the Bauhaus would try to secure continued funding through See Forgács, note 15, pp. 70 See Forgács, See note 1, p. 4. Widdig, note 20, pp. 50, 91. See Balderston, note 21, p. 55: “It was the small See Balderston, note 21, p. 55: “It was in response to political-science reading of the party shifts 20, for a thorough See Hughes, note note 15, p. 47. Forgács, There was a food shortage, and the town that gave the Weimar Republic its epithet was not town that gave the Weimar There was a food shortage, and the See “The Controversy over the Bauhaus,” in Draffin, Nicholas:

realities. 38 39 36 37 but as the school’s director could not help but recognize the pressing political and economic 34 owners, whose wealth was least diversified, who probably suffered most.” 35 inflation. Lane covers them well from the perspective of the Bauhaus. 33 1918–1945. in Germany, reading. study of this period and absolutely essential 32 15, pp. 38 note See Forgács, eager to host constitution-drafters. p. 34). relief to see them go (see note 1, May 1919, expressed 31 1974, p. New South Wales, thinking connoted safety andUnlike security. theirpaper valuemoney, would not evaporate. course, the budget crunch kept the school from securing needed equipment, and much of the “industrial” product at the ’23 expo had been handcrafted. But they existed not just the exhibition of objects proving its economic worth. was largely over this issue of for-profit production, which Itten opposed. cited its political connections and un-German art, the issue on the table remained and un-German art, the issue cited its political connections the school’s political redress. in the Landtag would and the resultant rightward shift had not been restored, Bauhaus out of Weimar. ultimately force the reignited in ‘22 may be explained by the fact that these retirees were in the social retirees were in by the fact that these in ‘22 may be explained reignited pensions, rents, or invest inflation. Living on paper-money group hardest-hit by reason and sought livelihoods evaporating for no clear ments, they saw their ing artists invading their community, hot on the heels of the National Assembly. on the heels of hot invading their community, ing artists 1920 died down by early the Bauhaus had controversy over But the initial peaceful retirement in Weimar” peaceful retirement 424 | Godel | Revisiting 1923 all overagaininsidetheBauhaus.” (seenote12,p.47). “the roadfromArtsandCrafts toIndustrialDesign,already measuredin1907,hadtobewalked 47 tecture, unlesstherestofworld wassetonimitatingthepersonnelchangesatBauhaus. of thewarbetweenfunctionandexpression, itistooparticulartoexplain larger shifts inarchi 46 German state,1890–1920. chose toacknolwedge. the school’sinstructionalmodelsowedmoretootherapplied-artsschools thantheBauhaus Deutsche Bauzeitung 45 44 43 structures.” to return to the days of patronage, when artists and workers “were well integrated into the social 42 planning, etc. New York: St.Martin’sPress, 1997, 41 evolve.” (Seenote13,p.133) or asanerrorthathadbeencorrected;forhimitwasacontinuousprocesswhichneedsmust marize theperiod:“[He]didnotregardExpressionismasastylisticphasethatwasfinished, 40 its naturalrootsinAlfeldandCologne? the flatroof. case whenhetriedtoconvinceconservativesofthewell-heeledGermanhistory on evenlonger-term developments—thoughGropiusmighthaveoverstated his ready presentin1919. size thecontinuityinotherdirection,callingoutreferencestoindustryal revision” oftheoriginalBauhausmanifesto. Bauhütte. tion ofmastersandapprentices,eventhenameBauhaus,suggestivemedieval through thearts,suspicionofuntrammeledurbanism certain ExpressionistthemespersistedintheBauhaus:perfectibilityofman ers continuedtopursueit,often seekingsynthesiswithfunctionalism. Expressionism didnotvanishin1923.Poelzig, Scharoun,Mendelsohn,andoth

Guttsman, W. L.: “Interlude” commentbyWingler(see note1,p.3).ThisreadingisalsoimpliedbyPosener: I willrefrainfromrehashingthegreat Itten/Gropiusbattle.Whileitmaypresent amicrocosm Lane (seenote33,p.134),citingGropius, Walter. See note4,p.70. See note1,p.xviii. See note 12, p. 29. Wolff points out that this nostalgia was also economic in nature: the dream is Pehnt’s So wasExpressionismmerelyan“interlude”separatingfunctionalismfrom But something So Winglercharacterizesthe“newunity”asmerelyan“extension andpartial Expressionism of Deaths Many The Vaudeville”: and Literariness Into “Absorbed Expressionist Architecture Expressionist 42 Wolff, Janet: 45 Art for the workers: ideology and the visual artsinWeimar ideologyandthe Art fortheworkers: Germany had LX (1926),pp.188 Maciuika, JohnV.: The social production of art. 44 changed,besidesrhetoricandfaculty. New York: CambridgeUniversityPress,2005, Andofcourse,muchabouttheBauhausfollowedthrough p. 76,addressestheExpressionistpreferenceforgarden-city developsthisthread.HisremarksonMendelsohnsum – Before theBauhaus:architecture,politics,and 192. Inarelatedvein,Maciuikapointsout,also, that 47 Chronologically, Expressionismdoes 43 “Das FlacheDach:EineEntgegnung.” Gropius’slaterreflectionsempha 2nd ed. New York: NYU Press, 1993, p. 11. 41

, theguild-ishorganiza 46 pp 293-294. 40 Aswell, - - . - - - - DAS ERBE DER MODERNE | 425 - - - - - And it’s

So what 48 55 . 50 12.3 (1980): pp. Expressionist ar Expressionist 49 Having gestated in a Having gestated in but Expressionists but Expressionists 51 53 AA Quarterly 102. The Expressionists did not Sozialistische Monatshefte. 54 Filler, Martin: “Fantasms & fragments: Expressionist Martin: “Fantasms Filler, There were some gestures to practical politics—Taut to practical politics—Taut There were some gestures 71.1 (1983): pp. 102–113, here p. 52 75. Concerning taboo-shattering, Zevi called Expressionism “the most – “For himself he desired only shelter, food and clothing such as every worker food and clothing such as every worker himself he desired only shelter, “For 16. – Art in America He cites Taut’s 1919 “Der Sozialismus des Kunstlers” in 1919 “Der Sozialismus des Kunstlers” He cites Taut’s Leftist historians push this analysis further, suggesting that Expressionist suggesting analysis further, historians push this Leftist Despite the evocative name of the Arbeitsrat für Kunst, the group avoided tak name of the Arbeitsrat für Kunst, Despite the evocative 17, here pp. 14 See Widdig, note 20, particularly the introduction. He quotes (p. 7) a period observer who See Widdig, note 20, particularly the 73 See note 41, pp. Filler borrows Hitchcock’s bounding dates for Expressionism (“the years around 1920”), cit Filler borrows Hitchcock’s bounding Ibid., p. 102. period Willett also credits Gropius’s brief Expressionist and note 45, p. 295. See note 4, p. 62, Whyte, Iain Boyd: “The politics of expressionist architecture.” Whyte, Iain Boyd: “The politics of expressionist Ibid., p. 14. Quotes from Landauer. See note 41, p. 83. –

������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� dancing [...] nude dancing [...] occultism and psychics—gambling passion [...] jazz and drugs....” 55 (Zevi, see note 8, p. 6) epic antitraditional sedition of the century.” had.” 54 recognized “The crazy image of a hellish carnival comes to mind [...] Wild gluttony [...] Excessive 51 13 52 53 to the war, which “for some years [...] stimulated his visionary idealism at the expense of his stimulated his visionary idealism at the expense which “for some years [...] to the war, note 33, p. 295 concerning the antagonism to hitherto dominant practical side.” See also Lane, Wilhelmine culture. architecture.” 49 50 48 ing this convenient historical bracketing. Liebknecht-Luxembourg murders—showed artists, in Willett’s words, that “ratio murders—showed artists, in Willett’s words, that Liebknecht-Luxembourg than they had thought [...] and their own nalism and militarism were [...] stronger futile.” Those who had imagined an easy wartime hopes correspondingly more politics were not merely vague, but tragically optimistic. A series of bloody set politics were not merely vague, but tragically and the and the Ruhr, Bavaria, in Hungary, uprisings backs for the Left—failed became mainstream in the delirium of the inflation. became mainstream in the delirium of the sidelines of electoral politics. have a policy platform, and stayed on fulfillment of the people.” culture, the adoption by artists of proletarian once urged shattering taboos. These practices were chiefly interested in opening minds, on to the utopian-socialist ideas of Gustav Landauer: Devoid of class politics, this ideas of Gustav Landauer: Devoid on to the utopian-socialist greatness, [and] the kings fighting for beauty, theory imagined artist-philosopher ing specific stances: “[we] are not attached to any party.” ing specific stances: dream, Expressionism had latched revolution seemed a far-off period when actual chitecture spoke to those, like Gropius, who felt that Imperial society had led the Imperial society Gropius, who felt that like to those, spoke chitecture was out.” path, who sensed “that the old stuff country down the wrong architecture? the positive values of Expressionist was “in”? What were true that Expressionism, in architecture at least, was galvanized by the Great was galvanized at least, Expressionism, in architecture true that of the world,” of the “shattered vision a representation As War. seem to be “in between”—the war and the stabilization of the economy war and the stabilization “in between”—the seem to be 426 | Godel | Revisiting 1923 sour-grapes observationthatforthetrueartist,“rulinghasonlycosmicworth.” transition toatimeofmedievalcooperativismweredisillusioned; Germany 1919–1933 62 61 deal withapublisherexplicitly antirevolutionaryinterests. 60 59 end ofanavant-garde,”isparticularlyinformative. the architectureofactivism. 58 57 serve theavant-gardenotionofartatforefrontrevolutionary politics.” pressionism’s] fatefulhistoryduringtherevolutionhaddestroyedconfidence initsabilityto Revolution inGermany, 1918-19. 56 with politics: But forartists,theproblemseemstohavehadmoredowithcommercethan ing Expressionismtothecompromised,centristSocialDemocraticgovernment. new establishmentandthuslosingitscredibility. ThislinefollowsLukács inlink limited. carried onitscorrespondence,sothistheory’sapplicationtoarchitectureseems However, itwas

Michalski, Sergiusz: See Ibid., p.227. Ibid., p.223.Weinstein alsopointsout(p.225)thatKleethen went ontosignapromotional Ibid., p.16.For athoroughtreatment ofthismaterial,seeWhyte,IainBoyd: See note51,p.16. See note2,p.48. Seealso poster, nonightclubmanageswithoutexpressionism.Itisloathsome.” “Expressionism todayhasitsGlassPalace. Ithasitssalon.Nocigarette “Absorbed intoliterarinessandvaudeville.” However, weoughttobemorethancuriositiesforrichsnobs.” “Naturally apointedlyindividualisticartis[...]capitalistluxury. bourgeoisie?” “Aren’t we,likebeggars,dependentonthewhimsofart-collecting Another take holdsthatExpressionismdiedofitsownsuccess,becomingthe Weinstein, note56,p.21. after . Köln:Taschen, 1994,p. New objectivity: painting, graphic artandphotography inWeimarNew objectivity:painting,graphic thesepurportedlydisillusioningeventsthattheGlassChain Weinstein, Joan: London: CambridgeUniversityPress,1982.ChapterXXIII,“The Chicago: UniversityofChicagoPress,1990,pp.������������ The endofexpressionism:artandtheNovember 15. Michalskielaborates:“Evenprovincial bars —Ludwig Meidner, painter/writer, 1919. —William Hausenstein,critic —Paul Klee,May1919 56 Bruno Taut and henceTaut’s —Bruno Taut 3 – 4: “[Ex - 57 58 - 62 61 60 59

DAS ERBE DER MODERNE | 427 - - - - The - - 65 trying to was “the new estab was and Gropius 64 66 However, even acknowledging the parallels, the even acknowledging the parallels, However, 63 The usual suspects of stylistic “influence” apply: Le Corbusier, Arts and apply: Le Corbusier, The usual suspects of stylistic “influence” In any case, we run into another problem historically: How do we square this into another problem historically: How In any case, we run That is to say, there are two wildly different accounts of what happened. Briefly: Van Doesburg Doesburg Van there are two wildly different accounts of what happened. Briefly: That is to say, For a much more developed critique is directed to Kari Jormak along these lines, the reader For See note 2, p. 54. to which I am unable to do justice art is also a part of this mix, one Revolutionary Russian

�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� winning either dozens of devoted followers, or a tiny handful of bored passersby. He left in early He left winning either dozens of devoted followers, or a tiny handful of bored passersby. or because he hated artistic freedom. in Paris 1923, either because he was planning an exhibition behind galvanized the Bauhaus towards new heights of artistic In any case, the ideas he left Gropius’s handling of the old Weimar art school faculty. In any case, he must have recalled Itten, art school faculty. Gropius’s handling of the old Weimar thrilled and the prospect of yet another sectarian leader within the school does not seem to have studio, began giving his own, free lectures on De Stijl from a local Doesburg Van the director. had met and impressed Gropius and particularly Adolf Meyer in 1919 or 1920. Finding insuf Adolf had met and impressed Gropius and particularly all ficient response to De Stijl among the Dutch middle class, he was either invited, or not at where Meyer arranged lodgings for him. He very quickly alienated invited, to come to Weimar, as most of the faculty with a heavy-handed top-down approach that resembled nothing so much 65 here. 66 63 to appear in this very volume. ka’s remarks on the subject, expected 64 and dance cafes were decorated around 1920 with indentations and facets. Yet this very widening with indentations and facets. Yet and dance cafes were decorated around 1920 mere stylization.” of its impact led to its being downgraded to [...] catalyst. De Stijl’s rigor and clarity could have made it a natural choice for any catalyst. De Stijl’s rigor and clarity could muddled this is inextricably one disgruntled with Expressionism; unfortunately, involved. in the particular history of the personalities de-compositional asymmetries of De Stijl, absent in the earlier works of Gropius de-compositional asymmetries of De Stijl, could be the last crucial Doesburg, of Van in the person but present in Weimar Crafts, industrial buildings, Chicago, Wright, prewar Gropius, postwar painting, Wright, Chicago, industrial buildings, Crafts, Loos’s enemy Josef Hoffmann, Schinkel. Adolf Loos, holidays in Spain, Adolf lished school” for profitable consumer goods by 1919, lished school” for profitable goods, why would capacity to produce profitable consumer showcase his school’s move? was functionalism the next he not stick with Expressionism? Why vision of profiteering Expressionism with our knowledge of the desperate Gropius Expressionism with our knowledge vision of profiteering his school’s doors open? If expressionism trying to keep social configuration, it’s hard to believe that it would produce effects in architec it’s hard to believe that it would produce social configuration, 1920s commercialism. of burgeoning ture identical to those ence and our age’s own experiments in curvilinear form (with attendant rhetoric (with attendant in curvilinear form our age’s own experiments ence and of associated new freedoms). as a fundamentally new odd: if Empire is to be understood approach seems a bit and its chic railroad car interiors. Here one is tempted to employ Expressionism to employ Here one is tempted railroad car interiors. and its chic premise of this confer considering the day, tale for the present as a cautionary To Hausenstein’s list we might add: It has its private houses for lumber magnates, houses for lumber It has its private list we might add: Hausenstein’s To 428 | Godel | Revisiting 1923 before 1923, the harder it becomes to explain why functionalism didn’t 214 a reliableclientbaseforGropius through hisfamilyconnections(seeNerdinger, note7,pp. 70 investments inplantsandequipment. 69 68 67 generously loaningmeheryet-unpublishedtranslationofZevi.) erably moreplausible.Willettalsoaddsafewdetails.(Iamindebted toJacquelineGargus for saintly. Forkacs’s versionobviouslyreliesontheseotheraccountsbutmanagestoseemconsid number ofBauhausaccountswilldo(Wingler, etal),althoughIsaacsmakes Gropiusparticularly cious BrunoZevi( van Doesburg’s apologistsagainsteachother. For thelatterIrecommendspiritedandloqua production, oralternatelymadenoimpactwhatsoeverapartfroma fewminorworks. in worthlesspaperMarks. exporters madeitbig,acquiringstableforeigncurrencywhilepayingexpenses ness waitedouttheinflation,puttingoffexpansion untilthingsstabilized. and wouldhaveseemedaremotenotionin1922. government the principal Functionalist patron, but that was after the stabilization entire problemfortheBauhaus.Thehousingfinancelawof1924wouldmake a factorin ism direction, thelesswecanmake ofthe new patronsastheforceguidingstyle,whilenotingthatfurtherwegointhis “Can’t youhelpmetofindcapitalists?” touch withthelatter, atleastsymbolically. Or, asGropiusputitearly1919, poorer—but afewgotricher. Abroke artschoolmightreasonablytrytogetin Each segmentoftheGermanpopulationwasaffecteddifferently. Manypeoplegot a more specific explanation, we turn again to the culture of the inflation. that all these precedents emerged from very different socioeconomic contexts. For fore 1923. And again, if style follows circumstance, one must reckon with the fact

A fullsorting-outofthisobviouslycontentiousserieseventsrequires pittingGropius’sand Ibid. Interestingly, anothergroupthat madeprofits throughexports werelarge farmers—once Ibid., p.57,citingastudybyLindenlaub (1985)showingthatlarge firmsmadeatypicallylow Tax-subsidized housingfinancebeganin1924.(seeBalderstein,note21, p. 61) Letter toLilyHildebrant,September1919,quotedinIsaacs,seenote 4,p.83. – Industry, ontheotherhand,presentedopportunities.Ingeneral,bigbusi Government wasrightout;publicexpenditures werealreadyrecognizedas Functionalism Corporate Capitalists?”: To Me You Find Help “Can’t In any case, the more examples we find of things that lost 218). Eitherhisnetworkdriedup, orhehadmovedon—considerhisJanuary1919remarks itsforcebyacquiringpatronage. causing The PoeticsofNeo-PlasticArchitecture theinflation,andgettingmoneyoutof 70 Attracting suchentitiescouldbuytheschooltime previous 67 Following FrederickAntal,welookfor narrative,inwhichExpression 68 , chapterone);fortheformer, any

look like functionalism Landtag happen wasthe 69 But - be - - - - DAS ERBE DER MODERNE | 429

- - - 76 - - 14. In this 74 which is what 72 was linked to the “ra the to linked was Gropius was after bigger Gropius was after 73 Sachlichkeit Sachlichkeit New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990, p. Van New York: For the Weimarites who initially tolerated the who initially tolerated Weimarites the For 71 4) The darker implications of this had not, it seems, been 4) The darker – not socialism, but government-managed capitalism, free of the va The Bauhaus sourcebook. ). It was widely believed—by those of quite varied politics—that the the politics—that varied quite of those believed—by widely was It ). 75 Gemeinwirtschaft— fulfill its dreams of real industrial design work. Even Feininger had to admit real industrial design work. Even Feininger fulfill its dreams of For beyond the boundaries of the art world, world, art the of boundaries the beyond For See Nerdinger’s “From Americanism to the New World” in Nerdinger, see note 7 (1985). in Nerdinger, “From Americanism to the New World” See Nerdinger’s in the con Rathenau, early support from centrist Walter Balderston, note 21, p. 66. This had Letter from Feininger, October 1922, in Forgács, see note 15, p. 98. Feininger was not thrilled note 15, p. 98. Feininger see October 1922, in Forgács, Letter from Feininger, See note 13, p. 109. see note 42, p. 18. (1973), quoted in Wolff, Vazquez Rowland, Anna: ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������

cept of garies of open competition. (Ibid, pp. 3 out in the early 20s. worked 74 75 76 about this, as the sudden change went against the natural evolution of the school, but “we won’t about this, as the sudden change went against consider it a sacrifice if it saves the cause.” 72 73 which to converse with his relatives. The occasion was the funeral of his uncle Erich, who had in which to converse with his relatives. The occasion fact been a significant client. 71 (quoted in Isaacs, see note 4, p. 63) that he no longer had “anything of mutual interest” about (quoted in Isaacs, see note 4, p. 63) that he no While cartels were largely “moribund in the sellers’ market of the inflation,” a wave wave a inflation,” the of market sellers’ the in “moribund largely were cartels While Vereinigte 1925), (merged Farben IG stabilization: the followed conglomerations of Diskonto-Gesell Bank—Diskontogesellschaft Deutsche Daimler-Benz, (1926), Stahl fascination with mass production (which has elsewhere been convincingly linked to to linked convincingly been elsewhere has (which production mass with fascination Bauhaus the control. monopolistic and scale of economies giant in lay recovery postwar to path tionalization” of business, industry, and government. This went beyond the Taylorist Taylorist the beyond went This government. and industry, business, of tionalization” a market […] the artist cannot fail to heed the exigencies of this market.” fail to heed the exigencies […] the artist cannot a market reflects the values and aspirations of light, it’s not surprising that functionalism contemporary German business culture. school, “industry” had meant something like “cottage industry,” “cottage meant something like school, “industry” had had become by 1923 anyway. the Bauhaus workshops of art destined for observes, “inasmuch as he produces works fish, but as Vazquez that “in order to win over the industrialists […] we have to steer towards profit over the industrialists […] we have that “in order to win production.”. able tasks and mass Fig. 4: Gott Stinnes, 1922. and 430 | Godel | Revisiting 1923 79 been discussed. tionalist mode)hisbiggestcommissionever. ThebailoutoftheJenaTheatrebyZeisshasalready phase) foritsFrankfurtfacility. The samecompanywouldlatergivePoelzig (inaclassico-func 78 77 achieving Expressionisticeffectsinanimpoverishedcountry thatconvincedthese for “therealmofthepractical.” switched firmlytoFunctionalisthousingwork,makinggood onhis1920plans remark that“wehavebecometoosober” the switchtofunctionwithsurprisingaplomb.Taut, perhapsinternalizing the with theexception ofdie-hardslike Itten, mostofthe“romanticmystics”made Sachlichkeit “spirit” and“vision”isstillpresentin‘23.Butthevaluesofbusinesspersonal years beforetheBauhausidealfullymatchedthatofStinnes;language then bringsittolifethrough“masteryof[…]physicallaws.”Itwouldbeafew Unity” manifesto: theartist,whosebrain“conceivesofmathematicalspace” and No Expressionist,thisStinnes!We findinsomewaysasimilarfigurethe“New manner waswidelyadmired—considerthe1922fan-letter, “Inflation Kings”whomanagedtoget popularity ofunspeakablywealthycoalandsteeltitanHugoStinnes,onethose chaos oftheinflationaryyears. to acold,sensible,efficientcodeof their forerunners had already shown their worth to Gropius personally. 82 81 80 “to differentiateelementalthings amid thecomplex territory”ofinflation. che zwischendenKriegen. schaft (1929).

Widdig, seenote20,p.158,citing Lethen, Helmut. Weinstein, seenote56,p.227.Taut alsoremovedhisworkfromthelastAfK show. See note2,p.92, quotingIlyaEhrenburg. Widdig, seenote20,pp.152 Just beforetheinflation,apre-merge IGFarben had hiredPeter Behrens(inanExpressionist Ibid., pp.65 The Expressionistartiststhemselvesseemedtosharesomeofthesevalues; zation oflife,theconquestmatterthroughitself. transformation ofrawmaterialaccordingtohumandesire,themechani the exactnessofthisapparatus[…]Stinnesknowsnothingotherthan no emotionalinvolvement,[…]metaphysicalorartisticmoodspoils in theshortestwayandwithoutdisturbance...Nofantasticimagination, [Stinnes’] practical-organizationalthinkingwillprocessanyproblem But themeaningof – 77 74. are unmistakable. These giants would go on to patronize functionalist architects, and Sachlichkeit Frankfurt amMain:Suhrkamp,1994. – 159. 79 82 This,argues BerndWiddig,accountsforthe MartinFillerargues that it wastheexpense of personal wentbeyondbusiness richer 81 forhispaintedMagdeburg facades, duringtheperiod.Stinnes’personal conducthonedtoresistthesocial Verhaltenslehren derKalte: Lebensversu Sachlichkeit Gott Stinnes —Eugen Ortner, 1922 practice wasastrategy ; itreferred 78 : - - 80 - DAS ERBE DER MODERNE | 431 ------Buffeted 87 In the end, 85 but a rebranding Architecture has 86 , Inflation Saints and Infla rebranding—

persisted: in 1924 Taut attributed in 1924 Taut persisted: 84 Der Stahl rhetoric and , to switch gears to “human needs” over “ar gears to “human needs” , to switch De Stijl The New Dwelling: the Woman as Creator. The New Dwelling: the Woman of their own volition of their own Of course, Expressionist Of course, 83 So if the New Unity was not an appeal to specific clients, it was at least an was not an appeal to specific clients, So if the New Unity To quote Gropius, “It is only natural that such an experimental institute is that such an experimental “It is only natural quote Gropius, To Forgács, see note 15, (pp. 108, 115) argues that it was also an internal re-branding, a rallying argues see note 15, (pp. 108, 115) Forgács, See note 33, p. 65, quoting Taut’s quoting Taut’s See note 33, p. 65, reprinted in Wingler (note 1) in Weimar,” In “The Intellectual Basis of the Staatliche Bauhaus (1976). Note that Giddens precedes this with the see note 42, p. 22, quoting Giddens Wolff, Filler, see note 48, p. 112. This is the grandchild of the “Ornament and Crime” assertion that see note 48, p. 112. This is the Filler,

cry for a school that had just survived the Van Doesburg and Itten crises. The sustained whirl Doesburg cry for a school that had just survived the Van wind prep strained some relationships but certainly provided the kind of common goal Gropius had wanted the whole time. society, but they do so as historically located actors, and not under conditions of their own but they do so as historically society, choosing.” 87 85 p. 77. 86 somewhat less encouraging statement, “The realm of human agency is bounded—men produce ornament wastes everybody’s money and time—although Filler is speaking about the cost of ornament wastes everybody’s money and time—although brick (a la de Klerk). sculptural expressionist 84 83 by forces within and without— to sell itself, while critiquing the failings tion Kings—architecture found openings of its own adventures. this reckoning, in a genuine fight for survival, was in a genuine fight this reckoning, of the thing being rebranded. which would in turn influence the content that the “autonomous” is neither as ascetic or as unified as the term might imply. or as unified as the term might imply. that the “autonomous” is neither as ascetic sense—and these mul Whitman the Walt The discipline contains multitudes—in the Bauhaus the technique of For the external. consciously with titudes reckon attempt to offer a product in step with larger economic developments: a reassur economic in step with larger attempt to offer a product Bauhaus remind us productive, useful school. Both Gropius and the ingly sober, certain problems it is trying to solve; constrained by economic and social circum is trying to solve; constrained by economic certain problems it limited but free choices. stance, it exerts consciously fighting superficial acceptance of ‘isms’ and dogmas.” superficial acceptance of ‘isms’ and consciously fighting conceptualized as sim Giddens, that “structures must not be we recognize, with enabling.” but as upon human agency, ply placing constraints especially sensitive to fluctuations in the developments of the times […] But the to fluctuations in the developments of especially sensitive teaching here are lies directly in the fact that the masters value of the Bauhaus tistic aims.” planning. revolution” to functionalist “spiritual progressives, progressives,