B018952 Referring to at least three key examples, discuss what glass and crystal signified to the architects of the German Expressionist movement.

To introduce, expressionism is more of a state of mind than a defined movement. It appeared out of the assumption that a building can communicate an individual idea or notion without being restricted or contained by architectural conventions or styles.1 The style was not characterized by a consistent architectural language, largely due to an extreme self-expression.2 The potential of dramatic gestures became obvious immediately after World War One, when expressionism became a gathering point for what later developed into modern architecture.3 This was a time of great deprivation for the entire German population, and consequently the architects confronted professional struggles relating to shortages and specific needs.4

Simultaneously, industrial buildings with their large volumes and lack of precedents gave architects reasons to experiment with dramatic shapes and designs. An early example was Hans Poelzig’s combination of water tower and exhibition hall in 1911. Starting in 1918, a great deal of architects, primarily from defeated Germany, experimented with irregular shapes and dramatic effects. The ideas were often intentionally unbuildable, like Mies van der Rohe’s skyscrapes in glass.

Expressionism shares its forceful and sometimes odd shapes with both constructivism and functionalism. In its purest form, expressionism sought no justification apart from the existence of an idea from the architect.5

1 J. Melvin, Ismer: Att Förstå Arkitektur (Gothenburg, 2010), p. 98-99.

2 R.H. Bletter, ‘The Interpretation of the Glass Dream: Expressionist Architecture and the History of the Crystal Metaphor’ in D. B. Brownlee (ed.), Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 40, No. 1 (Los Angeles, 1981), p. 20.

3 J. Melvin, Ismer: Att Förstå Arkitektur, p. 98-99.

4 W. Pehnt, Expressionist Architecture In Drawings (London, 1985), p. 8. 5 J. Melvin, Ismer: Att Förstå Arkitektur, p. 98-99. 1 B018952

This essay will discuss how glass and crystal were a method for expressionist architects in Germany to substantialize their dreams, visions and ideas of a social reform in general and an urban utopia in particular. To effectively structure this argument, this essay is going to revolve around three major examples, the Glass Pavillion by Bruno Taut, the Hohenhagen complex (partially by Taut) and the glass skyscraper design for Friedrichstrasse by Mies van der Rohe. Also, the influence of the poet

Paul Scheerbart on the development of the enthusiasm of glass and crystal is to be outlined.

Basically, what started the German Expressionism’s focus on glass was the vision of the poet Paul

Scheerbart. In his Glasarchitektur (1914), he puts emphasis on architecture as a means of changing society, but also proposes how this should be executed. According to Scheerbart, in order to free ourselves, we have to free our rooms. In other words, to make them less enclosed and restricted.

The means of this would be, he suggested, to use glass as a material for buildings. This notion of creating a culture with less repression derived from the foundation of ‘Neue Künstler Vereinigung’.

This was a proto-Expressionist movement which acquired support from two anarchist publications,

Der Sturm and Die Aktion. In turn, these journals offered an opposing side to the contemporary climate created by the Deutsche Werkbund. Seven years earlier, the same Scheerbart had put forward a utopian future that criticized the industrial state. In line with this, what emerged was a more organic and freely expressed way of designing.6 Hence, glass was not only a material, but had political associations and commanded the design of space.

6 K. Frampton, Modern Architecture: A Critical History (London, 2007), p. 116.

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Additionally, Scheerbart’s visions of sapphire towers, emerald domes, diamond castles and crystalline stars induced people with a feeling of a home in the distance but also of certainty.7 The need for this was potentially larger in these turbulent times when the state was questioned.

At the same time, other established critics of the German society contributed to the idea of utopia and urbanity. George Simmel had amongst others since the turn of the century proclaimed the introduction of an organic pre-industrial culture that emphasized spirituality and community to substitute the modern metropolis of materialistic economy and systematic anxious life. Karl

Schefler said that every advanced architectural culture tends to inhabit an aggressive development of the democratic freedom. This inevitably includes individualism, industrialization, capitalism and urbanization.8 In conclusion, the society needed a radical revolution towards a more organic, humanistic and socialistic attitude.

Following this notion of social reform, Bruno Taut formed a group of people to make art more accessible to the public; the ‘Arbeitsrat für Kunst’. However, the Spartacist Revolt in 1919 put an end to the public activities of this organization, forcing Taut and a few of his associates to communicate by means of letters. This exchange of letters between Bruno Taut, Max Taut (his brother), Walter Gropius and eleven other people is known as ‘The Glass Chain’ (Die Gläserne

Kette). Taut called himself ‘Glass’ in these letters. The spontaneous and philosophical nature of this correspondence is evident in Taut’s declaration: ‘everyone of us will draw or write down at brief intervals of time, informally and as the spirit moves him… those ideas which he would like to share with our circle.’9 In this context, glass was symbolically adopted as an organizational keyword and possibly also as a mental stimulant to inspire free thought processes of the members.

7 W. Pehnt, Expressionist Architecture (London, 1973), p. 74. 8 K. James, Erich Mendelsohn and the Architecture of German Modernism (Cambridge, 1997), p. 108-109. 9 K. Frampton, Modern Architecture: A Critical History, p. 118. 3 B018952

Bruno Taut put this into practice with The Glass Pavillion (Cologne, 1914). Taut’s aim was to exploit the dramatic potential of glass as a material. Idealistically, Taut wanted to decrease repression by the use of a transparent material. Technically, the pavillion was rather formally organized. It consisted of a circular base made out of concrete and with a central stair founded upon an axis. On top of it all, a dome is to be found. Within the building, one finds a variety of elements made of glass. For instance, there are glass walls, glass threads and risers and glass panels. The purpose was to filter and reflect light and colour in order to create a space which in turn communicated glass as the product of industrial production and to give nutrition to the spirit of man.10 Taut was directly inspired by Scheerbart and even put his aphorisms on the facade of the

Glass Pavillion; e.g. ‘Light wants crystal’, ‘Glass brings a new era’, ‘We feel sorry for the brick culture’, ‘Without a glass culture, life becomes a burden’, ‘Building in brick only does us harm’ and

‘Coloured glass destroys hatred’.11 Clearly, glass was utilized as an evocative and strong metaphor.

Glass architecture was believed to be pure and to render the detachment of space from the sky obsolete. A connection to ‘heaven’ and disembodiment was interwoven into this approach.12

Inspired by this, Gropius looked for a building of the future. A building that would harmonize of architecture and sculpture in a socialistic way ‘from the hands of million of workers’, likened to a crystal element of a new faith. This was substantialized as the Stadtkrone (first proposed by Taut), a religious structure working to connect the creative energy of the society. This crystalline structure was to function as a kind of ‘spiritual radio receiver’. A receiver for mediating spiritualized, organic elements and abstract rationalist geometry. Effectively, the essence of the utopian dream with a

10 M. Moffett et al., A World History Of Architecture (London, 2008), p. 468-469. 11 K. Frampton, Modern Architecture: A Critical History, p. 116. 12 G. Kohlmaier et al., Houses of Glass: a nineteenth-century building type (Cambridge, 1986), p. 45. 4 B018952 modern city focusing on aesthetics. The purpose of the Stadtkrone was essentially to be the cathedral of the future. Ideologically, this conflicted with the Nazis, who considered the state itself to embrace this epithet.13

With this in mind, glass and crystal do not only have light filtering qualities. Taut considered his pavilion as a Stadtkrone (city crown), based upon Gothic cathedrals (making the functions of light and structure even more evident). Effectively, his crystalline structure transformed symbolically into a vessel to communicate his ideas of a universal paradigm of all religious buildings. This would elicit an urban element vital for the society and its radical new structure.14 Taut believed that in glass was the foundation of a new mentality and both he and Scheerbart quoted passages from the

Bible (more specifically, Rev 21:18-21: 22:1) relating to glass and crystal.15 Taut was able to balance his practical beliefs of social reform with his visionary ones.

The second example to aid in the understanding of the signification of glass and crystal to the expressionist architects is the Hohenhagen architectural complex, which was never built. Karl Ernst

Osthaus had bought a piece of land east of Hagen and selected three architects for the construction;

Peter Behrens, Henry van de Velde and J.L. Mathieu Lauweriks. Additionally, he included Bruno

Taut and Walter Gropius on parts of the project. Taut’s most remarkable contribution was a plan for the highest point of the site. Here he wanted to add a new school complete with farm, workshops, observatory, offices and a towering crystal. The towering crystal was to be known as ‘The House of

Prayer’. However, the construction was estimated to be too expensive. As a response to this,

Osthaus declared that ‘nothing is so important today as to set our sights as high as our imaginations

13 R.L. Rutsky, ‘The mediation of technology and gender: metropolis, nazism, modernism’ in M. Minden et al. (ed.), Fritz Langs metropolis cinematic visions of technology and fear (Suffolk, 2000), p. 238-239. 14 K. Frampton, Modern Architecture: A Critical History, p. 116. 15 E. Fahlbusch, The encyclopedia of Christianity Vol. 2 (Grand Rapids, 2001), p. 256. 5 B018952 will reach.’ In precision, this project was similar to the ideas for ‘houses of heaven’, ‘the shrines of the radiant ones’ and the crystal temples that can be found in Taut’s contemporary books.16 Since the title of the towering crystal was to include the word ‘Prayer’ and that on the site there would be a school and workshops, the site alludes that Taut desired a form of social, almost religious teaching.

Similarly, an evocatively complex construction was the glass skyscraper design proposed by Mies van der Rohe. He entered the Friedrichstrasse skyscraper competition in 1921, without bothering about even fulfilling the majority of the specifications, such as to leave a significant open space on the designated site. In line with this, the construction was three prism-like towers with twenty stories each. The sharp-edged towers were linked by corridors to a cylinder in the center which had elevators, stairways and service rooms. In the drawings, the supporting structure was difficult to point out, but was assumed to be a steel skeleton with floor slabs on cantilevers. The major feature of this building was however the sheathing; it was entirely made out of glass. For the competition, van der Rohe supplied an abstract view and three charcoal drawings that intentionally emphasized the glass and its quality of reflection. This enthusiasm for glass was derived from Scheerbart.17

Moreover, van der Rohe’s glass tower was suggesting a city made entirely out of glass structures.

This visionary city could be considered a utopia. However, at the time of its publication (1922 in

Taut’s journal ‘Fraulicht’), it was made to work with the surrounding buildings. This was cleverly resolved since the mirroring glass facades rendered a new and intimate relationship to the structures around the skyscraper. The effect of this was that the building blended with the urban fabric. It was relatively high and had a gigantic mass, but the glass compensated for this and softened the impact

16 W. Pehnt, Expressionist Architecture, p. 77. 17 B. Bergdoll et al., Mies In Berlin (New York, 2002), p. 43. 6 B018952 of the skyscraper. It is believed that this tower is a good example of the metropolitan architecture put forward by Simmel and Scheffler, with keywords such as anonymity, indifference and uniformity. Continuing on the focus on material, for his second glass skyscraper, Mies van der Rohe said that ‘it is not an effect of light and shadow one wants to achieve but a rich interplay of light reflections.’18 In conclusion, the architecture of van der Rohe has glass in large amounts with refined steel supports in rigorously designed buildings. With this in mind, it is possible to comprehend his aim to achieve a construction that is clear, both simplistically but also in terms of reflection and transparency.19

To link back to Taut, the glass skyscraper was considered by this man to be a building with centripetal qualities, with reference to his published work Alpine Architecture. This structure was to work as a social force, a Stadtkrone.20

To sum up, the poet Paul Scheerbart formed the basis for the argument with his visonary texts and emphasis on glass as a method of social change. In the German climate of the time, a more organic way of expression was synthesized. Strongly influenced by Scheerbart, Bruno Taut formed a group of individuals that eventually channelled their ideologies through an exchange of letters; also known as The Glass Chain. Taut’s most successful product of these letters and ideas was The Glass

Pavilion in Cologne. His intentions were to inspire a decrease in repression via transparent material.

In addition, he put forward post-modern criticism since he communicated glass as a product of industry. Taut wanted to further his social teaching and proposed a towering crystal on a site with a school and workshops, on the Hohenhagen complex. Finally, Mies van der Rohe utilized glass in an

18 B. Bergdoll et al., Mies In Berlin, p. 43-44. 19 T. O. Benson, Expressionist Utopias: Paradise, Metropolis, Architectural Fantasy (Los Angeles, 2001), p. 241.

20 J. Ward, Weimar Surfaces: Urban Visual Culture in 1920s Germany (Los Angeles, 2001), p. 64. 7 B018952 intricate way by using it as sheathing for his monumental skyscraper for the Friedrichstrasse in

1921. The glass gave a relationship to the surrounding never seen before, constructing an urban mesh. By softening the impact of the building, it contributed to the concepts of anonymity, indifference and uniformity. Overall, these ideas supported a sense of socialism and a metropolitan mentality.

Most expressionists toned themselves down with time and turned to functionalism or rationalism.

But expressionism was an important channel for experiment with ideas of shape at a time when all authorities and precedents could be questioned.21 However, it can be argued that the designs of van der Rohe and Taut are abstract and too fantastic, but they aimed at rational solutions and comprehensible functions. The idea of light as illumination of both space and mind is easy and even enjoyable to take to heart and head.

21 J. Melvin, Ismer, Att Förstå Arkitektur, p. 98-99. 8 B018952

Bibliography

Benson, T.O., Expressionist Utopias: Paradise, Metropolis, Architectural Fantasy (Los Angeles, 2001)

Bergdoll, B. et al., Mies In Berlin (New York, 2002)

Bletter, R.H., ‘The Interpretation of the Glass Dream: Expressionist Architecture and the History of the

Crystal Metaphor’ in Brownlee, D.B., (ed.), Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 40, No. 1

(Los Angeles, 1981), pp. 20-43

Fahlbusch, E., The encyclopedia of Christianity Vol. 2 (Grand Rapids, 2001)

Frampton, K., Modern Architecture: A Critical History (London, 2007)

James, K., Erich Mendelsohn and the Architecture of German Modernism (Cambridge, 1997)

Kohlmaier, G. et al., Houses of Glass: a nineteenth-century building type (Cambridge, 1986)

Melvin, J., Ismer: Att Förstå Arkitektur (Gothenburg, 2010)

Moffett M., et al., A World History Of Architecture (London, 2008)

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Pehnt, W., Expressionist Architecture In Drawings (London, 1985)

Rutsky, R.L., ‘The mediation of technology and gender: metropolis, nazism, modernism’ in Minden, M., et al. (ed.), Fritz Langs metropolis cinematic visions of technology and fear (Suffolk, 2000), pp. 217-247

Ward, J., Weimar Surfaces: Urban Visual Culture in 1920s Germany (Los Angeles, 2001)

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