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Rethinking the Henge Monuments of the British Isles

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Rethinking the Henge Monuments of the British Isles Rethinking the henge monuments of the British Isles Lucy Cummings Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of History, Classics and Archaeology Newcastle University July 2019 Word count: 88,491 Abstract The henge monuments of Britain and Ireland are some of the best, and yet most poorly understood, monuments of Neolithic/Bronze Age Europe. Defined as later Neolithic enclosures with a circular bank, inner ditch, and usually one or two entrances, henges have been considered as a single category of site since they were first identified in the 1930s. As the category grew, and further attempts to sort the variety into subtypes created new terms, it became increasingly apparent that the wide variation in their size and architecture meant that they cannot simply be assumed to share a single use and meaning. Drawing from the large number of sites currently described as henge monuments, this thesis highlights the effect of classification on loosening the rigidity in the definition of site ‘types’, explores the problematic nature of typology within archaeology, and examines its long- lasting effect on understanding and public perception of sites. This thesis uses a relational approach to typology to argue that there are small regional ‘types’ visible within the variation of the henge class, but that a clear henge type can only be considered loosely. It also examines the importance of a biographical approach, in understanding why sites were constructed and how such an approach can be combined with a typological approach to extend the interpretation and investigate sites at a range of scales. The thesis discusses the development of, and the variation within henge monuments, whilst also showing that there are similarities across a wider range of Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age circular enclosures at different periods. A database of all sites previously and currently considered to be henge monuments, collated using a variety of sources (e.g. HERs, catalogues, and excavation reports) accompanies this thesis, and provides the first such catalogue since Harding and Lee’s influential 1987 publication. Word Count: 299 i ii Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the help and support of so many people. Without Northern Bridge DTP AHRC funding this thesis would never have happened, so thanks must first and foremost go to them for seeing the potential in my application and for the opportunities which the PhD and the DTP have provided over the years. My initial application would not have been successful without the support of Dr Chris Fowler and Dr Jan Harding who had also inspired and encouraged me to continue my studies from undergraduate level through to PhD. My supervisors have been a constant source of inspiration, motivation and support: Dr Chris Fowler whose patience, open door, and advice have been invaluable; and Dr James Gerrard whose advice and knowledge of databases have helped improve draft chapters. Thanks must also go to my family - my parents, sister, and grandparents who are a constant source of support and humour. Extra thanks must go to my partner Christian for being there with a constant supply of Diet-Coke and encouragement during the final months of this process, for proof-reading every word, and for taking interest in a topic so different from his own interests. Over the past few years I have met countless colleagues at conferences, events, and training programmes, many of which have listened to anxious rants and ideas relating to this project. A special mention is needed to those involved in NEBARSS who I can still rely on for support and advice. Last but by no means least, special thanks must go to those colleagues who I had the pleasure of sharing a workspace with for the past few years (Mareike Ahlers, Lauren Emslie, Chris Mowat to name a few) and who have listened in times of panic and self-doubt, and most-importantly who knew the correct response to ‘pub?’. iii iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... iii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. xi List of Tables ............................................................................................................................xvii Chapter 1 – Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Thesis Statement .............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Thesis Outline ................................................................................................................... 3 Chapter 2 – A History of Henge Typology .................................................................................. 6 2.1 The original definition ...................................................................................................... 6 2.2 History of Classification .................................................................................................. 15 2.3 Henges in Ireland ............................................................................................................ 31 2.4 Classification: a valuable tool? ....................................................................................... 32 2.5 Current Definition ........................................................................................................... 36 2.5.1 The current archaeological debate ......................................................................... 36 2.5.2 Public perception & use........................................................................................... 39 2.6 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 42 Chapter 3 – A History of Henge Interpretation ........................................................................ 46 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 46 3.2 Interpretations of the origins of henges ........................................................................ 46 3.3 The role of henge monuments in interpreting social organisation................................ 52 3.4 The interpretation of henge architecture ...................................................................... 70 3.5 Interpretations of the function of henges ...................................................................... 74 3.5.1 Astronomy and alignment ....................................................................................... 74 3.5.2 Ritual, religion & ceremony ..................................................................................... 75 v 3.5.3 Procession & Pilgrimage ......................................................................................... 76 3.5.4 Burial ....................................................................................................................... 80 3.5.5 Feasting ................................................................................................................... 82 3.6 Circles of wood, stone & earth: Studies of henges alongside other circular monuments .............................................................................................................................................. 84 3.7 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 86 Chapter 4 - A Methodology for Assessing Henge Monuments ............................................... 89 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 89 4.2 Reviewing Henge Monuments as a ‘Type’ ..................................................................... 89 4.2.1 ‘Monuments Don’t Actually Breed’: The Typology Debate .................................... 89 4.2.2 Typology and relational theory ............................................................................... 93 4.2.3 A relational typology of henges? ............................................................................ 96 4.3 From a Group to Individual Sites: Different Approaches ............................................... 97 4.3.1 Scales of time .......................................................................................................... 97 4.3.2 Scales of space: sites, landscapes and GIS Mapping ............................................... 99 4.4 Interpreting Henges ..................................................................................................... 100 4.4.1 Biography of a henge ............................................................................................ 100 4.4.2 Memory and henges ............................................................................................. 104 4.5 Cataloguing the henges of the British Isles .................................................................. 106 4.5.1 Database construction .........................................................................................
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