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Begović V., Schrunk I., Kereković D. (2012). The landscape changes in in Roman (territory of today - County - ). In: D. Kereković, R. Źróbek (ed.). GIS for Geoscientists. Croatian Information Technology Association – GIS Forum, University of Silesia, , 143-158.

THE LANDSCAPE CHANGES IN CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY IN ROMAN DALMATIA (territory of today Dubrovnik-Neretva County - Croatia)

Vlasta Begović Institut za arheologiju Gajeva 32, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia

Ivančica Schrunk University of St. Thomas St. Paul, Minnesota 55105, USA

Davorin Kereković, GIS Forum Ilica 191 e, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia

Abstract In the course of the ongoing research project “Archaeological Topography of Croatia in Classical Antiquity” the application of a new GIS procedure made it possible to make reconstructions of some Roman sites and past landscapes (landscape in classical antiquity) on the territory of today Dubrovnik- Neretva County (Croatia). The GIS approach to the study of changes in historical landscapes indicated that the greatest transformation of the landscape occurred in the Roman period. The Roman beginning of the new settlements has the roots in commercial and strategic needs of the expanding power in the eastern Adriatic territory such as in the exploitation of the local resources. The procese of Romanization divided that territory into the colonies of Narona and Epidaur two great centres with their ager. The most significant legacy was the division of fertile lands in , field, Pelješac peninsula, Neretva and Korčula field between colonies and villa’s propertes. Building of the roads and naval bases was the part of the plan of Roman domination and pacification of the territory. Territorial creativity was high in the Roman time, when a completely new landscape identity appeared after the 2nd/1st century BC in Dalmatia. The exploitation of the land and the intensive planting of new cash crops – vineyards and olives tree occurred. Roman villas as the centres of the agriculturally productive landscape were settled on the mainland and the islands. The scientific project “Archaeological Topography of Croatia in Classical Antiquity” and the application of new GIS procedure made the reconstruction of the landscape in classical Antiquity on the territory of today Dubrovnik-Neretva County. Roman architecture features are the markers in the landscape.

Key words: GIS, archaeological topography, historical landscape in classical antiquity, Dubrovnik- Neretva County, 4th century BC to 6th century AD

Introduction

The Dubrovnik –Neretva county covers the coastal area, hilly terrain and mountain area with the lower course of the Neretva River (Neretva delta with coastal swamps), and Pelješac peninsula, islands of Korčula, , , Šipan, Lopud and Lokrum and lot of small islands and rocks as well. The territory consist of a relatively narrow elongated coastal area with two parts Konavle field and hilly terrain south of Dubrovnik (the highest top is on the mountain Snježnica, Ilijin vrh 1234 m ) and Dubrovačko primorje north of Dubrovnik (the highest top is Nepropić 965 m) , Ston field, Pelješac peninsula and river Neretva delta. There are five deep bays - port, Gruž port, Rijeka Dubrovačka bay, Ston port and Ploče bay. On the both side of Neretva delta are coastal swamps and on the side of them hilly terrain with highest top on Babina gm. 736 m on the right bank of the river (north of Neretva) and the hill Mala Žaba on the left bank of the river (south of Neretva) with the

143 Begović V., Schrunk I., Kereković D. (2012). The landscape changes in Classical Antiquity in Roman Dalmatia (territory of today Dubrovnik-Neretva County - Croatia). In: D. Kereković, R. Źróbek (ed.). GIS for Geoscientists. Croatian Information Technology Association – GIS Forum, University of Silesia, Zagreb, 143-158.

highest top on Matica peak 681 m above the sea level. The area is reach with the drinking water and coastal swamps (as Vitruvius wrote the healthy swamps because of mixing salt and drinking water) and on the north of river Neretva there is the lake Bačinska. The fertile fields are on Pelješac peninsula and hilly terrain as well (the highest point is St. Ilija above Orebić 960 m ) and fertile land on Korčula island (the highest point is Veli Vrh 473 m). The great forests rich with pine trees are on Mljet island (the highest point is Veli Grad 512 m) and Lastovo island (the highest top is Hum 415 m above the sea level). The landscape was quite different in classical antiquity because of the sinking of the Eastern Adriatic coast from the Antiquity approximatelly 2 m - about 1 mm a year (Begović, Schrunk 2008, 289-300) and the change of the river banks of the Neretva and Norin. Fig 1

Dubrovnik Neretva County as the part of Roman province Dalmatia In the 4th century BC historical sources mention the emporium Naron on the later site of the Roman colony Narona (Vid near Metković). The remains of the forum in Narona with the imperial shrine (the Augusteum) are famous. Another roman colony was Epidaurum (Cavtat). The line of the city aqueduct was documented in traces near Epidaurum. Roman maritime villas were found in Tiha Bay and on Sustjepan promontory near Cavtat, at Polače on the island of Mljet, Sreser, Lumbarda on the island of Korčula, Ubli on the island of Lastovo. Early Christian churches at Ston, Slano, Pelješac and Vid near Metković add to the rich archaeological corpus in this area (Faber 1966; Marin 2004). At the beginning of the Roman domination, the legatus (governor) of the province of Dalmatia Publius Cornelius Dolabella (14 – 20 AD) with the legionnaires of the VII and XI legions built five roads, which began in the main city of the province, in , and led to the borders of the province. The two longer roads led north to Servitium and east to Sirmium. Three of them (the shorter ones) were entirely within the territory of Dalmatia. There are the inscriptions carved in the rock near (today Cavtat) telling about the building of these roads (Zaninović 2008). The major south- north road went connected Salona - Siscia – Poetovio.

The graphical database in the project “Archaeological Topography of Croatia in Classical Antiquity” The objectives of the GIS project are: 1) Building a geocoded database of the archaeological sites in the Republic of Croatia. The first stage is to build a geocoded database of the sites in classical antiquity (4th century BC-6th century AD), then of the prehistoric and medieval sites. 2) Facilitating the use of the graphics data (of different precise value) for different spatial and expertise analyses. 3) Preparing a database of the archaeological sites for the wider circle of data and analysis users. 4) Designing the database to accept the installation of various new graphical data. The graphical database in the project “Archaeological Topography of Croatia in Classical Antiquity” are digital maps in 1:3000 000, 1:25 000, 1:1 000 (and even more detailed maps), satellite images, electromagnetic surveys, aerial photographs, 3-D models of the terrain, photographs, drawings, and other types of graphical documentation. For each archaeological site a series of 20 data entries are given – number, county, municipality, region, geocode (geographical width from Greenwich, England, geographical length from the equator), site (by spatial data and abc), name, part of the site, neighbouring settlement, archaeological museum with the jurisdiction over the site, toponyme, identification data, historical dating, and conducted archaeological excavations and investigations. The professional classification of the archaeological sites and features are: settlement, road, castrum, bridge, villa, architecture, grave, church, monastery, city, forum, temple, theatre, amphitheatre, aqueduct, individual finding, etc. The study of archaeological topography is the basis for knowing the total number of sites, their type, degree of preservation and value, as well as their spatial setting and precise position. The data refer to the entire Republic of Croatia (land, underground, and underwater), with a special emphasis on the architectural heritage of both urban and rural character, as well as archaeological finds and documented historical road network. The data also include historical sources and toponomy. To supplement the data from the existing literature and reports on archaeological excavations, we use data from non-aggressive archaeological methods, such as the interpreting satellite images and aerial photographs, as well as the results of electromagnetic survey - following the recommendations of the European convention on protection of the archaeological heritage. A database is formed and mapping is performed on a topographic map and on a digital map of Croatia. Determination of geographic

144 Begović V., Schrunk I., Kereković D. (2012). The landscape changes in Classical Antiquity in Roman Dalmatia (territory of today Dubrovnik-Neretva County - Croatia). In: D. Kereković, R. Źróbek (ed.). GIS for Geoscientists. Croatian Information Technology Association – GIS Forum, University of Silesia, Zagreb, 143-158.

coordinates (geocode) is done on the basis of topographic maps in the scale of 1:100 000 and town plans (VAH 2002) and by Global Positioning System by reading on the archaeological sites. For the requirement of mapping topographic data a printout was acquired from the graphic base of the registry of spatial units in the digital record in the DWG format. Each attribute card received its datum on the digital map. Fig 2

The Archaeological Sites – Roman architecture features as the markers in the landscape Roman colonies The Roman provinces of Dalmatia (Roman administrative division of the imperial territory) are today situated on the south of the Republic of Croatia. The procese of Romanization divided that territory into the colonies of Narona and Epidaur two great centres with their ager. Narona is first mentioned in the historical sources in 4 th century BC the emporium Naron. At the present village of Vid visible are the remains of the ancient architecture of Narona. It is located on the right bank of the river Naron west of Metkovic. It is mentioned as a Greek emporium and later as a Roman colony - Colonia Julia Narona. The southeastern part of the hill on top of the Norin River provided the walls of the ancient city of Narona. Top of the city walls was determined by two cylindrical towers, the south and the north wing with towers. In a later phase the new quarter was added. At the bottom of the wall between the Upper and Lower Town are monumental gates. At the entrance lead the road to the ancient city of Narona. Hoard of Roman sculpture were found in the locality Plečas stables. Behind the Roman temple from the 1st Century were found 16 statues of supernatural size showing the emperor and members of royal families, aristocracy and Roman gods. The Roman Forum was located on the site of the village square. The remains of monumental architectural sculpture, pillar bases, pavement mosaics are preserved. The Forum is located at the intersection of two Roman roads - one going from the north from the Salone, and the other towards the sea. The site Erešove ponds outside the fortifications of ancient Narona was found the remains of ancient suburban villa in which the early Christian church had been builtwas built. Fig 3 Epidaurum – the city is known from preroman time. On the position of today's city Cavtat on the peninsula are discovered numerous remains of the ancient city of Epidaurum, on which was built the medieval Cavtat. Fig 4 On the peninsula Rat was found the ancient architecture possible the temple. On the peninsula Sustjepan,on the position of today's hotel Croatia was discovered the remains of an roman villa. In the sea are visible remains of the architecture of the pier. In Tiha Bay , on the rock is carved several Roman inscriptions from 1th century. In Tiha Bay there is the remains of roman villa situated close to the ancient city of Epidaurum. Dubrovnik was successor of the Roman Epidaurum when it was destroyed. In 6th century the exising late antique settlement on the position of Dubrovnik was noted in archival sources as a castellum . One of the most reliable documents is about the Administration of the Empire by Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porfyrogenitus (mid 10th century AD), which says that on the territory of today’s city (on the cliff Laus) there settled fugitives from the Roman city Epidaurum (Cavtat), destroyed in the first half of the 7th century. At the turn of the 6th to 7th century in the work of so-called Anonymous of Ravenna, Dubrovnik as the successor of Epidaurum is mentioned by the name of Ragusium (Epidaurum id est Ragusium - Epidaurum , that is, Ragusium).

Roman sites 1/ Ston Bay Small and Large Prapratna - in Small and Large bay Prapratna are the remains of the Roman architecture of the village; 2/ , Bare, Peninsula Pelješac- Bare in the position and pose the old church are the remains of Roman architecture, the room floor covered with mosaics. They found several Roman tombs and fragments of the columns. On the site Trpanjska Duba - the remains of Roman architecture and cemetery with the remains of stone urns. Trpanj, Gradina, Žal, Peljesac - Trpanj above the position forts are well-preserved remains of Late Roman Fort rhomboid-shaped with two rectangular towers; 3/ Žuljana, Pelješac - just above the village on the road that leads to are the remains of an ancient necropolis. Along the northern part of the bay Žuljana found three ancient stone urns. Along the northern edge of the bay at position Žuljana Međine and stream Elijah are the remains of Roman architecture (Praedium Iuliarum); 4/ Orebić, Pelješac - At the present city Orebic was found a marble stone slabs, which carries the cross brace and akant. Immediately above the present Orebic were found a large quantity of silver money of the Greek city of Tassos. Information on the site are imprecise. An ancient necropoliswere found close to the site Three

145 Begović V., Schrunk I., Kereković D. (2012). The landscape changes in Classical Antiquity in Roman Dalmatia (territory of today Dubrovnik-Neretva County - Croatia). In: D. Kereković, R. Źróbek (ed.). GIS for Geoscientists. Croatian Information Technology Association – GIS Forum, University of Silesia, Zagreb, 143-158.

tombstones from this position are kept in Orebić. On the location of "Stine", which is located near Orebic were found two fragments of Greek pottery decorated with a meander; 5/ Lumbarda, Korčula island – Near the today village Lumbarda were found several fragments of stone plates with Greek inscription (famous Lumbarda’s Psephisma). Visible are numerous architectural remains and parts of the temple of Venus Pelagius, and the remains of the necropolis; 6/ Korčula, Korčula island – In the town of Korčula were found two Roman stone inscriptions. Along the road near the peninsula the Hellenistic tombs from the 3rd century BC. Near this place Greek vases were found. Along the way on the north side of the field Mindel surface encountered on coarse fragments of Roman pottery; 7/ Saline, Montokuc, Mljet - Montokuc on the hill are the remains of Roman fort; 8/ Church of St. Mary on the lake and the Benedictine monastery, Goveđari, island of Mljet - based on ancient sacred building was built the church of St. Mary and the Benedictine monastery on an island in the Great Lake; 9/ Pakljena, church.St Michael, Suđurađ, Elafiti islands- as part of a Benedictine monastery in the village Pakljena stands the church of the early Middle age St. Michael, built on the early Christian building; 10/ Podobavje, island of Korčula – Roman cementery.

Roman villas 1/Maritime villas The second important markir in the landscape were maritime vilas those of – Sreser on Pelješac peninsula, Lumbarda on Korčula island, Ubli on Lastovo island, Polače on Mljet island and Tiha bay and Sustjepan near Epidaur.

1/ The villa in the harbour of Ubli on the island of Lastovo had a pronounced strategic importance. A prehistoric hill fort fortified village is near Ubli. During the reconnaissance of the site was found a fragment of Greek pottery. In the area of today's handball courts, next to the road and military hotels are visible architectural remains of ancient villa, late antique settlement and early Christian basilica.A protected bay with deep lateral inlets called Mali lago and Veliki lago (which offered protection from winds of different directions) was suitable for the mooring of ships and even for longer stays, before the last leg of the journey over open seas to the Italic coast. This villa, like the one in Lumbarda on the island of Korčula and the villa in Polače on the island of Mljet had to be very important points on the maritime route along the eastern Adriatic coast (longitudinal route) as well as the trans-Adriatic route. It was probably the seat of a highly positioned Roman official. The villa in Ubla is positioned on the edge of fertile fields, at the entrance to a narrow valley. It is only partially explored. A sizeable late antique settlement was built on the villa site, featuring an early Christian church (Zaninović 1995, 92; Jasna Jelić Radonić 2001, 199). Fig 5 2/ On the promontory in front of Sreser on Pelješac Peninsula, there is a spacious villa on the most picturesque part of the sea coast. The rooms facing the sea were explored, some of which had mosaics Parts of the thermal complex and mosaic floors are discovered in the bay, a part of the wall is visible in the sea, the ancient part of the coast and port facilities. On the position Pokučje which is an integral part of the complex discovered three Roman tombs The area belonged to the Narona ager. In the vicinity, at the foot of the Janjina hill-fort, there is another villa in which an inscription was found mentioning Publius Anius Aper and Publius Anius Tiro from the Tribus Tromentina of Narona. Both were decuriones and quattuorviri in the colony of Narona (Fisković 1958, 234; Zaninović 2001, 157). The villa at Sreser is located in the so-called “Small Sea” (Malo more) between Pelješac and the mainland. Well protected in a quiet bay, it had strategic importance for the mooring of boats and control of navigation toward Narona. In the vicinity of the villa there are fertile lands and vineyards providing much-appreciated sorts of grape even today. 3/ The maritime villa at Lumbarda - its location and masonry are notable. It was located on a promontory, on an elevated, panoramic position, at Lumbarda on the island of Korčula, beween two bays named Bili Žal and Pržina. In the bay Bili Žal some architectural remains were found, which belonged to the harbour and the villa. The site controlled sailing in the Pelješac channel and the route to and from Narona. The villa also sits at the edge of a fertile valley, still today renowned for its vineyards. The site has been surveyed, but not excavated. The layout shows two rectangular buildings (29 x 25 m and 27 x 24 m) connected by a 93 m long, seafront portico 4,66 m wide (Zaninović 2000- 2001, 151). One preserved wall is built in opus reticulatum, a technique rare in the eastern Adriatic and outside of Italy in general. Fig 6 Lafon discussed the rare appearance of this building method in

146 Begović V., Schrunk I., Kereković D. (2012). The landscape changes in Classical Antiquity in Roman Dalmatia (territory of today Dubrovnik-Neretva County - Croatia). In: D. Kereković, R. Źróbek (ed.). GIS for Geoscientists. Croatian Information Technology Association – GIS Forum, University of Silesia, Zagreb, 143-158.

maritime villas in the provinces and saw it as an indication of property value and of high position of the original owner in relation to Rome. In Italy, this opus is always used in monumental villas, mostly in Augustan or early imperial age. Lafon further quoted Torelli’s argument that provincial use of this opus was for public architecture and that domestic usage was exceptional. We may have at Lumbarda a villa of an equal status to public architecture and built not only by a Roman architect, but also by Roman masons. We can compare it to the maritime villa in Fornače near Piran. Was the “grand cru” of this island or its strategic position the reason for this high-power estate? There may be a connection with Appian’s quote that Octavian occupied Korčula and the neighboring island of Mljet (another villa’s location) during his campaign of 35-33 B.C. and killed and sold into slavery their inhabitants (Illyr. 16). There are two proteced bay Pržina and Bili Žal on the opositte side of the promontory. Villa controled the navigation from Lastovo and open sea to Narona. 4/ The maritime villa on the island of Mljet is situated in Polače Bay facing the Pelješac channel. Now safety rather than control governed its location at the bottom of a deep bay, its entrance protected by a line of small islands.. The village is now called Polače, from palatium. There were two building phases. The early villa had dispersed buildings and only parts of the baths with mosaics have been investigated (Zaninović 1990, 730). There was a creek flowing into the bay, which would have supplied water to the villa, the baths and perhaps a piscina. The later villa, built in the 5th century, is a compact, two-story cross-shaped building with polygonal corner towers. Its walls are in parts preserved up to 20 meters in height (Fisković 1999, 63). Documentary evidence tells us that in 489 king Odoacer gave the entire island, then an imperial estate, to his high official Pierius as a pay-back for his loan. Pierius was the likely builder of the villa, which has been suggested to function as his hunting lodge. Underwater finds in the harbor showed the luxury character of the site from the first to the sixth century. Fig 7 Its military function in the 6th century is attested by North African and Phocaean Red Slip Ware and by North African amphorae. Pottery and architectural evidence indicate that several maritime villas, possibly state owned, became in Late Antiquity fortified settlements and probably military and flotilla bases and commanders’ posts. Two suburban, maritime villas have been located on each side of Epidaurum, one across the bay on the Sustjepan promontory, the other in Tiha bay, 300 meters from the Epidaurum harbor. The Croatian name Cavtat of this city derived from Latin Civitas. The bay of Epidaurum is protected from the sirocco and the bora and provides good anchorage. Epidaurum was an important port on the shipping line between the Ionian and Adriatic seas and in the trans-Adriatic network. 5/ The villa on the Sustjepan promontory was partially excavated in the early 1970’s. It spread over three terraces with porticoes on the first and second. Along the shoreline were remains of a cistern, storage rooms and a mole (Zaninović 1988, 93). These would indicate that some agricultural production occurred on the site, although none has been confirmed. Thirteen skeletal burials of the mid-late 6th century were found within the walls of the lower portico. Fig 8 6/ The site in Tiha Bay has never been excavated and the modern construction has obliterated Roman structures, except some massive walls of a cistern on the site of Donji Obod (Sutivan). An inscription was found there in 1547, which honored ’ legate to Illyricum, P. Cornelius Dolabella (Faber 1966, 26). A head and fragments of a statue were also found, perhaps of Dolabella himself. The postulated villa has been traditionally attributed to him as well (Zaninović 1988, 95). A villa and perhaps an estate of Dolabella would make sense here, but more as a strategic, than an economic asset. Some walls and harbour remains are visible in the sea (Faber 1966, 25). Fig 9

2/ Coastal villas and villae rusticae 1/ Broce, Prižba Bay, Peninsula Pelješac- villa rustica; 2/ Duba Ston, Crkvine –villa rustica; Fig 10 3/Pomena, Govedari, island of Mljet - villa rustica 4/ Donje Čelo, Koločep island –villa rustica; 5/ Dingač, Cape Rosemary, Idrija, Potomje - villa rustica; 6/ Ston, Bare - villa rustica; 7/ Orebić, Pelješac – on the position "Trstenica" which is located next to Orebić there are architectural remains of ancient villas and an ancient tomb; 8/ Blatsko polje, Korčula island - villa rustica 9/, Poplat bay, Korčula island – Roman villa The remains of bath, and mosaic floor are visible. Tegulae fragments with stamps Q CLODI Ambrose and stella, a part of the residential part and farm building are visible; 10/ Gudulija, , Sutulija, Korčula island – Roman villa with architectural remains is clearly visible, fragments of pythos, amphorae, tiles with

147 Begović V., Schrunk I., Kereković D. (2012). The landscape changes in Classical Antiquity in Roman Dalmatia (territory of today Dubrovnik-Neretva County - Croatia). In: D. Kereković, R. Źróbek (ed.). GIS for Geoscientists. Croatian Information Technology Association – GIS Forum, University of Silesia, Zagreb, 143-158.

stamps mostly Pansiana. 11/ Vela luka, Korčula island - villa rustica; 12/ Žrnovno bay, Korčula island – villa rustica, olive press and vaulted cistern. 13/ Donje polje near , island of Korčula– villa rustica with larger pieces of ceramic floor; 14/ Sevce, Korčula island- villa rustica;15/ Višnja polje, Korčula –villa rustica, part of pythos labeled volumes (XXI) and fragments of an amphora have been found; 16/ Prapratna - On a mild pass between fields and bays Prapratna Mirje there are the remains of large Roman villa rustica. Torkular podium was found there; 17/ Majsan island - villa rustica; 18/ Javić, Korčula - villa rustica; 19/ Kneža, bay Kneža, Korčula - villa rustica. It was discovered the heating system (hypocaust), parts of the mosaic floor; 20/ Erešove bare near Narona – villa suurbana; 21/ Borovci near ; 22/ Slano; 23/ Lapad near Dubrovnik - there are the remains of a rural-agricultural building (villa rustica) and were found a marble head from the 1 century AD and Roman coin of Gordian from 3th century AD; 24/ Mlini near Epidaurum – villa is located near the fertile land of Konavli. Its remains show some elements of monumental architecture, (there were found marbles, mosaics, and the coins of Galeria, Maksimian, Herculia, Constantin I and Cons tantin II (Zaninović 1988, 97).

Conclusion In the course of the ongoing research project “Archaeological Topography of Croatia in Classical Antiquity” the application of a new GIS procedure made it possible to make reconstructions of some Roman sites and past landscapes (landscape in classical antiquity) on the territory of today Dubrovnik-Neretva County (Croatia) The GIS approach to the study of changes in historical landscapes indicated that the greatest transformation of the landscape occurred in the Roman period. Territorial creativity was high in the Roman time, when a completely new landscape identity appeared after the 2nd/1st century BC in Dalmatia. The new markers in the landscape consisted of: 1) Military camps; 2) Cities – colonies and settlements; 3) Roman villas; 4) A network of roads and aqueducts; 5) Ports. We started with the study of Roman architectural features as the markers in the landscape. The goal of the project “Archaeological Topography of Croatia in Classical Antiquity” is to build a geocoded database of the archaeological sites on the territory of the present-day Republic of Croatia. The collaborative project "A New GIS Procedure for the Reconstruction of the Landscape in Classical Antiquity" has the objective to reconstruct ancient landscapes and study long-term changes in archaeological landscapes relative to the physical geography. In the initial phase we have focused on the Roman settlements (urban and rural, military and civilian) and on the Roman roads and aqueducts and studied their spatial interrelationship and their relationship to the physical geography. And the study of ancient ports as well. These were the most important markers in the landscape of the changes brought by the Roman domination. The imperial exploitation of the countryside extended into the adjacent wetlands and forests, changing the landscape. Such lands were systematically drained or cleared and used for cash crops, what intensified the building of towns and of rural villas. Roman settlement had the roots in the commercial and strategic needs of the expanding power in the eastern Adriatic territory and in the exploitation of the local resources. Roman villas as the centres of the agriculturally productive landscape were settled and connected in relationship to military camps, veteran colonies and civilian trading and manufacturing sites. The Romans established in the provinces a communication network of waterways and land roads, both imperial highways and regional roads, whose traces are often found archaeologically. Local roads are the least visible in archaeological record, but could be reconstructed based on spatial relationship between rural villas and urban settlements. Navigable rivers have always been major communication arteries, connecting nucleated or dispersed settlements and entire regions. The maritime routes along the eastern Adriatic coast were the easiest way in connecting the Mediterranean region with the middle . The archaeological topography of the Early is best researched so far. The landscape of this period is studied on the base of several aspects: 1) The territory and agricultural area around cities and colonies (Roman ager); 2) The landscape around villas – agriculture and forestry area, riverside, coastal and island landscape, especially of maritime villas; 3) Agriculture and forestry landscape close to the Roman roads and aqueducts. The long-term change in natural landscape is most noticeable along the Eastern Adriatic coast, which has sunk about 2 meters in the last 2000 years. The consequences of this phenomenon are clearly visible on the now submerged Roman architectural

148 Begović V., Schrunk I., Kereković D. (2012). The landscape changes in Classical Antiquity in Roman Dalmatia (territory of today Dubrovnik-Neretva County - Croatia). In: D. Kereković, R. Źróbek (ed.). GIS for Geoscientists. Croatian Information Technology Association – GIS Forum, University of Silesia, Zagreb, 143-158.

features. Changes along the river banks and in the river courses are more difficult to document in archaeological record. Some have been studied on the territory of Narona in the Neretva delta. Maritime villas visibly stood out in the landscape and were important, marked orientation points. They have guard facilities (mentioned by Pliny the Younger) with panoramic views, from which the vast sea areas and important maritime routes between the islands and land could be controlled. Besides having a residential purpose, they also played an important role in navigation in general along the eastern Adriatic coast. Villas also meant safe and protected ports, supplies of food and water for ships, and the repair of vessels and ship equipment. They were linked with urban centres, with which they formed a network of navigation and stopping points. They were located in strategically important places on maritime routes and played an important role in signaling as we can see from the Roman wallpaintings (maritime villas with light house) from Pompei and Stabiae. In our study we noticed a significant difference between the Early Empire period and the late antique period in the economy and the exploitation of the land with consequences on the landscape. In Late Antiquity, the economic and strategic function, especially of the villas near the main roads and on the shipping routes, was essential. The villas were still central in the landscape of Histria in the sixth century when Cassiodorus wrote in a letter how they glistened far and wide, like a line of pearls (Variae XII, 22). The development from Roman villas to late antique settlements, are known from some sites in Dalmatia. The extent of research and archaeological excavations is uneven and the topographic data and the possibilities for reconstruction of ancient landscapes will be different for the various part of Roman Dalmatia.

149 Begović V., Schrunk I., Kereković D. (2012). The landscape changes in Classical Antiquity in Roman Dalmatia (territory of today Dubrovnik-Neretva County - Croatia). In: D. Kereković, R. Źróbek (ed.). GIS for Geoscientists. Croatian Information Technology Association – GIS Forum, University of Silesia, Zagreb, 143-158.

FIGURES

1. Peutingeriana Map from 4th century – part of Roman Dalmatia

150 Begović V., Schrunk I., Kereković D. (2012). The landscape changes in Classical Antiquity in Roman Dalmatia (territory of today Dubrovnik-Neretva County - Croatia). In: D. Kereković, R. Źróbek (ed.). GIS for Geoscientists. Croatian Information Technology Association – GIS Forum, University of Silesia, Zagreb, 143-158.

2. The digital map of Dubrovnik Neretva County with archaeological sites (D. Kereković)

151 Begović V., Schrunk I., Kereković D. (2012). The landscape changes in Classical Antiquity in Roman Dalmatia (territory of today Dubrovnik-Neretva County - Croatia). In: D. Kereković, R. Źróbek (ed.). GIS for Geoscientists. Croatian Information Technology Association – GIS Forum, University of Silesia, Zagreb, 143-158.

3. Neretva delta with coastal swamps

152 Begović V., Schrunk I., Kereković D. (2012). The landscape changes in Classical Antiquity in Roman Dalmatia (territory of today Dubrovnik-Neretva County - Croatia). In: D. Kereković, R. Źróbek (ed.). GIS for Geoscientists. Croatian Information Technology Association – GIS Forum, University of Silesia, Zagreb, 143-158.

4. Cavtat - today city built on the remains of antique Epidaurum

5. Maritime villa in Ubli, island of Lastovo with protected bays of Veli i Mali Lago

153 Begović V., Schrunk I., Kereković D. (2012). The landscape changes in Classical Antiquity in Roman Dalmatia (territory of today Dubrovnik-Neretva County - Croatia). In: D. Kereković, R. Źróbek (ed.). GIS for Geoscientists. Croatian Information Technology Association – GIS Forum, University of Silesia, Zagreb, 143-158.

6. Maritime villa on Lumbarda, Korčula island

154 Begović V., Schrunk I., Kereković D. (2012). The landscape changes in Classical Antiquity in Roman Dalmatia (territory of today Dubrovnik-Neretva County - Croatia). In: D. Kereković, R. Źróbek (ed.). GIS for Geoscientists. Croatian Information Technology Association – GIS Forum, University of Silesia, Zagreb, 143-158.

7. Maritime villa on Polače, island of Mljet

155 Begović V., Schrunk I., Kereković D. (2012). The landscape changes in Classical Antiquity in Roman Dalmatia (territory of today Dubrovnik-Neretva County - Croatia). In: D. Kereković, R. Źróbek (ed.). GIS for Geoscientists. Croatian Information Technology Association – GIS Forum, University of Silesia, Zagreb, 143-158.

8. Maritime villa on Sustjepan promontory near Epidaurum

9. Roman inscriptions curved in the rock in Tiha Bay 1 century AD

156 Begović V., Schrunk I., Kereković D. (2012). The landscape changes in Classical Antiquity in Roman Dalmatia (territory of today Dubrovnik-Neretva County - Croatia). In: D. Kereković, R. Źróbek (ed.). GIS for Geoscientists. Croatian Information Technology Association – GIS Forum, University of Silesia, Zagreb, 143-158.

10. Ston city and surrounding – aerial photo

SOURCES 1. APPIANUS translate 1912, Appianus of , Appian's Roman History (Historia Romana), The Loeb Classical Lobrary 4, Cambridge: Harvard University Press 2. PLINY THE ELDER translate 1942, Pliny the Elder, Natural History (Naturalis Historia), LCL, Cambridge: Harvard University Press 3. PLINY THE YOUNGER translate 1962, Pliny the Younger, Epistulae, Bloomington: Indiana University Press 4. M. Vitruvius P. 1958, De Architectura libri decem, trans. M. Lopac, Sarajevo

157 Begović V., Schrunk I., Kereković D. (2012). The landscape changes in Classical Antiquity in Roman Dalmatia (territory of today Dubrovnik-Neretva County - Croatia). In: D. Kereković, R. Źróbek (ed.). GIS for Geoscientists. Croatian Information Technology Association – GIS Forum, University of Silesia, Zagreb, 143-158.

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