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Revenue Service E.A. Stevens : The Stevens Family’s Civil War Experiment in Modern Naval . . . . . By William H. Thiesen

Figure 1. “The Stevens Steam Gun- Naugatuck , now at Fortress Monroe.” Illustration from Harper’s Weekly , 1862. (All photographs courtesy of the Naval History & Heritage Command).

The Revenue Cutter Revenue Cutter Service’s willingness to Service played a unique role in the nine - experiment with untested naval technolo - teenth century technological transition gy. This unique vessel also testifies to the from wood and to iron and steam. In wealth of innovations based on iron and the 1840s, it built some of the federal gov - steam and introduced by New ’s ernment’s first iron . The service also Stevens family, the period’s most prolific adopted ’s successful screw family of marine engineers and inventors. and experimented with the (Figure 1) unsuccessful Hunter horizontal wheel During the late-eighteenth and early system. The Revenue Cutter nineteenth centuries, all forms of mecha - Service’s Civil War-era gunboat E.A. nized technology saw a sea change in Stevens serves another example of the motive power and construction materials.

NAUTICAL RESEARCH JOURNAL 141 Born in 1749, technological innova - tor John Stevens began his career as a lawyer and played an important part in developing early American patent legisla - tion for American inventions. In fact, he was one of the first citizens to receive a patent under the legislation. John Stevens’s true calling proved to be engineering and inventing. He worked diligently on a way to provide steam navigation on the Hudson River. In the early 1800s, he developed the first screw propeller used in and the first successful multi-tube steam . Both of these advanced marine technolo - gies saw use in 1804, but they were not widely adopted until much later. Stevens next focused his efforts on steam railroad - ing, obtaining charters from the states of Figure 2. Edwin A. Stevens. Line engraving published in and . With the The Stevens Ironclad Battery , 1874. oversight of his capable sons, Robert and Edwin, these railroading ventures would Newly developed associated become very profitable. with iron and steam power, including John’s sons also played an impor - heavy machinery and railroads, replaced tant role in developing new iron and the medieval forms of technology associat - steam-related technologies, especially ed with wood and energy. By the mid- those related to railroads and navigation. nineteenth century, technology Stevens’s eldest, John Cox Stevens, proved witnessed rapid technological change and, an excellent yachtsman and, in 1804, in the years leading up to the American piloted the family’s first screw-propelled Civil War, inventors took specific interest boat from New Jersey across the Hudson in new naval technology. These men River to City. He also founded applied steam and iron to already existing the New York Club and captained of war, such as , semi- the fast America , which brought submersibles, ironclads, rams, ordnance, the coveted America ’s Cup to the United mines, and torpedoes. States in 1851. During the late eighteenth century John Stevens’s younger sons Robert and early nineteenth century, the Stevens Livingston Stevens and Edwin family of northern New Jersey proved one Stevens furthered their father’s work in of the world’s most prolific groups of inno - developing new nautical technology. Robert vators of naval, military, maritime, and Stevens received excellent instruction locomotive technology. They relied on the under tutors and in his father’s experimen - new technologies of steam and iron and tal work. He designed the fast yacht, tried to solve the issues of naval defense, Maria , which defeated America before that transportation, and navigation found in vessel captured the America ’s Cup from their region, including northern New in 1851. He helped his father Jersey, along the Hudson River, and around build Juliana , which established the . world’s first steam line by connecting

142 Vol. 54, No.3 FALL 2009 New York City with northern New Jersey. 1830, Edwin became the first manager and He assisted in the design and construction treasurer for the Stevens-owned Camden of the steamer Phoenix , the first American and Amboy Railroad. He would this steamer to navigate waters and the key position with the railroad for another first steam ferry to navigate the Delaware thirty-five years. (Figure 2) River. Robert also pioneered railroad engi - In addition to steam machinery and neering, inventing the T-rail and standard shipping, the Stevens family interested bolts and nuts for railroad tracks, as well as itself in developing new naval technology the “hook-headed” spike. Moreover, Robert as early as the . During that invented marine technology, such as the war, they conducted the world’s first exper - hogging truss and skeletal walking ; iments in naval armor and ordnance. and ordnance innovations, such as Similar experiments conducted by the fed - America’s first percussion . eral government failed to materialize until Edwin A. Stevens worked side-by- later in the nineteenth century. By 1815, side with his father and brothers on vari - the Stevens’ suggested the construction of ous engineering works. He even invented a an armored fleet for the United States new plow design and a special “two-horse . Their campaign began well before dump wagon.” Nevertheless, Edwin’s the French considered construction of their genius lay in business, management, and armored vessels in the late 1850s. By the marketing. By the age of twenty-five, John late 1830s, Robert Stevens had begun Stevens noticed Edwin’s talents and made designing a large ironclad battery, and he him the trustee of nearly all of the Stevens and his brother Edwin began lobbying the family estate. While Robert spent his time Navy Department to fund the cost of the engineering and inventing new technology . for the Stevens enterprises, Edwin success - By 1841, amid a war scare with fully ran a freight and stage line Great Britain over the disputed border with between New York and . In , Edwin, and Robert Stevens pro -

Figure 3. “The Stevens -Proof Battery as it will appear when completed.” Illustration from Harper’s Weekly , 1861.

NAUTICAL RESEARCH JOURNAL 143 posed building an armored steam warship for the Navy. After tests of the Stevens’ armor plate and study - ing designs presented by the Stevens brothers, the House Committee on Naval Affairs ruled in favor of building the . In the spring of 1842, Congress author - ized funding for the project and, by early 1843, Congress appropriated to the Stevens brothers $250,000 to underwrite start-up costs for a new armored steam battery. The cost included tools, supplies, and ship - Figure 4. Contemporary model of the Civil War gunboat Naugatuck , ways to support construction of designed to demonstrate the unique gun mounting. what generally became known as the “.” At 415 feet, the design proved much larger and costlier than ironclads and moni - tors built during the Civil War; however, design and construction of the Stevens Battery during the 1850s likely shaped the ideas of armored warship builders overseas and in on both sides of the Civil War. (Figure 3) The iron steamer that became the United States Revenue Cutter Service gunboat E.A. Figure 5. above) Contemporary Stevens began its serv - model of the Stevens family’s unique twin propeller arrange - ice life well before its ment. Civil War service. Built in 1844, the vessel dis - Figure 6. (left) Cast iron Stevens propeller. Line engraving pub - placed 192 and lished in The Stevens Ironclad measured 101 feet in Battery , 1874. length and about twenty feet across the beam. Originally named Naugatuck , the vessel proved one of the first iron propeller ships to navigate American waters. Constructed by the New York City locomotive builder H.R. Dunham & Company, the small vessel served the Ansonia Copper and Brass Company out of Derby, . During the Figure 7. Contemporary model of the Civil War gunboat Naugatuck , Showing the armor belt and thick cedar bulwark.

144 Vol. 54, No.3 FALL 2009 1850s, Naugatuck ran between New design. (Figure 4) Stevens replaced the and possibly Norwich and New original drive train with the Stevens fami - York. ly’s unique twin propeller arrangement. In 1856, engineer Robert Stevens (Figure 5) He also incorporated passed away, leaving his younger brother tanks fore and within the original iron Edwin to oversee reconstruction of . The New York Times reported on Naugatuck into a unique steam gunboat. March 22, 1862, that “The Naugatuck is By 1861, Stevens had purchased the vessel not intended to be a model of Mr. Stevens’ to experiment with innovations associated iron-clad battery, but is designed to illus - with the much larger Stevens Battery , trate one or two novel ideas connected which still sat unfinished on the Stevens’s with that monstrous of war, viz: shipways in Hoboken. The reconstructed The ability to sink and raise a vessel with Naugatuck would prove revolutionary in great rapidity; to turn and manage her by many ways and included a number of means of two located one on patented innovations. In 1861 and early each side of the ; also, taking up the 1862, Stevens rebuilt the arrange - recoil of the gun by means of -rub - ment to support one heavy fixed ber.” (Figure 6) During this conversion, amidships on a unique mount of his Stevens named the small iron ship for

Figure 8. Contemporary model of the Civil War gunboat Naugatuck , showing the deckhouses and stack.

NAUTICAL RESEARCH JOURNAL 145 himself; however, many contemporary deckhouses located amidships and on the newspapers and later mistaken - after deck of the gunboat. Positioned for - ly termed E.A. Stevens the Stevens Battery . ward of the smoke stack, the pilothouse Edwin Stevens intended his little served as the captain’s station while under - gunboat to operate in the shallow inland way. During the vessel’s tour of duty on the waterways of the South. To fulfill his goal, , the crew attached boilerplate he designed into the iron hull ballast tanks to the pilothouse as armor against musket located both fore and aft. The tanks also fire and ship’s captain David Constable incorporated a patented new gum elastic reported how musket balls hitting the liner Stevens used to ensure the tanks’ armor sounded like hailstones raining watertight seal. These ballast tanks made down in a storm. The after deckhouse the Stevens a semi-submersible, allowing served as the and quarters for the the vessel to submerge up to three feet to three officers. It received protective iron an overall depth of nine feet. This lowered plating like the pilothouse. The vessel’s the gunboat’s profile, thereby minimizing enlisted crew of twenty men slept below the vessel’s exposure to enemy fire and decks in a located between placing the vessel’s vulnerable steam the and the forward ballast machinery below the . Edwin tank. Their quarters also served as the Stevens equipped the tanks with heavy- loading room for the main gun during duty Andrews Centrifugal Pumps that combat operations. (Figure 8) could fill the tanks in only eight minutes. E.A. Stevens proved a useful plat - Conversely, if E.A. Stevens ran aground form for testing ordnance innovations as while ballasted, pumping out the tanks well as new naval designs. The gunboat could float the vessel in minutes. carried three cannon, including two twelve- Moreover, by pumping the ballast tanks pound Dahlgren howitzers, one mounted dry, the gunboat doubled its speed from a on a pivot on each side. In addition, the little over five miles per hour to eleven. ship received the first 100-pound rifled Many contemporaries and maritime Parrott gun to roll off the production line. historians have associated E.A. Stevens The diminutive vessel sported a unique with Civil War ironclads, such as muzzle-loading system in which the rifle’s and Galena , with which it served in the muzzle pivoted down to an opening in the Union Navy’s James River . vessel’s forward deck, where the crew could Some sources even referred to the diminu - load it below decks. With this system, the tive warship as the “Hoboken Ironclad.” main gun could be loaded in twenty-five However, E.A. Stevens did not share much seconds without exposing any of the crew in common with these warships. While its to enemy fire. The main gun’s carriage also hull boasted all iron construction, its only incorporated Edwin Stevens’s patented armor consisted of a low-lying angled India rubber gun suspension system, armor band or skirt surrounding the main which absorbed over fourteen inches of the deck. This band covered a wooden bulwark gun’s recoil movement. built of solid cedar, which rose eighteen E.A. Stevens ’s new technology also inches above the deck and measured four- included an innovative propulsion system. and-a-half feet in depth. The bulwark sur - Edwin retained Naugatuck ’s original steam rounded the deck, keeping water off it and , but he replaced the single screw providing slight cover from enemy fire. with the Stevens twin-screw propeller sys - (Figure 7) tem. The Stevens family had pioneered the E.A. Stevens also supported two development of the twin-screw system

146 Vol. 54, No.3 FALL 2009 since the beginning of the century and it Department ordered the gunboat to steam only made sense to test that technology south from New York to . under combat conditions. With the twin It did so with a crew of over twenty men screws, E.A. Stevens could revolve in a full that included a boatswain, gunner, carpen - circle within its own length in about two ter, steward, cook, two quartermasters, minutes. The gun carriage was fixed later - fourteen seamen, and a “servant.” The ally, so the twin-screw arrangement crew also included some of Stevens’s trust - allowed the captain to train the gun using ed associates, including William W. the helm and the maneuverability of the Shippen, a manager with the Stevens’s screws. Moreover, with its top speed of over Hoboken Land and Improvement ten miles per hour considered quite fast for Company. Shippen took command of the a small vessel of the day, the gunboat also vessel, with Revenue Cutter Service lieu - served the role of a dispatch vessel and for tenants J. Wall Wilson and E.L. Morton quickly delivering the wounded to the serving under him. Stevens engineer, Union Navy’s base of operations. Thomas Lingle, who installed the gun - Edwin Stevens had to find a federal boat’s new and improved machinery, took agency interested in his new vessel, so he the job of and remained in offered E.A. Stevens to the Union Navy free that position into 1863. of charge. The navy, however, declined his On April 9, 1862, E.A. Stevens offer. because it saw the vessel’s technology reached Hampton Roads and the Union as untested. Next, Stevens turned to the Navy’s base of operations to join the North United States Revenue Cutter Service, Atlantic Blockading Squadron’s James which welcomed the opportunity to oper - River Squadron. On April 11, under the ate its own steam-powered gunboat. In command of Captain Shippen, E.A. mid-March of 1861, the Treasury Stevens exchanged fire with CSS

Figure 9. E.A. Stevens with other ironclads: Monitor and New Ironsides .

NAUTICAL RESEARCH JOURNAL 147 when the ironclad emerged from its Sewell’s Point, near Norfolk. The anchorage near Craney Island. Virginia’s Confederate ironclad emerged briefly to primary target, USS Monitor , declined threaten the Union forces, but eventually action, so the hostilities proved inconclu - declined the uneven fight and returned to sive. its anchorage. By May 10, Confederate On April 29, veteran Revenue forces had evacuated Norfolk, leaving the Cutter Service officer, David deep-draught Virginia with neither a defen - Constable, relieved Shippen and took com - sible homeport nor a feasible escape route. mand of the gunboat and its crew of two On the evening of May 10, commanding dozen. By the time he became captain of officer ran the ironclad E.A. Stevens , Constable had already devel - aground near Craney Island and set it on oped into a veteran officer. He received his fire. Early the next morning the flames first commission as third lieutenant in reached the ironclad’s , blowing up what remained of the historic warship. After the destruction of CSS Virginia , the Confederates retained only a few lightly armed to counter the superior forces of the Union Navy. In an effort to renew his Peninsular Campaign, General George McClellan requested a squadron to force its way up the James River Figure 10. Bombardment of Fort Darling, Drewry's Bluff, Virginia. Contemporary pencil and threaten Richmond sketch by F.H. Wilcke. from the water. To fulfill 1852. He made his way up the ranks and this request, North Blockading Squadron by 1858, had become executive officer of , Officer Louis M. the cutter Harriet Lane . Constable had Goldsborough, assigned Commodore John served as executive officer under distin - Rodgers the command of the James River guished cutter captain John Faunce on Squadron, which included the navy’s April 12, 1862, when Harriet Lane fired wooden warships Aroostook and Royal , the first naval shot of the Civil War near the ironclads Monitor and Galena , and the Fort Sumter. gunboat E.A. Stevens . It would prove the On May 8, under Constable’s com - first time-true test of the three innovative mand, the gunboat enjoyed another oppor - warship designs side-by-side under battle tunity to engage CSS Virginia . E.A. Stevens conditions. (Figure 9) accompanied Monitor and several other Located eight miles south of Union warships in an effort to engage local Richmond, with an elevation of approxi - Confederate batteries and draw Virginia out mately 100 feet, Drewry’s Bluff remains of its anchorage. With President Lincoln one of the highest promontories on the observing from a steam tug, the Union ves - shores of the James River. It overlooks the sels shelled Confederate positions at James at a sharp bend in the river, provid -

148 Vol. 54, No.3 FALL 2009 Figure 11. Matthew Brady photograph of the ironclad Galena after the Battle of Drewry’s Bluff. A plugged shot hole is visible a little abaft the nearer 11-inch Dahlgren smoothbore, close to the waterline. ing an ideal location for a fortified position Confederate gunboats in the as to attack approaching vessels. Such a gun obstructions to navigation and hauled emplacement would enjoy the use of some of those vessels’ ordnance to the fort plunging fire, which is easier to place on on top of the bluff. When the James River targets and has a devastating effect on any Squadron appeared in the morning of May kind of ship. In early May 1862, the 15, 1862, the battery included eight heavy Confederates worked feverishly on the cannon manned by local Confederate land bluff’s fortifications in preparation for an forces and some naval personnel. The expected attack. They sank a number of Battle of Drewry’s Bluff would prove the

NAUTICAL RESEARCH JOURNAL 149 first true test of E.A. Stevens under combat from enemy sharpshooters and musket conditions. (Figure 10) fire. The Union warships experienced E.A. Stevens continued to pour only minor resistance during their passage rounds into the enemy fortifications, how - up the James River to reach the fortifica - ever, the gunboat suffered from the same tions at Drewry’s Bluff. At 7:45 a.m., on problem as Monitor . Stevens designed the May 15, the battle opened when Rodgers’ gunboat’s main ordnance to battle Galena approached to within 400 Confederate warships in the shallow yards of the sunken obstructions. The waters of the South’s inland waterways and Confederates opened fire and Galena sus - not for shore bombardment of enemy land tained two hits at the very start. fortifications. In any case, E.A. Stevens ’s Commodore Rodgers calmly moved Galena bombardment came to an abrupt halt into position, using its and spring when its 100-pound Parrott rifle burst lines, so the vessel could pour a while firing on Confederate positions. The into the Confederate positions. Galena explosion blew off the gun’s breech, damag - fired round after round of cannon fire into ing the pilothouse and the ship’s deck. the fort and managed to cause some dam - Despite losing its main gun, the gunboat age, but Galena got far worse treatment continued to fight its twelve-pound how - than it gave. The ironclad received approx - itzers with canister and solid shot against imately forty-five hits of which eighteen enemy shore emplacements. penetrated its armor. (Figure 11) By 11:00 a.m., Galena had suffered After Galena made contact with the severe damage, exhausted its ammunition, Confederate batteries, USS Monitor made and sustained thirteen dead and many its own approach. The ironclad closed in wounded. After four hours of dueling with on the fortifications at about 9:00 a.m., the Rebels, Rodgers ordered the fleet to and began shelling the Confederate posi - retire down river. E.A. Stevens had experi - tions. However, John Ericsson had designed enced relatively few casualties despite the Monitor for naval combat rather than shore hail of musket fire, enemy shelling, and its bombardment, so its cannon could not ele - catastrophic ordnance failure. One of the vate sufficiently to hit the fort at the top of crew received a shot in the arm and anoth - Drewry’s Bluff. After causing slight damage er suffered a serious contusion. The cap - to the Confederate fort and sustaining hits tain, Lieutenant David Constable, from the Confederate guns, Monitor retired sustained a injury from shrapnel fly - downstream. (Figure 12) ing off the exploding Parrott gun, but With the confined width of the remained at his station directing the broad - James River at Drewry’s Bluff, and Galena side guns and commanding the ship anchored near the fortifications, the throughout the remainder of the battle. squadron’s vessels could only file in one at The James River Squadron retired to a time. After the withdrawal of Monitor , City Point, with E.A. Stevens arriving that E.A. Stevens moved up to take its place. evening and the rest of the squadron arriv - The Stevens’s technological innovations ing in the morning of May 16. (Figure 14) worked effectively to protect the ship. The On the 16th, Rodgers convened a board, gunboat sustained no heavy damage from composed of squadron officers, to examine the enemy’s plunging fire as it sat partly the remains of the Parrott rifle and deter - submerged and firing its . mine the cause of its failure. The board Moreover, the gunboat’s ordnance loading concluded that rigorous testing and experi - system successfully protected the crew mentation before installation on board E.A.

150 Vol. 54, No.3 FALL 2009 Figure 12. "View of the Attack on Fort Darling, in the James River, by Commander Rogers's Gun-Boat , ' Galena ', 'Monitor ', etc." Line engraving published in Harper's Weekly , 1862.

NAUTICAL RESEARCH JOURNAL 151 Stevens had weakened the gun, which was 29, while the gunboat underwent these the first of its kind produced by the manu - repairs, President Lincoln honored facturer. Meanwhile, the gunboat received Constable by promoting him to full cap - the squadron’s wounded and proceeded tain before an audience of his full cabinet. downriver shortly thereafter to Fort Soon afterward, the Treasury Department Monroe. transferred Constable to a new assign - E.A. Stevens had been operating in ment, but not one near the front lines of Virginia waters since early April 1862. the war. Even though its main gun remained shat - By mid-July 1862, the gunboat had tered, Commodore Rodgers still felt it made its way to New York City to become could provide good service to the James for the . Months of this River Squadron. Nevertheless, the vessel monotonous duty likely caused great bore - saw no serious action after Drewry’s Bluff. dom among the crew, requiring the com - On May 26, 1862, the Treasury manding officer to order them thrown in Department ordered the gunboat to depart on a regular basis. Occasionally, they Hampton Roads and steam north to the received a harsher sentence, as in the case Navy Yard for repairs. On May of Steward Joseph McCaster, who “was

Figure 13. Contemporary pencil sketch, with colors of and smoke lightly worked in, depicting the Union ships Galena, Monitor, Aroostook, Port Royal and Naugatuck (listed as shown, left to right) bombarding the Confederate fort at Drewry's Bluff.

152 Vol. 54, No.3 FALL 2009 Figure 14. Sketch, possibly by Edward H. Schmidt (a crewman on USS Mahaska ) depicting the scene off City Point, James River, Virginia, shortly after the action of 15 May 1862. Items identified by numbers include: 1. USS Mahaska ; 2. Schooner N.C. Claver ; 3. tug Dragon ; 4. USS Monitor ; 5. USS Wachusett ; 6. chartered steamer; 7. a schooner; 8. a gun - boat; 9. USS Galena , disabled; 10. City Point, James River, abandoned.

placed in irons and triced up twelve hours a steamer in the Revenue Cutter Service at the expiration of which time he was and never belonged to the United States placed in solitary confinement in double Navy. irons for two days for insolence to comdg. E.A. Stevens battle tested several officer.” In July 1863, the gunboat defend - unique naval technologies, including hid - ed the McDougal General Hospital at Fort den loading systems, rubber recoil Schuyler, playing a small role in the infa - absorbers, multiple screws, high-speed mous New York City Riots. On July water pumps, and ballast tanks. The use of 29, Treasury Secretary P. Chase ballast tanks in E.A. Stevens proved one of ordered the gunboat’s name to revert from the most successful applications of that E.A. Stevens back to Naugatuck . Out of its technology up to that time. The twin-screw forty-five years of its existence, the vessel system proved very useful for speed, held the name E.A. Stevens for little more maneuverability, and aiming the main gun. than three years. Despite the success of the vessel’s other After the conclusion of hostilities, innovations, its exploding gun marred an the Treasury Department assigned otherwise successful service history. Naugatuck responsibility for patrolling In an epilogue to this story, the North Carolina’s inland sounds, home - results of E.A. Stevens ’s combat record did ported at New Bern. Naugatuck served in little to bolster federal spending on the larg - this duty from late 1865 until the summer er Stevens Battery . The iron warship lan - of 1889, with periodic trips to New York, guished on the shipways during the war, Norfolk, and for maintenance while less expensive battle-proven moni - and repairs. Throughout its career as a tors rolled off the ways at several gunboat, E.A. Stevens /Naugatuck remained along the East Coast. Edwin Stevens tried

NAUTICAL RESEARCH JOURNAL 153 to interest the federal govern - ment in underwriting the com - pletion of the vessel, but it refused to fund completion of the warship. (Figure 15) In 1868, Edwin Stevens died rather suddenly while touring Europe. With his death, and with his experimental gunboat relegated to the backwaters of North Carolina, interest in completing the Stevens Battery faded and, finally, it was scrapped in 1881.

Figure 15. The hull of the Steven’s Battery, housed over, still under construction at Hoboken, New Jersey, in 1874. Line engraving published in The Stevens Ironclad Battery , 1874.

Sources April 30, 1862; November 19, 1862; May 6, 1863; October 5, 1888). Canney, Donald L., U.S. and Revenue Cutters, 1790-1935 . Annapolis: United Official Records of the Union and Confederate States Naval Institute, 1995. Navies in the War of the Rebellion , Series I, Vol. 7. Washington, D.C.: Government Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships , Vol. V. Printing Office, 1898. Washington, D.C.: Navy Department, 1970. Record of Movements: Vessels of the United States Coast Guard: 1790 - December 31, 1933 . Furman, Franklin de Ronde, ed., A History of the Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Stevens Institute of Technology with Printing Office, 1934. Biographies of the Trustees, Faculty, and Alumni and a Record of the Achievements “Register of U.S. Revenue Cutter Service Officers,” of the Stevens Family of Engineers . Vols. I-III; Entry 17, Record Group 26: Hoboken, N.J.: Stevens Institute of Records of the United States Coast Guard; Technology, 1905. National Archives and Records Administration. Harper’s Weekly (April 26, 1862; May 3, 1862; May 31, 1862; August 30, 1862; September 13, “Revenue Marine Vessels, 1790-1880” Entry 162; 1862). Record Group 26: Records of the United States Coast Guard; National Archives and “Miscellaneous Correspondence, 1793-1893,” Records Administration. Entry 155; Record Group 26: Records of the United States Coast Guard; National Tucker, Spencer C., “The Stevens Battery,” The Archives and Records Administration. American Neptune 51: 1 (Winter 1991), 12- 21. Morrison, John H., History of American Steam Navigation . New York: W.F. Sametz, 1903. Turnbull, Archibald D., John Stevens: An American Record . New York: Century Co., 1928.

New York Herald (May 17, 1862).

New York Times (January 5, 1862; March 22, 1862;

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