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The Practices of Soviet Madrasa Students and Soviet Cultural Policy in the Middle East, 1955–1991 Zilola Khalilova, Al-Beruni Institute of Oriental Studies, Tashkent

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The Practices of Soviet Madrasa Students and Soviet Cultural Policy in the Middle East, 1955–1991 Zilola Khalilova, Al-Beruni Institute of Oriental Studies, Tashkent No. 27 2021 “Believers don’t do politics”:* The practices of Soviet madrasa students and Soviet cultural policy in the Middle East, 1955–1991 Zilola Khalilova, Al-Beruni Institute of Oriental Studies, Tashkent Abstract1 Keywords: Mir-i Arab Madrasa, Tashkent Islam Institute, Middle East, In 1943, the Soviet government decided to reverse its Soviet Islam, correspondence, Muslim students policy towards religious communities with the purpose Introduction of building alliances during the Second World War. With The history of international relations of the Soviet state, regard to Islam, it arranged for the establishment of a and in particular its policy in the Middle East and atti- Central Asian Spiritual Administration of Muslims (SAD- tudes towards Islam, have been covered in numerous UM) in Tashkent.2 Eventually, the state used SADUM to es- studies.3 However, Soviet madrasa students travelling tablish cultural diplomatic ties with some Middle Eastern to foreign Islamic universities have received less much countries by sending students of Soviet-based religious attention so far, as the significance of these exchanges schools – the Madrasas Mir-i Arab (1946–1991), Bara- for Soviet international relations remains unexplored qkhan (1956–1961) and the Tashkent Islam Institute, Oliy and unacknowledged. Ma’had, (1971–1991) – to study and gain experience in Is- In this essay, we will fill this gap by introducing the in- lamic universities of the Middle East, notably Egypt, Libya, stitutions of Islamic learning in Soviet Uzbekistan and Sudan, Morocco, Jordan, and Syria, between 1955–1991. then discussing the history of the foreign study expe- The main aim of this essay is to study the exchange expe- riences of Soviet Muslims who were trained at Islamic riences of these Soviet madrasa students in Middle East- Universities in Egypt, Libya, Sudan, Syria, Jordan, and ern countries and the ways this exchange became part of Morocco between 1955 and 1990. Soviet foreign policy. Studying the foreign madrasa edu- A small but growing body of scholarship has focused on cation of these Soviet students, their student life abroad, exchanges between Soviet Muslims and Middle East- and their activity, will shed some new light on religious ern countries.4 Different aspects of Islamic education policy in the Soviet period. The analysis of the activities in Central Asia have already been discussed by many of these students is based on their correspondence. Spe- researchers.5 Although these exchanges have been cat- cifically, I argue that these exchanges helped the Soviet egorized as a subset of Soviet foreign policy, or as an Union to strengthen its ties with foreign academic insti- aspect of the intellectual history of Central Asian Islam, tutions and Muslims in those countries. Strategically, it the content and individual aspect of Muslim students’ was to contribute to strengthening Soviet influence in the exchange with Middle Eastern countries, and its role Middle East which played an important role in its glob- al and regional political calculations. Here, I distinguish between the intended and unintended consequences 3 See, Marilyn Bechtel. The USSR and the countries of Africa and of those foreign connections. Although the Party and Asia, in Nations & peoples: The Soviet Experience, ed. by Marilyn govern ment viewed this activity in primarily instrumental Bechtel and Daniel Rosenberg. New York: NWR publications, 1984, 175–188; Eren Tasar. Soviet and Muslim: The Institutionalization of terms, I suggest that the students used the opportunities Islam in Central Asia. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017. to exchange ideas with their foreign interlocutors, which also had its own impact on religious discourse and prac- 4 James Pickett. Soviet Civilization through a Persian Lens: Iranian tice upon their return to Central Asia. Intellectuals, Cultural Diplomacy and Socialist Modernity 1941–55, Iranian Studies, 2015, 48 (5), 805–826; Jeff Eden, Paolo Sartori. “Moving Beyond Modernism: Rethinking Cultural Change in Muslim Eurasia (19th–20th Centuries)“, Journal of the Economic and Social * This is a remark by the head of SADUM’s International Depart- History of the Orient 59, 2016, 1–36; Empire, Islam, and Politics ment, Yusufkhan Shokirov, during an interview he gave to a in Central Eurasia, ed. by Uyama Tomohiko. Sapporo: Slavic Re- correspondent of the French newspaper Le Monde. See the official search Center, 2007. statement of Shokirov, 1978, Tashkent, TsGARUz (Central State archives of Uzbekistan), f.2456, op.1, d.601, 16–17. 5 Ashirbek Muminov, Uygun Gafurov, Rinat Shigabiddinov. “Islamic Education in Soviet and post Soviet Uzbekistan”, in Islamic Educa- 1 I would like to thank Katrin Bromber, Eren Tasar, Akram Khabibul- tion in the Soviet Union and its Successor States, ed. by Michael layev, Kyara Klausmann and the editors and anonymous reviewers Kemper, Raoul Motika and Stefan Reichmuth. London, New York: of the ZMO Working Papers series at Leibniz-Zentrum Moderner Routledge, 2010, 223–280; Anke von Kügelgen. “Moral Education Orient, Berlin for their invaluable help in improving this article. This in Central Asia, 19th–21st Centuries: The Foundations for Sufi, research was supported by a grant from ZMO. Jadīd, Soviet, National, and Islamist Ethics”, in The Piety of Learn- ing. Islamic Studies in Honor of Stefan Reichmuth, ed. by Michael 2 Sredneaziatskoye duxovnoye upravleniye musulman. Kemper, Ralf Elger. Brill, 2017, 76–104. www.leibniz-zmo.de working papers 27 · 2021 · 1 in broader cultural processes has yet to be studied in to, the friendships they developed in Arab countries, depth. and the ways in which they understood Soviet, Cen- In general, the scholarship on Islam in Soviet Central tral Asian, and Uzbek identity. Taking a closer look at Asia has not prioritized Muslim exchanges as an inde- these individuals promises not only to provide a more pendent topic. It has, understandably, focused instead nuanced picture of Soviet Islam, but also of the role of on developing an understanding of the basic institu- religion in people’s lives in the Soviet Union. tions and policies toward Islam under communism.6 My To understand the situation in the field of Islamic educa- research is heavily indebted to this new literature, which tion and practice we should begin with a brief overview proves that the Islamic sphere under communism in of the past, answering the following question: What are spite of state and party control was marked by a high the contours of the traditions of Islamic learning in con- degree of dynamism and internal debate. This more re- temporary Central Asia? Here we will focus on the tra- cent literature has supplanted an older body of schol- ditions of Islamic learning and the relationship between arship that, for the most part, did not rest on close en- the state and Islam in the Soviet Union. gagement with primary sources. Using these advances The second part of this paper introduces the interna- as a basis, I want to delve deeper into an important tional interactions of Soviet Muslims even though they and hitherto unexplored aspect of Muslim activity in were living in a closed society. Based on our examina- Soviet Central Asia. tions of archival data and the results of field research My analysis of the activities of Muslim students who we focus on the relationship between Islam and state studied in Islamic universities in the second half of the in the USSR, highlighting the following questions: Why twentieth century in Uzbekistan rests on documents did the Soviet government, while claiming to strength- from the Central State archives of Uzbekistan and the en atheism, send cadres of Muslims to study abroad archive of the Uzbekistan Muslim Board. It aims to con- as part of a special mission? How did the Soviet state textualize and provide further details about Islamic ed- open access to studying Islamic knowledge abroad ucation in the Soviet Union by examining the engage- against the background of a closed society, and how ments of Islamic leaders and Muslim students who did Central Asian Muslims use this opportunity for their studied abroad. This will hopefully contribute to the own benefit? In this context, we will also have a look at understanding of the relationship between Islamic ed- the position of Soviet ulema on the international stage. ucation and the state – from the perspective of the Un- How did the Soviet state choose the countries and uni- ion government in Moscow, and the Uzbek government versities for students to study abroad? in Tashkent. I build on a recent paper that suggests The Soviet Union established diplomatic relations with that Soviet international diplomacy created an opening Arab countries during the “Cold War”, to demonstrate for some Muslims to advance their own interests and its “religious freedom” to the world. After the Second develop further the existing institutions of Islamic ed- World War, it allowed the re-opening of three religious ucation. In this context, I seek to take a closer look at schools, the Mir-i Arab Madrasa, and the Tashkent Is- the position of Soviet religious scholars (ulema) on the lamic Institute.7 This process became entangled with international stage. Finally, I want to understand how Soviet foreign policy and diplomacy both in terms of Central Asian Muslims who studied abroad articulated propagating Soviet policies internationally and sup- their Sovietness and Muslimness, and how these ideas porting relations with Muslim countries; within this con- were impacted by their encounter with the Middle East. nection we will analyse the possibilities of advanced Furthermore, in order to have a full understanding of training of madrasa students at foreign Islamic univer- Islamic education, I will cover the organization of this sities in the Middle East. educational system, its curricula, the literature used It is remarkable that the Soviet state came to promote in class, the tutors and stipends, and the relations students studying abroad to demonstrate the “reli- with students in Middle Eastern institutions and their gious freedom” of the Muslim population and strength- activities.
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