CHARACTER-PORTRAYAL IN THE CENA TRIMALCHIONIS OF PETRONIUS

A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STODIES McGILL UNIVERSITY

In Partial Fulfilment Of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts

by

Carl Edward Brown

October 1956 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE

I. INTRODUCTION 1 1. Petronius: The Satzricon and the Cena Trimalchionis 1 2. Character of Trima1chio's Town 2

J. Dramatis Personae of the Banquet 4 4. The Seating Arrangement 7 5. Portraya1 of Freedmen by Contemporary Writers

II. CHARACTERIZATION IN PETRONIUS 11

III. THE HOST AND HOSTESS 16 1. Trima1chio 16 (a) Biographica1 Sketch 17 (b) Appraisa1 of Character 19 2. Fortunata

IV. TRIMALCHIO'S FELLOW-FREEDMEN 42 1. The Group 42 2. The Individua1s 46 Herme ros 46 Dio genes 55 Procu1us 55 Table of Contents Continued

Page

IV. (Continued) Dama 57 Se leu eus 57 Phileros 59 Ganymede 60 Echion 61 Niceros 63 Plo camus 65 Habinnas 65 Scintilla 69 v. CONCLUSION 70 APPENDIX A 72 APPENDIX B 76

BIBLIOGRAPHY 84 PREFACE

The aim of this thesis is to evaluate Petronius' skill in character-portrayal as it is revealed in the Cena Trimalchionis. The introductory section contains a brief discussion concerning the place the Cena Trimalchionis occupies in the Satyricon, the character of Trimalchio's town, the seating arrangement at the banquet, and the portrayal of freedmen by contemporary writers. Next, the main topic is dealt with, Petronius' skill in character­ drawing. The characters in the Cena are individually discussed and appraised. In the first chapter, for the banquet scene W.B. Sedgwick's edition is ueed; for the other sections of the Satyricon,Michael Heseltine's in the Loeb Library. In the other chapters and in the appendices the references are usually to Sedgwick's edition; the few exceptions are indicated in the foot-notes. 1.

INTRODUCTION

1. Petronius: The Satyricon and the Cena Trimalchionis

Gaius Petronius, a description of whom Tacitus has left in his Annals!1 ) is considered by most scholars to be the author of the Satyricon, the work containing the Cena Trimalchionis. Although most of his life was passed in idleness and luxury, Petronius possessed great ability. This he proved as proconsul of Bithynia and later as con­ sul. An authority on pleasure, he became a close companion of Nero's. His influence with the emperor, however, arous­ ed the jealousy of Tigellinus. Charged with conspiracy against Nero's life and believing destruction inevitable, he committed suicide. Only a small portion of the Satyricon is extant, fragments of books fifteen and sixteen. The work is a satiric romance relating the disreputable but amusing adventures of three unprincipled young men: Encolpius, a student of rhetoric, whom Petronius makes the narrator throughout the work, his friand Ascyltos, and the boy Giton over whom the two friends are constantly quarrelling. In sorne of their escapades an important role is played by Agamemnon, a professor of rhetoric. This individual is

(1) Tacitus, Annals, XVI, chs. 18-19. 2. asked to Trimalchio's banquet and Encolpius and Ascyltos, who are his students, are included in the invitation. Over one third of the extant portions of the Satyricon are devoted to the Cena Trimalchionis. In sorne respects this episode may be considered as another adventure of the three rogues for they are actually present at the banquet and participate in the activities there. However, since their ro1es are so sma11 (the principal actors being the host, the hostess, and the other guests), the Cena Trima1chionis is more in the nature of a digression 11ke the story of the Matron of Ephesus(2) and the poem on the Civil War of 49 B.C. (3)

2. Character of Trimalchio's Town Cum ae, Naples, and Puteoli have al1 been suggested as the scene of the Cena Trima1chionis. Of the three cities, Puteo1i seems to have the strongest case. (4 ) How­ ever, no certainty can be reached in this much disputed question; nor is it necessary for the purpose of this thesis. The social atmosphere in a11 three must have been very much the same. It is sufficient for our purpose to

(2 ~ 111-112 (3 119-124 (4) The~ takes place in a Roman colony (44.12). Of the three possibilities, only Puteoli seems to have been a colony in Petronius' day. G. Bagnani, "Trimalchio", -The Phoenix, VIII ( 1954), S2 know that the Cena takes place in a Greek city of Campania.(5) However, there are sorne characteristics of this city that may shed sorne light on the conversation and be­ haviour of those of its inhabitants that attend the ~· Even if it was Greek in origin, it is now thoroughly Romanized. All the inhabitants who are present at the banquet speak Latin. References are made to such typical Roman observances as the Saturnalia(6) and the Parentalia.(7) The freedmen are keen fans of the gladiatorial combats.(à) Although Trimalchio is a Semite(9) and cornes from the Greek­ speakihg east~lO) he has been thoroughly Romanized. All the signs in his house are written in Latin. He regards Greek as a foreign tongue; when sorne entertainers recite se­ lections from Homer, he reads from a Latin version for the benefit of his guests.(ll) His fluteplayer is taught to play Latin music and his troupe of comedians present Atel­ lan farces.(l2 ) He even considers himself an authority on Latin literature.(l3) The city of the Cena is situated so close to the ( 5 ) 81. (6) 44.3· (7) 69.2. (8) 45.4-6. (9) The name Trimalchio is partly derived from the Semitic word Melik in its occidental form Malchio. G. Bagnani, op. oit., P• 79 (10) 75.10. (11) 59.3. (12) 53.13. (13) 55.5. sea that Encolpius and Eumolpus are able to run from a picture-gallery right down to the shore.(l4} That it is a port is clear from the fact that Encolpius goes on board Lichas' ship almost directly from his lodging-house.(l5) It is also a commercial centre. The market i& described as crammed with goods,(l6) and Trimalchio has become wealthy from his trading activities.(l7) Lichas, a marchant of Tarentum, has his ship call at the busy port.(là) With these characteristics, the city makes a very appropriate setting for the Cena Trimalchionis. An im­ portant commercial centre is just where we would expect to find Trimalchio and his friends; for trade and industry in the Roman Empire were mostly in the hands of freedmen auch as these.

3. Dramatis Personae of the Banquet Those present at the banquet are:- 1. Trimalchio, the giver of the feast 2. Fortunata, his wife 3. Habinnas, a mason 4. Scintilla, his wife 5. Diogenes, a wealthy freedman (14) 90. (15) 99. (16) 12. (17) 76.8-9. (18) 101. 5.

6. Proculus, an undertaker 7. Hermeros, a friend of the host's S. Echion, a rag-dealer 9. Dama, a freedman 10. Seleucus, a freedman 11. Phileros, a freedman 12. Ganymede, a freedman 13. Niceros, a freedman 14. Plocamus, a freedman 15. Agamemnon, a professor of rhetoric 16. Encolpius, the narrator 17. Ascyltos, his friend Basides Menelaus, the assistant of Agamemnon,and Giton, the servant of Encolpius, there are at the banquet a number of slaves to do the work and provide entertain- ment: 1. Carpus , the carver 2. Daedalus, the cook 3. Cinnamus, the steward

4. C~oesus, a favorite of Trimalchio's 5. Dionysus, a young boy 6. Stichus, a slave in charge of Trimalchio's burial clothes 7. Philargyrus 8. Cario 6.

Although these slaves are minor figures in the banquet scene, they play a significant role, for they are involved in incidents introduced to bring out their master's character.

4. The Seating Arrangement Nine people reclined in a triclinium, a set of three couches placed around three sides of a square table with the fourth side left open to allow the slaves to wait upon the guests. Since at Trimalchio's banquet there had to be places for seventeen people, two triclinia must have been used. A number of elues in the Cena make it possible to deduce with some certainty the position of each person at the triclinium where the most important guests were reclining. The persons in this group were probably seated in the order shown in the following diagram. imus medius summus in in in medio medio medio

Habinnas Agamemnon Encolpius Scintilla Be-rmeros imus in sumrnus in imo summo Fortunata medius in imo Proculus Ascyltos medius in summo

-...J imus in imo Diogenes Trimalchio summus in • summo

Detailed arguments for this seating arrangement are given in Appendix A s.

At the other triclinum the less important guests reclined: Dama, Seleucus, Phileros, Ganymede, Echion, Niceros, and Plocamus. There are not enough elues in the Cana to decide the position of each guest at this tri­ clinium.

5. Portrayal of Freedmen by Contemporary Writers Trimalchio was a member of the freedman class, whose rise was such a prominent feature of the early Roman Empire. The usual way by which a former slave improved his lot was to engage in business and this was the method Tri­ malchio chose. Since the Roman nobility was forbidden both by law and by sentiment to participate in trade and com­ merce, there wCALexcellent opportunities in the field for former slaves. The rise of this group to wealth and pro­ minence attracted the fierce resentment of contemporary writers and provided a wonderful mark for satire. In his Germania Tacitus reveals his persona! feel­ ings concerning freedmen. He congratulates the great northern tribes which vigorously check their former slaves. Commenting on the position of freedmen in Germany, he ob­ viously regrets that the same conditions do not prevail in Rome: " The freedmen do not rank much above slaves, and are seldom of any weight in the family, never in the state, with the exception of those tribes which are ruled by kings. There indeed they rise above the freeborn and the noble; elsewhere the inferiority of the freedmen marks the free­ dom of the state'!(l9) Martial, too, has little use for former slaves. He draws a very unpleasant picture of Zoilus, a rude and vulgar upstart.(20) In one of his epigrams he draws attention to a fellow lolling in the front seats of a theatre; who could ever guess that a person covered with such magnificent garments bears the marks of the hranding-iron?(2l) Juvenal is the most up­ set by the rise of the former slave. He is enraged at the sight of a tribune and a praetor being thrust aside by an impudent, but wealthy, freedman who was reared on the banks of the Euphrates.(22 ) With great bitterness he describes the knights' stalls occupied by the unworthy: H •••• here let the sons of pimps born in any brothel take their seats; here let the spruce son of an auctioneer clap his hands •• ~( 2 3) It also distresses him that fellows who used to earn their living by blowing horns in the circus of avery country-town are now in a position to give gladiatorial shows themselves.(24) (19) Tacitus, Germania, 25. (20) Martial III, 29; 82. (21) Martial II, 29. (22) Juvenal I, 101-111. (23) Juvenal III, 155-157. (24) Juvenal III, 34-36. 10.

In his treatment of the freedman class Petronius differs greatly from Tacitus, Martial, and Juvenal. Un­ like these writers, he does not seem to have any particular prejudice against freedmen. At any rate, his treatment of them is no more damning than his treatment of the narrator, Encolpius, who was a freeman, and of his friend, Ascyltos, who wore the rings of knighthood (ch. 58). In fact, the libertine society that he describes is far healthier and pleasanter to the modern taste than the sordid adventures of Encolpius and his friands. 11.

II

CHARACTERIZATION IN PETRONIUS In portrayal of character Petronius does not employ the straightforward, descriptive method that most novelists use. This is because he makes one of his characters, Encolpius, the narrator of his whole work, including the Cena Trimalchionis. Encolpius has not met the host or any of the guests before except Ascyltos and Agamemnon; thus he is in no position to analyse their characters. He could tell us what Trimalchio and his friands look like, but even on this subject he says very little. We are told merely that the host is a bald old man in a red shirt,(l) and that Croesus is an ugly blear­ eyed creature with teeth as black as coal.(2 ) There are no detailed descriptions of physical appearance such as one often finds in modern novels. A method to portray character that is not used to any great extent by Petronius is rapid conversation between two or more characters. By means of such con­ versations, the writer can easily indicate the effect of one personality on another and rapid changes in mood and feeling. Actually, there is very little dialogue in the fl) 27.1. (2) 64.6. 12.

Cana Trimalchionis. Petronius' characters tend to spaak at, not with each other. They uttar long speeches. For example, consider Hermeros' remarks. What he says about Trimalchio, Fortunata, and their guests, goes on unin­ terrupted from 37.2 to 38.16. Angry that Ascyltos dares to ridicule Trimalchio's taste, he starts scolding at 57.1 and does not stop until 58.14. The other characters also talk in this monologue form. Although Dama does not have much to say, he says it all at once and we never hear from him again. (41.10-12) Seleucus' comments occupy section 42, Phileros' 43, Ganymede's 44, and Echion's all of 45 and 46. Trimalchio utters long speeches. Classic examples are his attempt to prove that he is a connoisseur of plate (50.2-52.3) and his account of his early career (75.8-77.5). With the exceptions that have been indicated, Petronius uses the normal methods of delineating characters - their own words, the remarks of other characters, their behaviour and reaction to incidents. l'.. Their own ~words In his remarks a character reveals the subjects in which he is the most interested and his attitude to his fellow men and to the world in general. From such infor­ mation one is able to grasp the most important aspects of his personality. For example, we learn from Ganymede's gloomy comments that he is a pessimist.(3} However, not only what a character says is important in understanding his personality, but even the manner in which he expresses himself; for the language and style constantly change to indicate differences in class and culture. The professor and his students use better Latin and speak in a more polished style than the former slaves.

2. The remarks of others A character's personality is also brought out by the comments made about him by other characters. For example, we learn from Trimalchio that Niceros is a sober, serious individual.(4) Also,we learn from Hermeros that Fortunata is temperate, sober, and prudent, and that she scolds and hen-pecks Trimalchio.(5)

3. Their actions The way a character behaves is a good indication of the sort of person he is. For instance, Scintilla's reaction when she sees Trimalchio weighing his wife's jewellery shows that she is vain and ostentatious. Not to be outdone, she flaunts her earrings before Fortunata maintaining that no woman has finer ones.(6) In the case of Trimalchio, who is the chief 44. 63.1- 2. 37-7. 67.9. 14.

character in the banquet scene, the background and setting bring out certain aspects of his personality. Thus, his extravagance is indicated by his huge staff of servants.(?) That he loves to advertise his wealth is shown by the lavish courses at the banquet and the fantastic manner in which they are served.(8 ) A comparison of the Cena Trimalchionis with Juvenal's satires illustrates certain aspects of Petronius' skill in character-dr~wing. Petronius' aim in writing his work may have been satire7like Juvenal's; that is, he may have aimed to hold up to ridicule vices and follies, par­ ticularly the vices and follies of freedmen. But he treats his freedmen-characters not with the burning indignation and dislike of the verse-satirist, but with fairness and even sorne sympathy and understanding. He does not focus all his attention on the less admirable aspects of the former slave, but faithful1y represents his good points as we11. Hence one fee1s that his pictures of freedmerr are more re1iab1e than Juvena1's. Petronius' characters are individua1s with distinct persona1ities, not co1our1ess types. Consider Juvena1's tenth satire. The motive in writing this was to preach the

(7) 47.11-12; 74.7. (8) 36.2; 40.1-8. 15. vanity of human wishes. The people appearing in it are there to point a moral, and so it is not surprising that they tend to be types rather than complex characters. Juvenal's Cicero is the eloquent orator, his Marius the fellow who has reached old age, his Lucretia the beauti­ ful woman all of whom have met with great misfortune, often death, on account of their prominence. Now Petro­ nius preaches no sermons in the Cena Trimalchionis; he has absolutely nothing to say about morals and ethics. His characters are certainly not drawn merely to point a moral. With Petronius realistic character-portrayal is an end in itself. Hence the complex picture drawn of Trimalchio; hence the fact that even the minor characters are real individuals. 16.

III

THE HOST AND THE HOSTESS

1. Trirna1chio 17.

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Trimalchio came from Asia to Italy when just a boy.(l) His name indicates that he is a Semite.(2} That he is a liberal, not an orthodox, Semite is clear from the fact that in his group circumcision is regarded as a fault.(3) His rise began when his master's favorite died and he was selected to take his place. He was given a liberal, as well as a practical, edUcation. This greatly influenced his character; he never tires of advertising the fact that he studied literature and history, as well as accounting. Being a handsome lad, he attracted the attention of his mistress too. Consequently, he was banished to a country estate, where he was probably com­ pelled to remain until the lady passed away. When he was finally recalled, he was appointed "dispensator". His master eventually set him free, and even made him his heir along with Caesar. (4}

• • The name Trimalchio is derived partly from the Semitic word melik in its occidental form Malchio, G. Bagnani, "Trimalchio", The Phoenix, VIII (1954), 79. (3) 68.8. (4) 76.2

_j là.

The fact that he speaks kindly of Pompey shows that he appreciates how well the latter treated him.( 5) Trimalchio was left a considerable fortune by his master, but he wanted to increase it by engaging in business. His account of his early commercial ventures shows how quickly he learned from his mistakes, and what a skilful businessman he turned out to be. He began by building five ships. Loading these with wine, which at that time was worth its weight in gold, he sent them to Rome, expecting to make a large profit; but they all were lost at sea.(6) By this time he was married to Fortunata who proved to be a devoted wife; she sold all her clothes and jewellery to keep him from going bankrupt.(7) Remain­ ing in business, he now acted much more carefully. He had learned his lesson well. He built larger and safer ships. Also, he did not deal only in wine, thus putting all his eggs into one basket, but he loaded a mixed cargo; wine, bacon, beans, parfumes, and slaves.(B) On this occasion he made a huge profit: uno cursu centies sestertium corrotundavi.(9) 39.4. 76.3-4. 76.7. 76.5-6. 76.8. 19.

"r cleared ten million on one voyage!' From this point on Trimalchio always met with success: "•••• quicquid tangebam, crescebat tanquam favus:(lO) g •••••• whatever I touched grew like a honey-comb.~ When he had made a large fortune, he gave up trading and began to finance freedmen, probably charging a very high rate of interest.(ll) His magnificent house indicates the extent of his prosperity: Habet quattuor cenationes, cubicula viginti, porticus marmoratos duos, susum cenationem, cubiculum in quo ipse dormio, viperae huius sessorium, ostiarii cellam perbonam; hospitium hospites capit.(l2}

"rt has four din~ng-rooms, · t wen t y b e d rooms, t wo marbl e colonnades, an upstairs dining-room, a bedroom where I sleep myself,this viper's (Fortunata's} boudoir, an excel- lent room for the porter; there is plenty of roo@ for guests.~

Appraisal of Character Trimalchio's love of monay is shown not only by his efforts to get rich, but even by his religion. His patron deity is Mercury, the god of commerce.(l3} Very appro­ priately his household gods are named Business, Luck,and Profit.(l4} As a result of years spent in the acquisition (10) 76.8. (11) 76.9. (12} 77.4. (13} 29.5; 77.4. (14) 60.8. 20. of wealth, he is strongly materialistic in outlook: credite mihi: aseem habeas, (l ) assem valeas; habes, habeberis. 5 "Take my word for it; if you have a penny, that's how much you're worth. A man's value depends on the amount of cash in his pocket .'' Although he was once a slave, Trimalchio is now a very wealthy freedman. This is one fact he is not able to forget, and unwilling to let anyone else forget. At the banquet he advertises his riches in every imaginable way. A slave is punished for troubling to pick up a dish that has fallen.(l6) Wine, not water, is used to wash the hands in.(l7) When Agamemnon, asked to reveal the subject of the declamation he has delivered that day, says, "A rich man and a poor man were anemies," Trimalchio interrupts to ask, "What is a poor man?"(lB) When his wife's ornaments are admired, he sends for the scales to advertise their weight. (l9) The feast itself is simply one long succession of extravagant courses and is intended by Trimalchio to impress the guests with the great wealth that makes such luxury possible. When pea-hen's eggs are handed round, the recipients are afraid that chicks have already formed and (15) 77.6. (16) 34.2. (17) 34.4. 48.4.,;.5. ~î~~ 67.6-8. 21.

so are greatly relieved to find fat beccaficos rolled up in spiced yolk of egg.(20) One dish contains the twelve signs of the Zodiac, on each of which has been placed sorne food appropriate to the symbol: on the Twins, a pair of kidneys; on the Ram, ram's-head pease; on the Bull, a piece of beef.(2l) This last display, however, is merely the cover of another dish, which is full of dainties: fattened fowls, sows' bellies, and in the centre, a hare furnished with wings to look like Pegasus.(22) The fantastic mannar in which many of the courses are served is intended by Trimalchio primarily to display his wealth, but also to create the impression that he is a elever and ingen16us host. For example, when a wild boar is brought in, it is accompanied by hunters and hounds; when a hunting-knife is plunged into its side, thrushes fly out. and are immediately caught by fowlers ready with limed twigs.(23 ) . The preparation and serving of pork in- volves an incredible performance. First of all, three white pigs adorned with muzzles and bells are driven into the dining-room. Next, Trimalchio asks the guests which one they would like turned into a dinner on the spot. However, with­ out waiting for their opinion, he orders the e1dest to be taken away and kil1ed.(24) When a little 1ater a pig, sup- 33.3-8. 35.1-4. 36.1-2. 40.1-6. 47.S-13. 22. posedly the same, is served up cooked, it looks extremely large. Trimalchio, accusing the cook of having forgotten to clean it, has the poor man stripped for a beating. However, he changes his mind and to the guests' horror orders the fellow to gut the creature right in front of them. When the belly has been slashed open, out tumble sausages and black puddings revealing that this is another of the host's efforts to appear elever and ingenious.(25) Among the ingredients of the last course are thrushes made of meal and stuffed with raisins and nuts; quinces stuck all over with thorns to look like sea-urchins.(26 ) Trimalchio has acquired, along with his wealth, the belief that he is a very important person. He is too proud to stoop down and pick up a bal1.(27) He has four decorated lackeys preceding his litter.(28 ) In his house there are frescoes depicting the different stages of his successful career,(29) and his name appears inscribed on as many things as possible.(30) Habinnas is instructed to build a tomb for him that would be suitable for a king or emperor: •••• praeterea ut sint in fronte pedes centum, in agrum pedes ducenti. Omne genus enim poma volo sint circq cineres meos, et vinearum largiter.l31)

49.1-10. !25)26) 69.6-7. 27) 27.3- (28) 28.4. (29) 29.3-6. (30) 30.1-3 (31) 71.6-7. 23.

tl••••• moreover, I want it to have a frontage of one hundred feet and to be two hundred feet in depth. For I would like all kinds of fruit growing round my ashes, ,, and plenty of vines. His high opinion of himself can be seen in the epitaph he composes to be placed over his grave: Ilc. Pompeius Trimalchio Maecenatianus hic requiescit. huic seviratus absenti decretus est. cum posset in omnibus decuriis Romae esse, tamen noluit. pius, fortis, fidelis, ex parvo crevit, sestertium reliquit trecenties. nec unquam philosophum audivit. va le: et tu!'( 32 ) "Here rests Gaius Pompeius Trimalchio Maecenatianus: Nominated to the Augustal Priesthood in absence, he might have · joined any civil guild in Rome, but declined. Duti­ ful, brav,e, faithful, he started with little, but left thirty million - yet he never went to collage. Farewell Trimalchio, and you too, passer-by.,, Trimalchio has a child-like love of surprises. During the banquet two slaves enter the dining room quarrel­ ling and they soon come to blows right in front of the guests. In their struggle they break the jars they are carrying and out of these fall mussels and oysters which are gathered up and handed round. Trimalchio glories in the shock given to the guests by such a performance.(33) Loving to create (32) 71.12. (33) 70.4-6. 24. astonishment, he has cakes prepared that squirt out saffron when touched.(34) Another of his surprises takes place when the ceiling opens up and down cornes an enormous hoop on which there are souvenirs for the guests: golden crowns, and bottles of perfume.(35) He fancies himself to be a wit and this side of his character is revealed by the name he gives his carver: "Carpus". The vocative case of this word is the same as the imperative singular of the verb "carpere", to carve, and therefore when Trimalchio calls "Carpe", he is addressing his servant and giving him instructions at the same time, a fact that he cannot refrain from stressing.C36) The host is a typical nouveau riche who possesses wealth, but does not possess the culture and refinement of traditionally wea.lthy familias. However, being extremely conscious of the great fortune he has acquired, he is de­ termined to act in a mannar befitting his new position. Hence he apes the customs and traditioœ of higher society. The extravagance of his banquet is a tasteless attempt to match the elegance and splendour of aristocratie banquets. It was fashionable in higher circles to discuss art and literature, and so it is quite natural that at his banquet

(34) 6o.6. (35) 60.1-3. (36) 36.5-8. 25.

Trimalchio should turn the conversation into the same channels. Bèing a connoisseur of plate, he needs no one to tell him the origin of genuine Corinthian: Cum Ilium captum est, Hannibal, homo vafer et magnus stelio, omnes statuas aeneas et aureas et argenteas in unum rogum congessit et eas incendit; factae sunt in unum aera miscellanea. Ita ex hac massa fabri sustulerunt et fecerunt catilla et paropsides et statuncula.(37) ,, When Troy fell, Hannibal, a trickster and a big rascal, collected all the sculptures, bronze, gold, and silver, into one pile, and set fire to them. They melted together forming a single alloy. Craftsmen took bits of this stuff and made plates, dishes, and statuettes:' Equally amusing are his attempts to convince his guests that he is a man of letters. According to this great scholar, DaedaThus shut Niobe into the Trojan horse,(3S} and it was Cassandra, not Medea, who killed her own child­ ren.(39) Considering himself an authority on Latin litera- ture, he passes judgement on the works of Cicero and Pub- lilius Syrus:

Ego alterum puto dis~rtiorem fuisse, alterum honestiorem.(40) « In my opinion the first has more eloquence, the second more nobility.» But he is more than just an authority on literature; he is a writer himself. At the banquet he 50.5-6. 52.2. 52.1. 55.5. 26. has a slave recite his verses to the company.(4l) When an accident takes place, he composes an epigram to mark the occasion: quod non expectes, ex transverso fit ubique, nostra et supra nos Fortuna negotia èuran quare da nobis vina Falerna, puer.(42) c'What men do not look for turns about and cornes to pass. And high over us Fortune directs our affairs. Wherefore, slave, hand us Falernian wine.~ Art and literature, however, are not the only forms of culture Trimalchio affects. He attempts to entertain the guests with his singing. He runs through a number from the musical comedy "Laserpiciariusn.(43) Even in the bath he must demonstrate his refinement by singing the songs of Menecrates.(44) Music plays an important part in the banquet. When Trimalchio enters the dining-room, the band strikes up.(45) Dishes are removed to the sound of music.(46 ) The servants seem to be singing all the time, and in fact this emphasis upon music makes Encolpius remark that the place seemed more like a dance-hall than a dining-room. (47 ) The host's learning also embraces medicine and rhetoric. He lectures his guests on the subject of hygieneJ48) and (41) 41.6. (42) 55.3. (43} 35.6. (44) 73.3. (45) 32.1. (46) 34.1. (47) 31.4-7. (48) 47.1-7. (Hese1tine's edition) 27.

criticizes a speech Agamemnon has delivered.(49) Despite all his wealth and all his attempts to be scholarly and refined, Trimalchio is ignorant, vulgar, boorish, lacking in taste, and tactless. He places Homer in the same category as gladiators: in his house scenes from the Iliad and the Odyssey are placed alongside bar­ barie scenes from the arena.(50) He actually admits that there are only two things in the world that he can watch with real pleasure, acrobats and trumpeters; in his opinion all other performances are nonsense.C51) He finds it very difficult to behave himself. At one point during the banquet he wants to go into the middle of the dining-room and perform wantonly for the guests. He is prevented from making a fool of himself on this occasion only through the efforts of his wife.(52 ) He certainly does not intend to be rude to his guests; however, on account of his insensibility and lack of tact, it is impossible for him not to be. Arriving lata, he tells them that it was not convenient for him to come so early but for their sake he sacrificed his own pleasure. Even then he does not join them but insists on finishing a game he has started.(53) When fine old Falernian is served, (49) 48.6. (50) 29.9. 51) 53.12. 52) 52.9-10. !53) 33.1. 28. he remarks: Heri non tarn bonum posui, et multo honestiores cenabant.(54) " Yesterday I didn't serve such a good brand and there were far more genteel people at dinner.'' He is extremely superstitious. Considering it a dangerous practice to enter buildings left foot first, he stations a slave at his threshold to warn the company to come in with the right foot first.(55) Whenever he boasts, he mustrepeat a magical formula to ward off bad luck.(56) His wife's indifference to these superstitious practices greatly annoys him: At inflat se tanquam rana, et in sinum suum non spuit ••• (57)

~She puffs herself up like a frog, but does not spit in her bosom ••• , The reference here, of course, is to another magical way of averting the bad luck attendant on pride and boasting. When a cock crows, Trimalchio is greatly frightened, for he interpreta the noise as a bad omen. In seeking to avoid the evil he believes will befall himself and his guests, he has the cock slain, changes a ring from one hand to another, (54~ 34.7. (55 30.5. (56) 73.6. (57) 74.13. 29.

and pours wine on the lamp and under the table.(5B) Considering that many emperors and members of the nobility fell under the spell of astrology,(59) it is not surprising that Trimalchio, an ignorant Or.t.è.ntal, is an adherent too. His great faith in this ancient art is indicated by his praise of the astrologer Serapa: ••• consiliator deorum. Hic mihi dixit etiam ea, quae oblitus eram; ab acia et acu mi omnia exposuit; intestinas meas noverat; tantum quod mihi non dixerat, quid pridie cenaveram.( P~tasses illum semper mecum habitasse. 6OJ {1 •••• he knew the secrets of the gods. He told me things I had forgotten myself; explained everything from needle and thread upwards; knew my own insides, and fell

short only of telling me what I had for dinner the day before. ,.,You would have thought that he had always lived with me. He is not just a student of astrology, but considera himself sufficiently advanced in the field to deliver a lecture to his guests. Hence these amusing remarks on the type of men born under various sig~s of the Zodiac: caelus hic, in quo duodecim dii habitant, in totidem se figuras convertit, et modo fit aries. itaque quisquis nascitur illo signo, multa pecora habet, multum lanae, caput praeterea durum frontem expudoratum, cornum actum ••• in geminis autem nascuntur bigae et boves et gui utrosgue parietes {58) 74.1-4. {59) Samuel Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius {London: Mâcmillan, 1925), p. 45. {60) 76.11. 30.

linunt. in cancro ego natus sum. ideo multis pedibus sto, et in mari et in terra multa possideo; nam cancer et hoc et illoc quadrat ••• in scorpione venenarii et per­ cussores; in sagittario strabones, qui holera .spectant, lardum tollunt; in capricorne aerumnosi; quibus prae mala sua cornua nascuntur. in aquario copones et cucgr~itae; in piscibus obsonatores et rhetores.t "the sky where the twelve gods dwell turns into the same number of shapes and now becomes a ram. Thus anyone who is born under that sign has many herds, an abundance of wool, a will of iron, a brazen forehead, and sharp horns ••• Under the Twins we get two-wheelers, oxen, and those who kill two birds with one stone. I was born under the Crab. Hence I have many legs to stand on, and many possessions by sea and land; for either one or the ether suits your crab •••• Poisoners and assasins under Scorpio; under Sagittarius squint-eyed rogues who stare at the cabbage and steal the bacon; under Capricornus the poor folk whose troubles make horns sprout on them; under Aquarius inn-keepers and men with water on the brain; under Pisces chefs and rhetoricians."

Purse-~roud, boorish, and superstitious though he is, Trimalchio has good points as well as bad. It is on account of this complexity that he is true to life. Petronius was too keen an observer of human nature to de- pict him without any redeeming features at all, and yet expect him to be natural. Trimalchio is human (61) 39.5-12. 31.

because he, like all of us, is a complex mixture of different elements. Though his literary affectations are ridiculous, they spring from a natural appreciation of things higher than material enjoyments.(62 ) That he is capable at times of tact and shrewdness is obvious from the manner in which he stops the quarrel between Hermeros and Ascyltos. He remarks: t( •••• agite. ••• scordalias de medio. suaviter sit potius; et tu, Hermeros, parce adulescentulo. sanguen illi fervet, tu melio~ esto. semper in hac re qui vincitur, vincit. et tu cum esses capo, coco coco, aeque cor non habebas. simus ergo, quod melius est, a primt~iis hilares et Homeristas spectemus~(63

ç~ ••• come now •••• stop all this wrangling. It is nicer to go on pleasantly; please do not be hard on the young man, Hermeros. Young blood is hot in him; you must be indul­ gent; a man who admits defeat in this kind of quarrel is always the winner. And you, too, when you were a young cockerel cried Cock-a-doodle-doo! and hadn't any sense in your head. So let us do better, and start the fun over :al again, and have a look at these reciters of Homer. That he can tell a story admirably is clear from the way in which he entertains his guests with the story of how sorne night-hags sto1e a corpse.(64) A1though he is very {62) Lord Ern1e, "Latin Prose Fiction", The Edinburgh Review, CCXXXI (1920), 40. (63) 59.1-2. (64) 63.2-10. 32. proud of his enormous wealth, he does not allow pride in his riches to ~lind him to reality. He knows that there are limits set to the power money can buy, and that fun­ damentally the rich man and the poor man are the same: amici ••• et servi homines sunt et aeque unum lactem biberunt etiam si illos malus fatus oppresserit.(65) "Ah, my friends, •••• slaves too are human beings and they drank their mothers' milk like ourselves, but cruel fate grinds them down. ,, He points out in a very forceful, though macabre, way the brevity of human life and the inevitable doom that awaits rich and poor alike. When, on his orders, a silver skeleton is brought into the dining room, he remarks: eheu nos miseros, quam totus homuncio nil est! sic erimus çggçti, post- quaro nos auferet Orcus.\ J '~las for us poor mortals! All that poor man is is nothingl We will all be like this when Death takes us away. ,, To be sure, Trimalchio is proud of his success, and he has a high opinion of himself. However, it should be said to his credit that his pride ends there. He is not a snob or a social climber. He does not forget his old

(65) 71.1. (66) 34.10. 33.

friands. He confines himself to people of his own class, and is not out to worm his way into higher society. He does not try to hide his obscure origin by inventing an illustrious, but fictitious, background for himself. Actually, he is very proud, and justly too, that he was once a slave and has risen so high in the world. To his guests he declares:

Nam ego quoque tarn fui quam vos es~is, sed virtute mea ad hoc perveni.(67)

"r was once what you are, but by my merits I have come to this."

Sic amic~g vester, qui fuit rana, nunc est rex.l 8 J "so your friend who was once a worm is now a king." His epitaph will read: ••••• ex parvg çrevit, sestertium reliquit trecenties. ( 69 J " ••••• he started with very little but left thirty million." Trimalchio's relationship with Fortunata brings out the complexity of his character, showing that he is a mixture of kindness and capriciousness. He shows genuine affection for his wife. On one occasion, when all his ships were wrecked and he was faced with bankruptcy, Fortunata sold all her clothes and jewellery to help him.(70) (67) 75.8. (68) 77.6. (69) 71.12. {70) 76.7. 34.

He never forgot the favour. He affectionately calls her his Fortunata,and is very proud of her dancing.(71) He loads her with clothes and jewellery,(72 ) and makes her the chief heiress in his will.(73) Her statue is to adorn his monument, which in Trimalchio's eyes is the greatest honour he can pay anyone.(74) Unfortunately, his treatment of Fortunata at the banquet is not always so com­ mendable. At one point he loses his temper and throws a eup at her, hurting her in the face. In the presence of all the guests he cruelly draws attention to her shady past and points out that he could have married a woman who would have brought him a very large dowry. In heap­ ing abuse on her, he uses the following terms: frog, block-head, vulture, hussy, and snorer.(75) The complexity and inconsistency of Trimalchio's character is also revealed by the manner in which he treats his slaves. With the latter he is sometimes tolerant, even kind, sometimes harsh, often to the point of being cruel. Thus at one point during the banquet he very generously invites some of them to dine with the guests(76) (71) 52.8. (72) 67.4, 6-7. (73) 71.3. (74) 71.11. (75) 74.10.-75.9. (76) 70.10. 35. but soon rudely orders them to get out in order to make room for another group.(77) He plans to set his household free upon his death;(78) yet he brutally threatens to have his valet burned alive, if his fancy burial-clothes are not kept in perfect shape.(79) He allows his staff to support a different colour at the games than the one he prefers,(80) and is not the least offended when his cook boldly challenges him to a bet on the outcome of the next race.(81 ) Yet he has had a poor wretch crucified for daring to curse him.(82) At this point attention shou1d be drawn to the fact that Trima1chio's slaves reflect aspects of his character. There is the saying, "like master like man", and it is certain1y true in the case of this rich freed- man and his servants. Cinnamus, the steward, puts on airs just 1ike his master. A1though his fine dinner dress has been 1ost, he haughtily explains that he really does not mind; for it has been washed once already. Although this character is only a slave, he acts like a wealthy aristo­ crat. He even has clients. But the fe11ow responsible for the 1oss of the steward's garments has ideas just as ex- 74.6. 71.1. ml(79 78.2. 70.10. (81(BOl 70.13. (82 53.3. 36. travagant. He maintains that he has done nothing repre­ hensible, seeing that they were worth only ten sesterces. It is obvious that both this fellow and the steward have been under the influence of an extravagant nouveau riche and ape his behaviour{83) When Trimalchio becomes drunk, he puts on a dis- gusting exhibition. He allows Croesus to climb on his back and slap him.(84) He wickedly kisses a young slave.(85) Disgraceful as these actions are, they àre not inconsistant with his normal behaviour. Even when he is sober he is crude.(86 ) Liquor merely breaks down his inhibitions and makes him forget the dignity and respectibility he affects when sober, and thus he gives full expression to that coarseness which is an inherent part of his nature. The touches by which Petronius indicates Trimalchio's growing intoxication are very skilful. As Trimalchio gets drunk, his reasoning power deteriorates, as well as his manners. He tells Agamemnon that he has three libraries; one Greek and one Latin.(87) He comments on how well Plocamus used to sing the dialogues ~ and speak the sung parts of comedies!88) Such confused remarks are just what one would expect from a person who has downed too much liquor.(89) Petronius' (83) . 30.7-11. (84) 64.11-12. (85) 74.8. (86) 34.7. (87) 48.4. (88) 64.2. (89) E. Buriss' interpretation of these two passages and his emendation of the second have been followed. Eli Buri ss, "Breaks in Conversation and the Text of Petronius", C1assical Philology, XLII (1947), 248. 37.

powers of observation are in this respect excellent, as one might expect in a member of Nero's court. In conclusion, a brief surnmary should be made of what has been said about Trimalchio. A shrewd Oriental who has made a fortune by engaging in commerce, he loves to advertise his wealth like most nouveaux riches. Al­ though he apes the customs and traditions of polite society, he cannot conceal his servile origin. Vulgar, crude, and boorish, he thinks it is good taste to serve an endless succession of extravagant courses, and judges people by the amount of money they possess. However, this unattrac­ tive picture of Trimalchio is considerably altered when one remembers the better aspects of his character. No snob, he has no intention of deserting his friends who have not been able to match his spectacular rise. He shows a genuine interest in things higher than material enjoyments. Good-natured, he wants everyone to have a good time at his banquet, the slaves included. 38.

2. Fortunata It is a vivid picture that Petronius paints of Fortunata, but one that is not nearly as detailed as that of her husband. Fortunata has little to say her­ self, and so what sort of a person she is must be learn­ ed mostly from her behaviour and from the comments made about her by other characters. Both Trimalchio and Hermeros draw attention to her shady past. Her husband picked her out of the gutter, so to speak, buying her from sorne slave dealers: •••• ambubaia non meminit, sed de machina illam sustuli, hominem inter homines feci.(90) ,, • • • This chorus-girl does not remember, but I took her off the sale-platform and made her one of our- selves., Hermeros tells Encolpius: et modo, modo quid fuit? ignoscet mihi genius tuus, notuf$ses de manu illius panem accipere. ':J J (( You'll pardon my saying so, but if you knew what she was a little while ago, you would hesitate to t ake a piece of bread from her hand/' With such a background it would be surprising if Fortunata did not show a coarseness and lack of refinement as great as her husband's. At the end of the dinner, after dividing the left-overs among the servants, she enters, 39.

wiping her hands on a napkin tied round her neck, to greet a late-arrival, her good friend, Scintilla.(92} When Scintilla admires her jewellery, she takes off her bracelets, anklets, and gold hair-net so that her friend can feel the weight of them.(93) She is constantly nag­

ging and bullying her husban~Hermeros says of her:

••• est tameQ m~lae linguae, pica pulvinaris.l94J

" ••• s h e h as a nasty tongue; she's a regular ,, magpie in bed. When Trimalchio embraces a handsome slave, she flies into a rage and pours abuse on him in front of all her guests. (95 ) But like Trimalchio, Fortunata has her good qualities. Hermeros tells Encolpius that she is tem­ perate, sober,and prudent.{96) She is an excellent housekeeper, although in carrying out her duties she goes a little bit too far. At banquets she does not take her place at the table until all the plate has been collected and the left-overs have been distributed among the slaves.(97) Trimalchio's business success is due in no small degree to the whole-hearted cooperation of his wife. When he started trading, he loaded five ships with wine and sent them to Rome, but they all sank on the way. (92) 67.5. (93) 67.6. {94) 37.7. (95) 74.8-9. (96) 37.7. (97) 67.2. 40.

Fortunata generously sold all her clothes and jewellery to help him out of this disaster.(98) If her generosity

helped Trim~lèhio to make his fortune, her shrewdness and thrift undoubtedly kept it for him. As Hermeros says, Trimalchio himself does not know what he's worth but she looks after everything.(99) Fortunata has risen high in the social scale and she tries to behave like a respectable lady in spite of her shady past. When Habinnas surprises her, as she hob­ nobs with his wife, and dumps her on the couch so that her dress flies up and reveals too much of her legs, she plays the little lady, shrieking and hiding her blushes behind a napkin.(lOO) Wine, however, is liable to tear off this mask of dignity and respectability, a mask that she has never worn with ease . and comfort. Then we be- hold a changed Fortunata, who is certainly no lady. Al­ though previously she could think only of her household duties, her one desire now is to dance(lOl) and probably to dance the shameless and suggestive "cordax", which Trimalchio says is her specialty.(l02) It should be noticed that Fortunata is guilty of such disgraceful be­ haviour only when she is under the influence of liquor. Normally sober and serious, she does her best to stop (98) 76.7. (99} 37.6-7. (100) 67.12. (Heseltine's edition) (101) 70.10. ( 102} 52.8. 41.

Trimalchio from making a fool of himself.(l03 ) However, she has not easily adjusted to her new status (the step from chorus-girl to millionaire's wife is a long one), and when liquor removes the bonds of restraint imposed by her new life, she easily sinks back into her old ways. Fortunata, then, is a woman who tries unsuccess­ fully to behave like a member of polite society. Jealous and domineering, she certainly is not as likeable as her husband. However, one must give her credit for the ef­ ficiency with which she runs her household. Without his shrewd and thrifty wife to help him, Trimalchio would not have become so prosperous.

(103) 52.9-11. 42. IV. TRIMALCHIO'S FELLOW-FREEDMEN

l. The Group

Trimalchio's friands are former slaves most of whom, like himself, have gone into business. Since upper class Romans were forbidden to engage in commerce both by law and by sentiment, there were excellent op­ portunities in the field for freedmen such as these, who had ingrained in them the hard-bargaining, money-making instincts of the Levant. For Trimalchio(l) and Habinnas(2 ) are Semites; Ganymede cornes from the East(3) and the business-successes of others at the banquet suggest similar origins.(4) It is not surprising that such men as these played an important role in the commercial life of the Roman Empire. The freedmen at the banquet worship monay and rate one another solely in terms of cash. As Phileros says of the dead Chrysanthus, " ••• he was always ready to pick a nickel out of a dung-heap with his teeth ••• lead turned (1) The name Trimalchio is derived partly from the Semitic word Melik in its occidental form Malchio. G. Bagnani, "Trimalchio", The Phoenix, VIII (1954) 79. (2) The name Habinnas is Semitic. Moses Hadas, "Oriental Elements in Petronius", American Journal of Philology, L (1929) 383. (3) 44.4. (4) 38.6-7, 15. 43.

to gold in his hands.n(5) Trimalchio's wealth greatly impresses Hermeros. Having a healthy respect for the power of money, the latter warns Encolpius not to look down on Trimalchio's friends; for they are very rich. In describing Julius Proculus and Pompeius Diogenes he concentrates entirely on their financial status.(6) Phileros maintains that the death of Chrysanthus is no tragedy; for he enjoyed everything that life can offer - he was successful in business and made a fortune.(?) The language of the freedmen is natural and true to life. As they belong to the middle or lower ranks of Roman society, Petronius naturally makes them speak vulgar Latin, with all its slang and bad grammar, in contrast to Agamemnon and his two students who are well educated and use good Latin. The rag-dealer, the stone­ cutter, and the others who have risen from the slave ranks chatter and gossip in a racy and often ungram­ matical argot about the things that one would expect to be their interests - the weather, the latest scanda1s, and the gladiatorial shows. They are as unlettered as their host. Ganymede, when describing a gentleman who never used flowery language but was always direct and straight- 43.1,7. 38.6-16. 43.1-2,7. 44. forward in expression, maintains he had a touch of the Asiatic style, which was inflated and anything but direct.($) Habinnas also is no scholar. When his slave crudely mixes a passage from Vergil with extracts from an Atellan farce he showers praise on the creature, believing he has witnessed a brilliant performance.(9 ) Although the freedmen share the same social position and approximately the same background and education, and although they have consequently many qual­ ities in common, each of them is a distinct persona1ity. They are given individuality even by the mannar in which they express themselves, by their preference for certain words and phrases. Among Hermeros' favorite expressions are: "ad summam"(lO) "recte", (ll) and "curabo"(l2 ). These authoritative remarks are in perfect harmony with his quarre1some nature. Seleucus likes "quid si nonn,(l3) and Phileros' favourite phrase seems to be "mehercu1es".(l4) Niceros uses "tanquam" six times{l5) Although all the freedmen use plebeian words, Echion's vocabulary is es- (8) 44.8-9. (9) 68.4-7. (10) 37.5, 10; 38.2; 57.9; 58.8. ( 11 ) 58. 4, 6. ( 12) 58.2, 5, 7. (13) 42.5, 7. (14) 43.2, 8 (M. Heseltine's edition) (15) 6~.2, 3, 5, 11, 12, 13. 45.

pecially saturated with them:"burdubasta" (45.11); "caldicerebrius" (45.5); "filix" (45.9); "miscix" (45.5); "merus" (45.12); "sestertiarius" (45.8); "tertiarius" (45.11). These give a very slangy quality to his chatter, which seems natural, considering that he is a rag-dealer. The outstanding feature of Ganymede's talk is his staccato style.Cl6) We learn what sort of people Trimalchio's friends are chiefly from their conversation. In their remarks they reveal the subjects in which they are the most in­ terested and their attitude to their fellow men and to the world in general, and from such information one is able to grasp the main qualities of each.

(16) 44. 46.

2. The Individuals

HERMEROS Hermeros has two speeches of considerable length in the Cena. He is the guest who reclines in the next position above the narrator, Encolpius, and speaks in sections 36--38 and 57-58, although he is not named until the beginning of section 59. Before an appraisal is made of his character, his background and early career should be considered.

Background and Early Career Hermeros became a slave of his own choice. He preferred to be a slave with the opportunity of eventually becoming a Roman citizen rather than remain a tax-burdened provincial all his life.(l7) He came to the city where the banquet takes place, when just a boy. Certain members of the household to which he belonged resented him, and they did their best to make his life difficult. However, his master treated him with great kindness: Annis quadraginta servivi; nemo tamen sciit, utrum servus essem an liber.(!$) ui was a slave for forty years, and nobody knew whether I was a slave or free. u

(17) 57.4. (18) 57.9. 47.

Appreciating such generous treatment, he always speaks of his master with affection. He describes him to Ascyltos as ••• homini maiiesto et dignitosso, cuius pluris erat unguis, quam tu totus es.(l9)

l' ••• a fine dignified gentleman whose little finger was worth more than your whole body." When he was finally set free, he redeemed his "contubernalis" so that she would be spared the indig­ nities of slavery. (20) We are not told what business Hermeros went into after his manumission. Although he did not acquire a fortune like Trimalchio's, he was modestly successful! glaebulas emi, lamellulas paravi.( ) viginti ventres pasco et canem ••• 21

ttr bought a few acres of land and made a little money. I feed a house of twenty bellies and a dog •••• " Eventually a great honour was bestowed on him; he was made a sevir Augustalis without having to pay fees.( 22 )

57.10. ~~6~ 57.6. (21) 57.6. (22) 57.6. The seviri Augustales presided over the worship of the emperor. Freedmen in Italian towns were eager to become members of the order for they were excluded from higher offices. Membership in the Augustal Priesthood conferred certain privileges: the right on important public occasions to sit on a throne and wear a toga f§aet;xta (71.9); the right to be attended by lictors 5.3 • Accordingly, to be made a sevir and to be excused the fees as well was indeed an honour. 48.

APPRAISAL OF CHARACTER

The most noticeable aspect of Hermeros• personality is his tendency to gossip. His first speech (37.2-38.16} is almost all gossip. When Encolpius asks him who the woman is that keeps running about everywhere, he replies that she is Fortunata, Trimalchio's wife, and proceeds to give Encolpius the dirt about her. However, he does not confine his remarks to Fortunata, but also discusses Trim­ alchio and two of his guests, Diogenes and Proculus. In his comments about other people he is often spiteful. For example, consider the unpleasant things he says about Fortunatr: et modo, modo quid fuit? ignoscet mihi genius tuus, nolùi~ses de manu illius panem accipere.(23J trYou'll pardon my saying so, but if you knew what she was a little while ago, you would hesitate to take a piece of bread from her hand.'' ••• est tamen malae linguae, pica pulvinaris.(24)

tt ••• she has a nasty tongue; she' s a regular magpie in bed. '' Hermeros does not lose his temper easily. However, once he is aroused, he is as ugly as a bear:

(23} 37.3. (24) 37.7. 49. non mehercules soleo cito fervere •••• (25)

ccI swear l'rn not easily annoyed as a rule ••• " Vix me teneo, nec sum natura caldicerebrius, sed c~ ÇQepi, matrem meam dupundii non facio.l26J

cci can scarcely hold myself in, and I am not naturally hot-tempered, but when I once begin I don't care twopence for my own mother." He loses his temper at the banquet. At one point Ascyltos, unable to restrain him­ self, bursts out laughing at the host's attempts to be elever and ingenious. His ridicule enrages Hermeros, who pours on him a torrent of threats and abuse. He interpreta Ascyltos' laughter as an insult not only to Trimalchio, but to his fellow-freedmen and himself as well. He is keenly aware of the social and cultural differences be­ tween Ascyltos, Encolpius, and Agamemnon on the one hand, and himself and his fellow-freedmen on the other. The professor of rhetoric and his two students are better educated and more genteel than these former slaves. Her- meros, then, considering Ascyltos' laughter as an affront to his class, lashes out at him loading his remarks with sarcasm:

ridet. quid habet quod rideat? numquid pater fatum emit lamna? eques Romanus es:

(25} 57.3. (26) 58.4. 50.

et ego regis filius.(27) u He laughs. What has he got to laugh about? Did his father pay solid gold for him when he was a baby? A Roman knight are you? Well, I'm a king's son." He also turns his wrath on the other members of the literary group, suspecting that they too feel superior to himseif and his friands. He says that Agamemnon is a chattering ape, not a teacher.(28 ) He has very little use for the liberal education of the literary group • He tells Ascyltos that his father wasted his money in sending him to a rhetorical academy.(29}

This attitude may be partly sour grapes 1 but Hermeros does not seem to be the type of uneducated man who regrets his lack of schooling. He is rather the successful trader, with sound common sense but no culture, who believes that a good practical training is superior to a knowledge of "geometry, criticism, and such silly nursery-rhymes."(30)

(27) 57.3-4. Hermeros is not claiming to be a real prince. It must be remembered that Ascy1tos is wearing a knight's ring. Thus, he is actually saying, "You pretend to be a Roman knight; !'11 make a claim just as fantastic and say l'm a king's son." See W.B. Sedgwick, The Cen Trim lchionis of Petronius (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1950, p. 115. (28} 58.13. "mufrius": chattering ape Heseltine's translation). (29) 58.8. (30} 58.7. 51.

He knows his capital letters and can do sums in pounds, shillings, and pence; and that is all that is necessary. He says: ego, quod me sic vides, propter artificium meum diis gratias ago.\31) " Yes, I thank God for my know-how; that's why you see me as I am." Hermeros likes parties and good food. He eng9ys the dainties .· served at Trimalchio' s banquet and defends them against Ascyltos' ridicule.(32 ) When describing his

host's great wealth, he shows an interest in the rate delicacies raised on his estate.(33) The lavish banquets Proculus used to hold excite his admiration: solebat sic cenare, quomodo rex: apros gausapatos, opera pistoria, avis, cocos, pistores. plus vini sub mensa effunde batur, quam aliquis in çella habet. phantasia, non homo.{34J ''He used to dine like a king: boars cooked in a cloth, wonderful sweet things, game, chefs and con­ fectionersl There used to be more wine spilt under his table than many a man has in his cellars. He was a fairy prince, not a mort al.'' He admires material success. He is impressed by Trimalchio's large fortune.(35) Having a great respect (31} 58.14. (32) 57.1-2. (33) 38.1, 3, 4. 38.15. ~§~~ 37.~-10; 38.1-5. 52.

for the power of money, he warns Encolpius not to look down on his host's friends; for they are very rich.(36 ) He admires the rapid rise of the guest who only a little while ago had to carry wood on his back to get enough to eat, but now has his 8oo,ooo.<37) Also, he is proud of his own modest fortune.<38 ) However, muchas he ad­ mires wealth and success, he is not the type of person who is out to get ahead by unscrupulous methods. He is a man of principles and prefers his reputation to any riches.(39) Hè is proud of his honesty and sound credit: ••• assem aerarium nemini debeo; constitutum habui nunquam; nem9 mihi in foro dixit treddè guod debes'.l40} ''••• I owe nobody a brass farthing; I have never been in the Courts; no one has ever said to me in public, 'Pay me what you owe me'.''

Eamus in forum et pecunias mutuem~r: iam scies hoc ferrum fidem habere.(41J ttLet us go to the forum and borrow money: then you will see that my iron ring commands credit.'' Although Hermeros is an unashamed worshipper of worldly success and of we~lth, there are signs that be- (36) 38.6. (37l 38.7. (38 57.6. (39 57.9. (40 57.5. (41) 58.11. 53.

neath his hard materialism he has a kindly heart that is not unaffected by the misfortunes of others. He 2 feels sorry for the undertaker in financial difficulties. (4 ) When he received his freedom, he redeemed his "contuber­ nalis" so that she would be spared the indignities of slavery. ( 43 ) Hermeros is a loyal member of the freedman class. He is proud that he was a slave and had to earn his freedom:

••• nam in ingen~um)nasci tarn facile est quam 'accede istoct.l44

Pt••• Being born free is no achievement; it's as easy as saying,'Come here'." He displays a great respect for Trimalchio, a former slave like himself. . When Giton bursts out laughing he declares: ita satur pane fiam, ut ego istud conliberto meo dono; alioquin iam tibi depraesentiarum reddidissem. (45)

rt So surely may I get a good feed as I spare you out of respect for my fellow-freedman; otherwise I'd have given you what for right on the spot." He defends Trimalchio's lavish courses against Ascyltos' ridicule: An tibi non placent lautitiae domini mei? ( 6) Tu enim beatior es et convivare melius soles. 4 (42) 38.11-16. (43) 57.6. ( 44) 57 .11. (45) 58.3. (46) 57.2. 54.

"Are our host's good t h"1ngs not good enough for you? I suppose you are richer and used to better living?'' Hermeros, then, is a modestly successful business­ man who has not matched Trimalchio's rapid rise. While he is as fond of money as the other freedmen, he is very

honest in his business dealings and wou~never do anything that might blemish his good name. Endowed with a slow but fierce temper and extremely class-conscious, he lashes out at anyone who ridicules his fellow-freedmen. He thoroughly enjoys · parties and banquets. At such events he makes an ideal companion, if one desires information about the other guests; he is an incurable gossip. 55.

POMPEIUS DIOGENES AND JULIUS PROCULUS

That Pompeius Diogenes and Julius Proculus are present at the banquet is indicated only by Hermeros' remarks. These two are background characters who in- dicate the type of society depicted in the banquet scene. Their commeré.ial "ups" and "downs" remind one of Trimalchio's career. Pompeius Diogenes, who recently was so ppor that he had to carry loads of wood on his back to get enough to eat, now has his 8oo,ooo.(47) A typical nouveau riche, he must advertise his change of fortune. When he puts up a notice to inform people that he is going to let his hovel, he must draw attention to the fact that he is now in a position to purchase a house of his own.(48) When Julius Proculus won his freedom he took up undertaking, an occupation despised by the ordinary Roman. Making a large fortune, he entertained his fri"ends with banquets that must have rivalled even Trimalchio's: Solebat sic cenare, guomodo rex: apros gausapatos, opera pistoria, avis, cocos, pistores. Plus vini sub men~a ~ffundebatur, quam aliquis in cella habet.(49J

(47) 38.7. (48) 38.10. (49) 38.15. 56.

"He used to d'ine like a prince: boars cooked in a cloth,wonderful sweet things, game,chefs and con- fectionersl There used to be more wine spilt under his ,, table than many a man has in his cellars. However, a business man's career does not run smoothly all the time and Proculus has been subjected to great difficulties. As Hermeros puts it, •••• male vacillavit. Non puto illum capillos liberos habere •••• (50) ç, •••• he has had a bad shaking • .. I don't think · h e can ca11 h1s. h a1r . h.1s own ••• ,, It should be noticed that although he has lost his money, he has by no means lost his cunning. Compel­ led to sell his elaborate furnishings, he shrewdly ad­ vertises them as surplus stock in order to hide from his creditors the fact that he is going bankrupt.(51) This pair, then, clearly indicates the type of people portray­ ed in the Cena Trimalchionis: freedmen who, whether they have made their pile or lost it, display the business- man's shrewdness and resourcefulness.

(50) 38.11-12. (51) 38.16. 57.

DAMA

Since Dama is only mentioned once and only says forty-three words, it is impossible to form an estimate of his character. However, it is obvious that he is a drunk who prefers to warm himself with a hot drink in­ stead of a hot bath. Furthermore, he does not like to waste time that might be spent on feasting by having a bath. He thinks it best to go directly from his siesta to the dining-room.(5Z)

SELEUCUS Se1eucus also appears too brief1y for a detailed picture of his character to be formed; but it would appear that he is a bit of an old woman. He finds taking a bath and being massaged every day too harrowing an experience. He hates the cold and heads straight for the wine-cellar whenever he gets a chill. He has just · been at a friend's funeral and chatters raci1y about it. He says Chrysanthus "kicked the bucket" and was carried out "in fine style".(53) He has a tendency to philosophize: utres inflati ambulamus. minoris quam muscae sumus, muscae. tamen a1iquam virt~te~ habent, nos non p1uris sumus quam bu1lae.\54J ''How we bladders of wind strut about! We are worth (52) 41.10-12. ( 53 ) 42 • 2 ' 6 • (51f) Lf~.'t 58. less than flies. Nay, flies have sorne good in them. We are worth no more than bubbles." He is a cynic, especially where women are concerned: sed mulier quae mulier milvinum genus. neminem ni hil boni facere oportet; aeq~e est(~gim ac si in puteum conlcias. ? J "Women are all a pack of vultures. There's no point in doing any of them a favour; you may as well throw your kindness into the gutter for all the thanks you'll get."

(55) 42.7. 59.

PHILEROS

Seleucus' character is revealed chiefly by the statements he makes in reference to the life and death of Chrysanthus and the same method is used in the case of Phileros. The latter draws attention to the dead man's less admirable qualities, pointing out that he was quarrelsome and a shameless lecher. The intense interest Phileros shows in Chrysanthus' trading activities suggests that he is a businessman like the other freedmen. He marvels at Chrysanthus' great commer­ cial abilities: he started with a penny but left a fortune, and lead turned to gold in his hands. (56 ) His remark that a man, at any rate a business man, who always believes what anyone tells him will never be successful, sounds like the observation of a man of commerce.(57) The fact that Phileros draws attention to Chrysan­ thus' vices does not necessarily point to persona! hos~ility, but may only indicate a desire to show the other guests his intimate knowledge of the dead man's private life. This is often the motive that activates gossips, and Phileros seems to be one. In claiming that he must speak the truth, being a man who calls a.tspade a spade, he sounds like a typical

(56) 43.1, 2, 7. (57) 43.6. 60. gossip trying to justify his statements about other people's affairs. His approval of Chrysanthus' loose morais shows that he himself is a person of rough-and-ready standards. He points out that the dead man was a shameless lecher, but says he does not blame him at all; for life is short and he was wise in enjoying himself while he could. (58 )

GANYMEDE Ganymede criticizes Dama, Seleucus, and Phileros, maintaining that their remarks are not down-to-earth. Im- plying that he is the only realist at the banquet, he proceeds to list all the burdens poor folk like himself are forced to endure: the priee of food keeps rising; the magistrates are "crooked"; the common people are op- pressed by the nobility; angry that they are no longer worshipped,the gods exact punishment and it is the poor people who suffer. However, far from being a realist, he is merely a "crank". In his opinion, everything is wrong; nothing is right. From his first word to his last he does nothing but whine. His remark that conditions were better many years ago sounds like the typical corn­ plaint of a grouch yearning for the good old days. Gany- mede is a poor man and he paints a pathetic, though one

(58) 43.8 (Heselti ne's edition) 61. feels a somewhat exaggerated, picture of his struggles to survive: non mehercules hodie buccam panis invenire potui.(59) "r swear I couldn't get a mouthful of bread today."

quod ad me attinet, iam pannos meos comedi, ~t ~i perseverat haec annona, casulas meas vendam.l60J ~Ç,For my part, I've already eaten the money my rags fetched, and if the priee of corn keeps rising, I'll have to sell my cottages.'' One suspects that by such remarks he hopes to arouse the sympathy of the host and his friends, so that they will excuse the fact that he is unable to return the ho~pitality which they offer him and which he hopes they will continue to offer him, if he plays on their feelings skilfully.

ECHION Echion is a cheerful optimist, and he is annoyed by the gloomy remarks Ganymede utters. He tells the latter not to be depressed; for life has its "ups" and "downs", and perhaps tomorrow will provide what today has denied. He admits the town in which they live has faults, but main­ tains the same conditions prevail elsewheri~l)He tries to cheer up Ganymede by reminding him of the gladiatorial shows

(59) 44.2. ( 60) 44.15. (61) 45.1-4. 62. to be held soon: et ecce habituri sumus munus excellente in triduo die festa ••• ferrum optimum daturus est, sine fuga, carnarium in medio, ut amphitheater videat.{62) ''Just think, we soon are to be given a splendid spectacle lasting three days ••• The fighters will be the best, and there won't be any running away; there will be butchery done in the middle, where .the whole audience can see it. '' The fact that he discusses gladiatorial combats with such enthusiasm shows that he is a fan. He is a typical citizen of one of the towns in Campania where the passion for these cruel sports was as great as at Rome itself. {63) Like the other freedmen, Echion cannot resist the temptation to gossip. His mention of Glyco's steward in connection with the gladiatorial shows leads him to dis­ cuss the intrigue which took place between that individual and his master's wife. He passes judgement on Glyco, his wife, and even his dead father-in-law, Hermogenes. However, Echion has sorne admirable qualities, one of which is his cheery optimism, to which attention has already been drawn. His deep affection for his son and his

(62) 45.4, 6. {63) Samuel Dil l, Roman Society from Nero to M~rcus Aurelius (London, Macmillan, 1925), p. 23 • 63. determination to see that the boy receives an education reveal the better side of his nature. He boasts, it is true, about his son's cleverness and his great desire to learn, but he can easily be forgiven as a typical doting father.

NIC EROS Petronius reveals Niceros' character by the manner in which he relates the were-wolf story and by the comments made about him by Trimalchio. He is more sober and serious than the other freedmen. Trimalchio remarks: ••• scio Niceronem nihil nugarum narrare: immo certus est et minime linguosus.(64) "••• I know that Niceros never talks nonsense: he is very dependable and not a bit of a chatterbox." Normal- ly quiet and reserved, when he does have something to say he wants to be taken seriously. Before starting the were­ wolf tale, he expresses fear that t·he members of the literary group present at the banquet will laugh at him. In relating his adventure, he does everything possible to make it sound credible. He calls down on himself all sorts of curses if what he is saying is not the absolute truth. As he recalls his experience, he feigns to be a

(64) 63.1-2. better person than he actually is, but one can easily see through his pretensions. At one point he says he fell in love with Melissa, an innkeeper's wife, "pulcherrimum bacciballum". Immediately he hastens to add: sed ego non mehercules corporaliter illam aut propter res ven~~i~s curavi, sed magis quod benemoria fuit.l65J ,, I swear I didn't care for her in a physical sense, or sexually, but rather because she had such a fine dis­ position.'' In denying that he is lecherous, he is so emphatic that one is inclined to suspect his denial, and the phrase he uses to describe Melissa, "pulcherrirnum bacciballum", whatever it may mean, smacks of a lusty appreciation, in retrospection, of her physical, rather than her moral, charms. Like the other freedman, Niceros loves money. One of the reasons he was so fond of Melissa was the fact that she could lend him money. One of the curses he calls down on himself is "May I never be able to make money ..... (66 ) which shows that money-making is an important thing in his life.

(65) 61.7.(Heseltine's edition) (66) 61.3. PLOCAMUS

When Niceros finishes his tale, Trimalchio tells how some night-hags stole a corpse(67) and then turns to Plocamus, asking him to contribute to the entertainment. Plocamus replies that once he could dance and recite and do imitations as well as the actor Apelles, but now he has the gout and can perform no more. However, he does atternpt to entertain the guests and, putting his hand to his rnouth, hisses out sorne incornprehensibl ~ noises. Later, he claims it was Greek.~t) The appearance of Plocamus is too short to present a detailed portrait, but in that brief space Petronius etches for us a pathetic picture of a gouty old man, who once prided himself on his skill as an actor, but now can only hiss out garbled Greek in a hoarse whisper.

HABINNAS Habinnas does not arr ive until the banquet is almost finished. His entry is extrernely amusing. At first he appears dignified and important: dressed in white, he cornes in preceded by a lictor and surrounded by a crowd. He looks so solemn that poor Encolpius thinks he is the praetor and immediately rises to pay his respects. However, (67) 63.3-10. (68) 64.3-5. 66. a closer examinatior shatters this illusion of dignity and respectability. Habinnas is drunk! He supports himself by putting his hands on his wife's shoulders; he has several wreaths on and ointment runs down his fore­ head into his eyes.(69) Habinnas is a monumental mason with a reputation for making first-class tombstones.(70) He has been ap­ pointed to construct Trimalchio's magnificent tomb.(71) He appears to be prosperous and influential: he is a sevir Augusti; at the banquet the place of honour is re­ served for him; only a person of considerable importance could induce Fortunata to join the guests before she has finished her household duties.(7Z) At the banquet Habinnas is good-natured and jolly. As soon as he reclines he joins in the festivities by call­ ing for wine and hot water.(73) When Trimalchio asks him what he had to eat at the wake from which he has just come, he is very willing to describe all the courses in detail.(74) At one point Fortunata is busy hobnobbing with his wife and he uses the occasion to enliven the banquet with a little horse-play. Grabbing Fortunata by the legs, he dumps her

65.3-7~ l~J 65.5. (71) 71.5. (72) 67.1-5. (73) 65.7. (74) 66.2-7. on the couch so that her dress flies up over her knees.(?5) When his host suggests that they take a hot bath, he heartily agrees: ••• de una die duas facere, nihil malo.(?6 ) '~ •• Making two days out of one is my chief delight. '' He displays poor taste in the type of entertain­ ment he prefers. He thoroughly enjoys the performances of his slave Massa. At one point during the banquet this fel­ low crudely mixes a passage from Vergil with extracts from an Atellan farce; Habinnas applauds, firmly believing that he has witnessed a brilliant performance.(??) Later, when Massa does imitations of trumpeters, fluteplayers, and mule-drivers, he is even more enthusiastic. He kisses the creature and presents him with a drink. Swearing that his performance is better than ever, he promises him a pair of boots.(78) Like Seleucus, Habinnas is cynical in his attitude toward women. He claims that the world would be a much better place without them: Plane si filiam haberem, auriculas illi prae­ ciderem. Mulieres si non assent, omnia pro luto haberemus; nunc hQc est caldum meiere et frigidum potare.(7~J (75) 67.12 (Heseltine's edition). (76) 72.4. As a bath was taken before the ~~ a bath taken again during the dinner would imicate a second meal. 68.4-6. 69.4-5. 67.10. (Heseltine's edition) 68.

''r declare if I had a daughter I would eut off her ears. If there were no women, we should have every­ thing dirt-cheap: as it is, we sweat for them and get cold thanks. '' While he is cynical about women, he has an un­ healthy interest in young slaves. When his wife, Scintilla, is sitting tattling with Fortunata, she complains about his indifference to her and his interest in his favourite.(80) 8 Judging from her hatred of Massa( l), her husband's attach- ment to this slave is far from innocent. Nor, indeed, is Massa without influence. Explaining to Trimalchio why he put two apples in his napkin at the wake Habinnas remarks: ••• si aliquid muneris meo vernulae non tule~o, habebo convicium.(82) '' ••• if I don't bring sorne present back for my pet slave there will be trouble.'' However, Habinnas has good points as well as bad. Attention has already been drawn to his jolly and good-natured disposition. He appears to be genuinely fond of Trimalchio. Describing the wake to him, he remarks:

Omnia ••• habuimus pr~et~r te; oculi enim mei hic erant.(83J

(8o) ••• altera diligentiam matris familiae iactat, altera de1icias et indiligentiam viri. (67.11) In this passage the first "altera" surely refers to Fortunata, the second to Scintilla. That Fortunata is an excellent housekeeper is emphasized throughout the Cena (37.6-7; 67.2; 73.5; 74.5). (81)~.1. (82) 66.4. (83) 65.9. "we had everything there except you; for my heart was here with you." He does not like quarreling and fighting. When Trimalchio becomes enraged with Fortunata, he does his best to bring peace and quiet to the banquet. He tries to restrain his friend, recom­ mending to him a tolerant and sympathetic view of human nature: Nemo ••• nostrum non peccqt. Homines sumus, non dei.lB4)

1 ' None of us is perfect. We are human beings, not gods. ''

SCINTILLA Scintilla, Habinnas' wife and Fortunata's good friend, is a minor character and quite vaguely sketched. In sorne respects she resembles Fortunata. She is crude and vulgar: she flaunts her earrings before her hostess claiming that no woman has finer ones.(85) Like Fortunata, she eventually becomes drunk and loses all sense of dignity. Scintilla is jealous of her husband's favourite. When she is sitting tattling with Fortunata, she complains about Habinnas' indifference to her and his interest in Massa.(à6 ) When Habinnas praises Massa, she calls the latter a pimp(à7) and threatens to have him branded. 75.1. 67.9. 67.11. She says, "Agaga est ••• " (69.1, Heseltine's edi tion). "agaga" = "leno": W.B. Sedgwick, op. cit., 125. 70. v. CONCLUSION

The scene of the Cena Trimalchionis is a Greek city of Campania, probably Puteoli. Apart from the nar­ rator, Encolpius, and his friends, Agamemnon, the profes­ ser of rhetoric, and Ascyltos, the company at the dinner consists of freedmen. Petronius' treatment of freedmen is more sympathetic and kindly than that to be found in most writers of the Silver Age. The picture he draws of libertine society is not distorted by prejudice and hostility. In the Cena Petronius employs the normal methods of character-drawing except objective, narrative descrip­ tion. Petronius does not describe his characters ob­ jectively; he does not narrate either their physical ap­ pearance in detail or their psychological make-up. He uses the far more skilful and realistic technique of re­ vealing their personalities in their own talk and actions, and in the remarks and criticisms o~ their ~ellow-banque­ ters. By subtle use of language and style, he indicates differences in education and social position among his characters, and individual changes in mood and feeling. However, there is one strange and unrealistic feature in the way Petronius makes his characters talk. At Trimalchio's dinner-party there is no rapid exchange 71. of causeries and little of the thrust and riposte of normal table-talk. His characters launch into mono­ logues and hold the floor uninterrupted. In spite of this flaw, Petronius in the Cena presents to us a gallery of strikingly realistic por­ traits. The major characters are distinct personalities, full of life and individuality, not colourless, generali­ zed types; they are painted in full colour, with all the shading and detail of an oil-portrait. The minor charac­ ters are more lightly drawn, but their outlines have all the firmness and definition of a pen-sketch. 72.

APPENDIX A

The Seating Arrangement at the Banquet

At Roman banquets there were two possible seat­ ing arrangements.(!) One of these, the triclinium, was a set of three couches placed around three sides of a square table with the fourth side left open to allow the slaves to wait upon the guests. As each couch provided three places, the triclinium accommodated nine people. The other seating arrangement came into existence from the use of circular tables. The three couches of the triclinium were transformed into one couch, the shape of which was semi-circular to follow the curve of the round table. Such a couch was called a sigma and usually five people reclined in it. However, references in the ~ to definite places in the triclinium such as the imus in imo(2) indicate that this was the type of seating ar- rangement at Trimalchio's banquet. There must have been two triclinia, for there had to be places for seventeen people. This figure does not include Giton and Menelaus; for, being servants, they stood behind their masters or helped Trimalchio's slaves with their duties.

{1) E. Guhl and W. Koner, The Life of the Greeks and Romans, trans. F. Hueffert, {New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1$76), PP• 441-443. ( 2) 38.7. 73.

At one of the triclinia reclined Trimalchio, Fortunata, Habinnas, Scintilla, Encolpius, Asclytos, Hermeros, Diogenes, Proculus, and Agamemnon. In the Cena Trimalchionis there are enough references to make it possible to figure out approximately where each of these people was situated. Habinnas definitely reclined in the place of honour, imus in medio.(3) The host usually occupied the place summus in imo in order to be hear his chief guest.(4 ) Trimalchio, however, did not recline beside Habinnas, but was situated summus in summo.( 5) Women usually sat on the imus couch,(6) but sometimes they reclined.(7 ) Fortunata and Scintilla followed the latter procedure.(8 ) Fortunata placed her­ self in the couch where Scintilla was reclining, pro­ bably in the same place, for the two women are described as exchanging intimate secrets and hugging and kissing each other. (9) The position they occupied was most likely summus in imo, for there Scintilla would have been next to (3) 65.7. (4) W.A. Becker, Gallus, trans. F. Metcalfe (London: Longmans Green, 186n), p. 472. ( 5 ) 31.8. (6) Oskar Seyffert, Dictionary of Classical Antiguities, translated and revised by H. Nettleship and J. Sandys (New York: MacMillan, 1891), pp. 384-385. (7) W.R. Inge, Societ} in Rome under the Caesars (London, John Murray, 1888 , p. 198. (8) 67.1, 3, 5. (9) 67.5, 11. 74. her husband which was the natural place for her to be. Although Fortunata in this case would not have been re­ clining beside Trimalchio, she would have been in the place where, as host, he was supposed to be. Pompeius Diogenes reclined imus in imo~lO) Julius Proculus oc­ cupied the freedman's place.{ll) Judging from its name this position was ·~ not one of much dignity and therefore was probably on the imus couch, the least dignified of the three and the one where less important guests usually reclined.{l2 ) With the two women occupying one end of this couch and Pompeius Diogenes the ether, Proculus must have reclined medius in imo. Agamemnon was probably lying on the middle couch which was the most dignified. He was a professer of rhetoric and Trimalchio, considering him­ self to be a man of learning, would have seen to it that a fellow-scholar obtained a place befitting his dignity. It is clear that Encolpius was reclining between Hermeros{l3 ) and Agamemnon;(l4) it appears that Ascyltos was situated not far from Encolpius{l5 ) and Hermeros.{l6 ) These facts make the seating arrangement quite clear. Starting with the place summus in summo and going round the table to the (10) 38.7, 10. {11) )-e.ll~ 15. {12) Grant Showerman~ Rome and the Romans (New York~ Macmillan, 1931J, p. 1~--- {13) 57, 1; 59, 1. {14) 49.7. {15) 72.5, 6. {16) 57, 1; 59, 1. 75. place imus in imo we have: Trimalchio, Ascyltos, Hermeros, Encolpius, Agamemnon, Habinnas, Scintilla, Fbrtunata, Proculus, and Diogenes. At the other triclinium teclined the less important guests: Dama, Seleucus, Phileros, Ganymede, Echion, Niceros, and Plocamus. There are not enough elues in the Cena for one to be able to figure out the position of each guest at this triclinium. 76.

APPENDIX B The Language of the Freedmen

A discussion of the language of Trimalchio and his friends is relevant to the subject of this thesis for it draws attention to another aspect of Petronius' realistic characterization. It shows that his characters' talk is natural as well as their actions -and behaviour. The freedmen use a number of Greek words. It is very ap­ propriate that they should do so: being former slaves, most of them have come from the Greek-speaking east;(l) the city in which they live has been subjected to Greek influence;(2 ) Graecisms were a common feature of vulgar Latin. The degree to whiéh realism is carried can be seen too by the fact that Trimalchio's language changes when he is drunk. ( 3) It shoülli be noticed that to mark the illiterate speaker from the educated both incorrect and correct forms of words are used.(4) (1) Trimalchio and Ganymede come from Asia. Also, most of the freedmen have Greek names: W.B. Sedgwick, The Cena Trimalchionis of Petronius (Oxford: the Clarendon Press, 1950), p. 142. (2) 81 (Heseltine's edition). (3) When he is intoxicated he naturally relapses into the style of conversation he used as a slave. Hence his use of "peculium" for "pecunia". 75.3; 76.7. ( 4) Thus Trimalchio uses the incorrect accusative "Niceronem" (63.1) while Encolpius, a student of rhetoric, naturally employs the normal form "Nicero­ t em" • ( &1 • 2 ) 77.

The purpose o~ the ~ollowing list is to show

Petronius' thoroughness in reproducing the language o~ the lower classes. His realism was not content with merely sprink1ing the ~reedmen's talk with a few popular sayings and col1oquialisms to give it a slangy flavour; the large number o~ deviations from classical Latin clear1y indicate his intention to make former slaves, small tradesmen, and illiterate nouveaux riches chatter in a manner perfect1y consistent with their c1ass and culture.

PRONOUNCIATION (a) au is pronounced o in vu1gar Latin as in modern French:(5) "coda" for "cauda" (44.12); "copo" for "caupo"

(62.12); "p1odo" ~or "p1audo" (45.13). (b) Vu1gar Latin is apt to insert 'r'(6) "credrae" for "cedrae" (38.1); "cu1citra" for "cu1cita" (38.5). (c) A sy11ab1e is often 1eft out: "bub1us" for "bubu1us" ( 44.11) : "ca1dus" for "ca1idus" ( 41.11); "carde1is" for

"cardue1is" (46.4); "1amna" ~or "lamina" (57.4); "off1a" for "of~u1a" (56.8); "peduc1us" ~or "pedicu1us" (57.7).

( d) On the other hand, a sy11ab1e is sometimes inserted:

( 5) Frank F. Abbot, ''The Use o~ Language as a Means of Characterization in Petronius", C1assica1 Phi1o1ogy, II (1907), 45. (6) Sedgwick, op. cit., pp. 96-97. 78.

"fericulus" for "ferculus" (39.4); "nomenculator" for "nomenclator" (47.8). (e) Other deviations from normal pronounciation are: "hoc" for "huc", and "illoc"' for "illuc" (39.8}; "corintheus" for "corinthius" (50.1) and "soleum" for "solium" (51. 5); ••martiolus" for "marteolus" ( 51.4); "susum" for "sursum" (77.4)

VOCABULARY (a) The spoken language, being conservative no less than innovating, retained, as it does in many countries, a proportion of archaisms; hence many of the forms used have parallels in early Latin writers.(7} ••gaudimonium" (61.3) and "tristimonium" (63.4) resemble words like "mercemonium" in Plautus. Other words both archaic and popular are adverbs in -tim and -ter: '' ai:'ceatim" (44.18); "ubertim" (72.1); "largiter" ( 71.7). (b) -ax, -arius, -atus, and -osus are favorite popular endings. In the banquet scene there are a number of adjectives taking these forms: -ax: "nugax" (52.4); "abstinax" 142.5) -arius: "dupunduarius" (58.5); "micarius" (73.6}; "oracularius" (43.6). (7) of Rome in the Silver Ltd., 1927 , p. 191. 79.

-atus: "bonatus" (74.16); "expudoratus" (39.5).

-osus: "aerurnnosus" (39.12); 11 ca1citrosus" (39.6); "dignitossus" (57.10); "imperiosus" (39.9); "1acticulosus" (57.a); "1inguosus" (43.3); "sucossus" (3a.6). (c) Rare compounds and diminutives are another feature of p1ebian speech. (1) In the first group belong these nouns and adjectives: "caldicerebrius" (45.5); "domusio" (46.7); "fulcipedia" (75.6); "nesapius" (50.5); "plusscius" (63.9); "serisapia" (56.a) Verbs are compounded with prepositions: "ad - cognosco" (69.2); "ex-opinisso" (62.14); "re - corrigo" (43.4). (2) The freedmen use a large number of diminutives: "amasiunculus" (45.7); "arietillus" (39.5); "audaculus" (63.5); "canturio" (64.2); "comula" (5a.5); "corci1lum" (75.a); "homuncio" (34.10); "lacticulosus" (57.a); "lamellula" (57.6); "manuciolus" (63.a); "ossucula" (65.11); "porce1lus" (40.4); "sportella" (40.3); "vernaculus" (3a.3). (d) As has been pointed out, there is a Greek element in the freedmen's vocabu1ary. The following are hybrids (mixtures of Greek and Latin): "apoculo" (62.3); "bilychnis" (30.3); "excataris so" (67.10); "oclopecta" (35.4); "percolopo" (44.5). 80.

ACCIDENCE NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES One of the most noticeable characteristics of the freedmen's talk is their carelessness about de­ clensions. First declension nouns are transferred to second: "margaritum" for "margaritam" {63.3 ); "quis­ quilia" for "quisquiliae" {75.8). Second declension nouns are transferred to first: "intestinas" {76.11); "~ric­ linia" (71.10). Second declension neuters appear as masculines: "amphitheater" {45.6); "balneus" ( 41.11); "caelus" {45.3); "candelabrus" (75.10); "fatus" (42.5); "fericulus" {39.4); "lorus" {57.8); "vinus" (41.12). Second declension masculines appear as neuters: "nervia" {45.11); "librum" ( 46.7); "thesaurum" {38 .8). Third declension nouns are transferred to first: "schemas" (44.8); "stigmam" (45.9). Third declension nouns and adjectives are transferred to second: "vasum" (51.3); "pauperorum" ( 46.1); "strabonus" ( 68.8). Fourth de­ clension nouns appear as second: "cornum" (39.5); "gustus", "gusti" (76. 5). Other irregular forms: "Iovis" (58.2) and"bovis" (62.13) are used as nominative singulars, and "dl:ibus" is used for "deis" (44.16). There are irregular forms of the third declension accusative singular: "Phileronem" 81.

{46.8) is used for the usual "Philerotem", "Niceronem" (63.1) for "Nicerotem", "Apelletem" (64.4) for "Apellem" and "lactem" {71.1) for "lac". PRO NO UNS The relative pronoun is used where we would expect the interrogative: "qui de nabis longe venio, late venio?" (58.8); "qui mori timore nisi ego?" {62.8) VERBS Verbs normally deponent are active: "amplexaret" {63.8); "argutat" (46.1); "exhortavit" (76.10); "loquis" (46.1); "naufragarunt" {76.4). Verbs normally active are deponent: "delectaretur" (45.7) "rideatur" {57.3); "somniatur" (74.13); "pudeatur" (47.4 Heseltine's edition). Other irregular verb forms: "vetuo" for "veto" by analogy from the perfect indicative "vetui" (53.8); "parsero" for "pepercero" by analogy from the perfect participle "parsus" (58.5); "fefellitus" for "falsus" by analogy from the perfect indicative "fefelli" (61.8). "Faciatur is used for "fiat" (71.10), "erudibam" for "erudiebam" (68.6), "vinciturum" for "victurum" (45.10), "mavoluit" for "maluit" (77.5), and "domata sit" (74.14) for "domita sit" by analogy from the present tense ("domo", "domare"). 82.

SYNTAX VERBS Verbs which normally take the genitive, dative, or ablative take the accusative: " ••• nomen meum obliviscar." (66.1); " ••• te persuadeam ••• " (46.2); " ••• persuadeo hospitem ••• " (62.2); " ••• cave, maiorem maledicas." (58.13); "Ita meos fruniscar •• " (44.16); " ••• sic peculium tuum fruniscaris

···" (75-3). Verbs normally intransitive are used in a transi­ tive sense: " ••• Chrysanthus animam ebulllit." (42.2); " ••• et amphoras copiosas gypsatas, ne effluant vinum." (71.11). Quia and quod are used with the indicative in place of the accusative and infinitive construction: "••• subo1facio, quia nobis epulum daturus est ••• "(45.10);

Il ••• d ~x~. . qu~a . mus t e 11 a come d ~. t • " ( 46 • 4 ) •, " ••• sc~s. en~, . quo d epu1um de di ••• '' ( 71.9) In the freedmen's speech there are a number of cases of parataxis. Often a clause stands by itse1f when there is a verb on which it would norma11y be dependent: "rogo, me putatis ••• " (39.3); "sed narra •• quam controversiam hodie dec1amasti?" (48.4); "rogo ••• numquid tenes duodecim aerumnas Herculis ••• " ( 48.7); "credo, dixerit •• " (52 .10);

~ ••• dixerat, quid pridie cenaveram." (76.11). PRONOUNS "Ille" is used where the reflexive would nor­ mally be employed: " ••• scripsit, ut illi ex India semen boletorum mitteretur." (38.4). The refl.exi'ire is used for "is" : "ille hab et, quod sibi debebatur ••• " (43.1). PREPOSITIONS Prae takes the accusatiye instead of the ablative: " ••• aerumnosi, quibus prae mala sua cornua nascuntur ••• " (39.12); "scimus te prae litteras fatuum esse." (46.1). The accusative case is used where we would expect the ablative of place where. In sorne of these instances the accusative is probably used because motion is implied: " ••• noster c. foras cenat ••• " (30.3); " ••• fui enim hodie in funus." (42.2); " ••• videbo te in publicum ••• " (58.4). Howeyer, the explanation that the accusative is used be­ cause motion is implied certainly does not apply to the following case: "nunc populus est dorni. leones, foras vulpes." (44.15). On the other hand, there is a place where we would expect the accusative (motion to) but the ablative is used: "voca, voca cocum in medio." (49.4). BIBLIOGRAPHY

I - EDITIONS OF PETRONIUS Lowe, W.D. Petronii Cena Trimalchionis. Text, Translation, Introduction, and Notes. Cambridge: Deighton Bell and Co., 1905. Sedgwick, W.B. The Cena Trimalchionis of Petronius. Text, Introduction, and Notes. Oxford: the Clarendon Press, 1950. Heseltine, M. Petronius. The Loeb Classical Library. Text, Translation, and Introduction. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1925.

II - SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES Bagnani, G. Arbiter of Elegance. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1954. Becker, W.A. Gallus. Translated by F. Metcalfe. London: Longmans Green and Co. 1866. Carcopino, J. Daily Life in Ancient Rome. Translated by E. Lorimer. London: George Routledge and Sons, 1941. Church, A.J., and W.J. Brodribb. Annals of Tacitus. London: Macmillan, 1921.

Dill, S. Roman Society fro~ Nero to Marcus Aurelius. London: MacMillan, 1925. Duff, J.D. D. ,J)anii Iuvenalis Saturae XIV. Cambridge; the University Press, 1932. Duff, J.W. A Literary flistory of Rome in the Silver Age . London: T. Fisher Unwin Ltd., 1927. Guhl, E., and W. Koner. The Life of the Greeks and Romans. Translated by F. Hueffert. New York: D. Appleton and Co. 1876. Hadas, Moses. A History of Latin Literature. New York: Columbia University Press, 1952. Inge, W.R. Society in Rome under the Caesars. London: John Murray, 1888. Showerman, Grant. Rome and the Romans. New York: Macmillan, 1931. Simcox, G.A. A Historv of Latin Literature. Vol. II. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1883. Sketches of the Institutions and Domestic Man­ riers:,of' the Romans, Anonymous. London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1826. Summers, W.C. The Silver Age of Latin Literature. New York: F.A. Stokes Co., 1920. Teuffel, W.S., and L. Schwabe. Historv of Roman Literature. Translated by G. Warr. Vol. II. London: George Bell and Sons, 1892. 86.

III PERIODICALS Abbott, Frank F. "The Origin of the Realistic Romance among the Romans", Clasèical Philology (hereafter cited as CP), VI (1911), 257-270. "The Use of Language as a Means of Characterization in Petronius", CP, II (1907), 43-50. BaJnani, Gilbert. "Trimalchio", The Phoenix, VIII (1954), 77-91. Buriss, E.E. "Breaks in Conversation and the Text of Petronius", .Qf, XLII (1947), 244-248. Ernle, Lord. "Latin Prose Fiction", The Edinburgh Review, CCXXXI (1920), 26-44. Hadas, Moses. "Oriental Elements in Petronius", American Journal of Philology, L (1929), 378-385. Haley, H.W. "Questiones Petronianae", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, II (1891), 1-40. Perry, B.E. "Petronius and the Comic Romance," CP, XX (1925) 31-49. Shero, L.R. "The Cena in Roman Satire", CP, XVIII (1923), 126-143.

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