10 Erdkunde Band XVI

Nansen war eine komplizierte Natur mit sehr damit %u tun, nach vorwarts %u schauen." Diesem er er widersprechenden Eigenschaften. Aber be Prinzip folgte als Forschungsreisender und herrschte sie alle mit seinem unbeugsamen dieses brachte ihm seinen friihen Ruhm. Spater Willen, um die Ziele zu erreichen, die sein trat mehr und mehr die Pflicht in den Vorder ebenso groBer Ehrgeiz ihm gesteckt hatte. grund, das bestmogliche im Leben fiir sich selbst zu tun. ?Ich habe meine Schiffe verbrannt und die Briicken und damit fiir die anderen Diese Haltung hinter mir abgebrochen. So verschwendetman keine beherrschte sein von alien bewundertes Rettungs Zeit mit Ruckwartsblicken, denn man hat genug werk.

PITS AND PONDS IN Hugh C. Prince

With 7 Tables and 21 Figures

for their valuable assistance in Zusammenfassung: Gruben und Teicbe in der Graf schaf t Department of Geography Norfolk the field work carried out in the summer 1958 and spring 1959. I am indebted to the many landowners who kindly Von den in der neuesten Ausgabe der to the allowed us to inspect their fields, and in particular, Karten 27 015 sind die gro eingetragenen Eintiefungen Earl of Leicester, his Librarian, Dr. W. O. Hassall, and fien Steinbriiehe mit unregelmafiigem Umrifi die auffallig me his Estate Agent, Mr. F. S. Turner, for permitting sten. Sie kommen in in der gan unregelmafiiger Verteilung to consult the map collection and other records at Holk zen Graf schaf t vor, machen zusammen jedoch nur 1,5% ham. To Mr. J. Bryant I owe thanks for drawing the der Gesamtzahl aus. Zusatzlich zu diesen verdankt eine un maps. bestimmte Zahl anderer, kleinerer Vertiefungen der Ge winnung von Baumaterial und Strafienschotter ihre Ent haben themost minor features of stehung. Weitaus die meisten der Eintiefungen jedoch Among widerspread einen im runden oder are regelmafiigen, allgemeinen ellip theNorfolk landscape the small hollows which tischenUmrifi und sind kleiner als ein acre ha). Sie (0,4 are to be found in almost every field.Viewed from den ?S6llen** der Grundmoranen entsprechen (Sing. hSoII**) the road or the of a field be landschaften des nordlichen Mitteleuropa. (Vgl. den fol edge they may easily von Kessel in so genden Aufsatz C. Troll.) Diese sind oft mistaken for ornamental clump plantations, der Mitte von Feldern und dicht mit Eichen closer gelegen Eschen, well are they hidden by trees and shrubs. On Die ortliche Bevolke und Hagedorngestriipp tiberwachsen. the dense of ash, oak, halt sie fiir Flurnamen des inspection undergrowth rung ehemalige Mergelgruben. hawthorn and elder is seen to form a sur 13. und 14. Jahrhunderts machen die Annahme wahr ring a often scheinlich, dafi damals in vielen Teilen der Grafschaft ge rounding steep-sided hollow, occupied by und eine erhebliche Zahl von a water. Seen from the air or mergelt wurde, Mergelgruben pool of deep, clear sind auf Karten des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts eingetragen. 1 and on a map they are sharply defined (Figs. 2). Die Buchhaltungen von Giitern beinhalten Eintragungen von To describe their form and of iiber das Ausheben und Streuen unglaublicher Mengen briefly pattern Landwirt is the first of this Mergel wahrend des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts. distribution object paper. betonen die die er to schaftliche Schriftsteller wichtige Rolle, Their mode of origin is not easy discover. den Ge fiir die Urbarmachung von Schaf-Hutweiden in the of local Norfolk Am By observing variety topographic bieten leichter Boden im westlichen spielte. and the Methode der conditions, such as soils des 19. Jahrhunderts kam aber diese slope, geology, Ausgang human within a area, Bodenverbesserung zum Erliegen und wird jetzt nirgends record of activity particular simi mehr angewendet. alternative explanations formorphologically von Norfolk schei Eine gewisse Anzahl der Eintiefungen lar hollows be zu may suggested. Then, by studying nen jedoch nicht durch Ausheben des Bodens entstanden as so the of such sein. Sie sind entweder so regelmafiig im Umrifi, seicht operation particular processes, man natiir chemical oder so grofi, dafi annehmen mochte, dafi sie mineral working, marling, weathering sind. an be made to licher, nicht anthropogener Entstehung Einige davon, and periglaciation, attempt may wie die BrecklandMeere (Weiher)mogen als Erdfalle oder hollows in terms of related explain particular ?sink holes" durch Losung des Kreide- oder sehr kreide recent be We note that, apart from reichen Moranenuntergrundes entstanden sein, andere, phenomena. may few bear obvious marks of sonders im mittleren Norfolk, mogen periglaziale ?thaw mineral workings, sinks** die durch Auftauen von Boden records indicate that a (?Pingos**) sein, digging; yet historical eislinsen in Material zustande kamen. Wei It feinkornigem number of have been dug in the past. tere auf diese Weise entstanden und durch Losung large pits mogen be that whose form is due to im unter kalteren und feuchteren Verhalt may some, present Untergrund, have been on the sites of nissen als heute, vergrofiert worden sein. man's activity, dug as natural features. depressions which originated are due to Acknowledgements: My thanks University Hollows in Norfolk may be formed by several for a towards field-work College London grant expenses different natural but, in the absence of to Mr. A. R. H. who several processes and maps, Baker, provided of their we Mr. F. C. Green and other members of the observed evidence formation, photographs, directly Hugh C. Prince: Pits and Ponds inNorfolk 11

Plantation P/Cnngerhill ^

"""" ' Extentof photograph Pond

Wood * *| Scrub 23 Heath

860 yards

Fig. 2: Map of pits and ponds shown on Fig. 1. Fig. 1:

Aerial view of pits and ponds near Swaffham from Grid between areas of hollows and drifts is ref 125/788104 looking north-east towards Castle Acre. glacial almost exact1). Within these limits the density (Photo J. K. S. St. Joseph, copyright reserved) of hollows varies considerably, and appears to differ from one soil region to another (Fig. 5)2). The number of pits and ponds and their density can do no more than suggest which areas offer, or formerly offered, favourable conditions for cer to a tain processes operate. As basis for further x) In discussing the drift deposits of Norfolk I have some followed the and in discussion it seems appropriate to consider terminology interpretations proposed of and other enclosed Baden-Powell, D. F.W.: The Chalky Boulder Clays of possible origins pits, ponds Norfolk and Suffolk. in relation to their set Geological Magazine 85, 1948, depressions geographical 279?296; Chatwin, C. P.: and Adjoining What is is to an exercise ting. attempted present Areas. British Regional Geology. Geological Survey. 2nd in map interpretation. edit. London 1954; West, R. G. and Donner, J.J.: The Glaciations of East Anglia and the . Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 112, 1956, 69?91; West, R. G.: The Pleistocene Epoch in East Anglia. Journ. Glaciology 3, 1958, 211?216. 4 is based on the Survey The and distribution and in Fig. Geological form ofpits ponds Norfolk Quarter-Inch Drift Geology Sheets 12 and 16. 2) The regional divisions (Fig. 5) have been drawn with The current 1 : 25,000 Ordnance Survey maps the aid of Arthur Young's Map of the Soil of Norfolk. General View of the of the of Norfolk. mark 27,015 hollows of different and sizes Agriculture County shapes London and E. G. Mosby's of the of Ponds or other water-filled 1804, J. map regions (Fig. 3). hollows, Norfolk. Land of Britain. Norfolk. London 1938, 193. on are coloured blue the Ordnance map, distin The Soils of Norfolk are described in Newman, L. F.: of the guished from dry pits, indicated by hachures. Soils and Agriculture of Norfolk. Transactions Most and are situated in areas where Norfolk and Naturalists' Society 9, 1914, pits ponds and H. H. and F.: Soil the cover of drift is more than three feet 349?393; Nicholson, Hanley, glacial Conditions in East Anglia. Guide Book for the Excursion thick If the areas of thin drift in (Fig. 4). deposits round Britain. Third International Congress of Soil west Norfolk be included, the correspondence Science. Oxford 1935, 60?74. 12 Erdkunde Band XVI

Table I: Pits and Ponds inNorfolk

Surface Number Number Number Density Density Density Region ofArea Dry ofWet of Pits of Dry ofWet of Pits sq. mis. Pits Ponds & Ponds Pits Ponds & Ponds

Fenland 3 212 518 521 0.01 2.4 2.4

Greensand Region 123192 1244 1436 1.510.1 11.6

Good Sand Region 389 2484 1701 4185 6.44.3 10.7

Breckland 1125224 754 1879 5.03.4 8.4

Mid-Norfolk 932391 8616 9548 2.422.0 24.4

South Norfolk 600279 6790 7390 2.124.3 26.4

Loam Region 645339 1340 1985 1.93.9 5.8

Broadland 97 4328 71 0.30.4 0.7

Total Norfolk 20546009 21006 27015 2.910.2 13.1

are have been calculated for each region (Table I). In hollows in the district somewhat in areas of light soils, particularly in the Good Sand larger and deeper than those mid-Norfolk. To are at Region, the hollows generally large, occasion find what kind of material lies the bottom of not as numer are ally more than 100 feet across, but the hollows is far from simple. They thickly ous as in areas of heavy soils in mid-Norfolk overgrown, partly filled with downwashed, and south Norfolk, where small pits and ponds abound. In the densely pitted central districts, Table II: Shape and size of pits and ponds where blue chalky boulder clay of the Lowestoft till attains a considerable thickness and the level in the Fakenham district most are of ground water is high, hollows perma water-filled. In the Fenland and Broadland nently Shape Surface Area there are notably fewer than elsewhere, for they areas recent are, in fact, absent in of deep peat and alluvium. summer an was During the of 1958 attempt * made to record the shape and size of the hollows -3 * 3 .fr ? 8 or on by visiting each pit pond marked the u w a s 2 2 j six-inch map, Sheet 25, covering 24 square miles around Fakenham in north-west Norfolk ? ? (Fig. 6). Gravel pits 26 0 4 17 5 43500 To compare the hollows in an area of light sandy soils in the Fakenham district with those in an Other pits on arable 468 139 215 28 86 3600 6300 1500 area of soils in mid-Norfolk, another 6 heavy land was square miles around Seaming surveyed in the of 1959. The hollows are spring circular, elliptical Other pits two or on non- 150 37 74 30 9 1200 3600 300 or irregular in shape, except where three at same as arable land occur together the site multiple hollows are (Table II). The great majority less than 300 feet Total 644 176 293 75 100 across and few are more than 30 feet deep. The Hugh C. Prince: Pits and Ponds inNorfolk 13

^ (more ^ " "^^^-'^ /== than 3ft. below IIlcha,k BZ?2z2(less '-1 Ten mi/es the J surface) /

JFig.4: Glacial drift inNorfolk. Based on Geological Survey XU"Drift Geology Sheets 12 and 16. weathered debris, and often contain a considerable map also shows remarkably little differentiation depth of water. Most of them have not been in theworking of differentmaterials. Sand, gravel a disturbed for long time. In the Fakenham and brick pits are situated in every part of the district 619 of the hollows recorded on the six-inch county except in the Fens3) and the Broads. Chalk can map of 1904 still be identified; and of those pits and lime kilns extend from the western edge as as as that have disappeared five have been filled in of the chalk outcrop far east Southrepps near on refuse tips.With the exception of six recent gravel Mundesley, Neatishead the edge of Barton workings, only four other new hollows have Broad and Whitlingham cliffs below Norwich. as appeared since 1904. The evidence of the six-inch Some deep pits such those at Thorpe produce map convincingly shows that they cannot be sand, gravel, clay and chalk at different levels, and or explained as bomb craters other twentieth adjoining pits at several places in mid-Norfolk, century phenomena. south Norfolk, the Good Sand Region, the Breckland and the Greensand Belt produce diffe rent materials. A of materials are now Mineral workings variety being extracted from all districts where hollows on Of the pits and ponds shown 1:25,000 maps, occur, and it is pertinent to ask whether other 404 are named and distinctively represented as hollows, not named on maps, are the result of or chalk pits, lime kilns, gravel pits, sand pits mineral working. brick kilns. The shows map (Fig. 7) that, apart Pits at present in use are not difficult to recog from the Fenland and mineral work are Broadland, nize (Fig. 8). Most dry or well drained. Those in Norfolk is almost Its limits are ing ubiquitous. being dug with mechanical excavators irregu correspond closely with the limits of all types of unlike other are hollows, but, hollows, quarries 3) A brick works at Terrington St. Clement in the silt not concentrated in south and mid-Norfolk. The* fen is marked on current maps. & loam '^X^?-^^^^^^^^^^^^ FakenhaTn^ ^^^^^ ) / r e g i o

' / i v j-.::y::':y-.:yf ^ f norfolk \\ norwich broari^and^ vV;::::Nr:;::| J-.-^^fE

south p I'^'iy/SS^ \ >^ n o r f o l "^^s ^ k^@^^ ^""'^^^ ^^^^ J I/'Thetford' & f f = " FTTH Alluvium,Peat Vk^%^^^-^?.\ ^-'^ / K: -l and Fen Silts /= ^~"~^^_N^'/ -1 Tenmiles I I_M Fig. 5: Soil regionsof Norfolk. Based on maps of ArthurYoung (1804) and J. E. G. Mosby (1938).

on lar in shape and occupy large areas, the largest the Dereham road, Catton and Whitlingham more acres. are than 100 They situated either at probably provided much of the chalk and fresh the side of public roads or are served by tracks. jflintsused in themedieval buildings ofNorwich6). or Fresh exposures of material quarried, derelict Building stone has also been obtained from the cen remains of tramways, graders, sheds and kilns Lower Greensand, and since the thirteenth provide unmistakable evidence of recently aban tury from the hard beds in the Lower Chalk in a doned workings. Modern diggings present very west Norfolk7). By the seventeenth century al different appearance from the great majority of most every village had its small pits for supplying small, regularly shaped hollows situated in the gravel for road making and material for brick middle of fields (Fig. 9). making. W. G. Clarke noted that many of the small disused which are one of.the most Present day mineral workings account for pits, characteristic features of commons and barely 1.5% of all pits and ponds, but archaeology village in existed at the time of enclo and historical records enable us to identify pits greens Norfolk, Others are not reached which were formerly dug for flints, building sure8). by present day metalled roads. A of 1779 records hun materials and road stone. Many were very small survey scale workings. The earliest diggings in the Breckland be traced at least as far back as may 6) Woodward, H. B.: The Geology of the Country Neolithic times4). Until the end of the nineteenth around Norwich. Mem. Geol. Survey. London 1881, were at 129?130. century gunflints obtained from pits 28?30, as as Catton and Whitlingham well from the 7) The walls of Marham nunnery, founded in the thirteenth were built of clunch almost Brandon district5). Subterranean workings in the century, certainly derived from the F.: An chalk near Norwich at St. Giles Gate, Stone Hills neighbouring pits. Blomefield, Essay towards a Topographical History of the County of Norfolk. Vol. VII (by Charles Parkin). London 1807. 392. 4) Clarke, R. R.: East Anglia. London 1960, 51?58. 5) Skertchly, S. B. J.: On the Manufacture of Gun 8) Clarke, W. G.: The Commons of Norfolk. Trans Flints. Mem. Geol. Survey. London 1879, 10, 14. actions Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc. 9, 1910, 52?70. Fig.Pits6:thedistrictpondsinFakenhamfandshowingieldtheirrelationboundaries.toandroads BasedfieldonsurveyinAugust1958.?

0>GravelPits4*Otherpitspondsandmileone 16 Erdkunde Band XVI

+ /f* "j^FTT3?-; ??H + o I oo + 0?? >y I a+ + o o o + X_ / o++ o >w ? * + a aV = \ - fo 0 a aa+?a?+ a a X - V+ o?o0 + + +

+ ? ? Vjf +aa?a ^>oA XZZZZZZZZZZZZ 0 ? aa a ^T^^3^/ O +j, o0O O + aoaOA Xa a a . X A ^ a a X VXo +o0o a? ? a a XHa + ->a\SS? o OA +o a o o W \ o + ty +o ooOo a+ aa \ A o o. / ?o? oo \ ? ? o oa a \ I ? ?+ u o o ? a a a \ 1 + a a a Ao V= ? + o A a \ a ? a - 8q?a - = ? N ?a? o ?+o A ??o J o o +A o ? r +o ? a0 / J +^ + + + ? o o? : f r?A? a ( +o a ?a b r \= ) a o 0 \ V - *. ?^ 4 .i? F + + o A A >^ a ^y^^/ /= oo ++o fc= \-~?Q ^A ^ ? + Chalk and Lime a a * EE o Gravel and Sand ^ ? ^ / ?^ ^ ^y a Brick-kiln / ~ 7"e/?mi/es /

.Fig. 7; Mineral workings in Norfolk. Based on Ordnance Survey 1 :25.000 maps.

to water from ditches and field dreds of such pits in different parts of the Holk expected collect ham estate. It shows two small brick kilns and a drains, and some may have been dug expressly for in where the soil lime kiln in the outlying parts of Great Massing this purpose. But sandy districts, a in is well drained and artificial is ham, two gravel pits and chalk pit Weasen naturally drainage a there are some half of ham, and at least two gravel pits and sand pit in absent, 10,000 hollows, them to a few feet of the surface with Castle Acre9). filled within are water. which are shallow and lie Many disused mineral workings much less Some, very or to or in fields of than one acre in extent and cannot be distinguish within close farmyards perma nent are or for ed from other hollows. A few can be recognized grass, ponds used, formerly used, traces of stock. Some such as the by their somewhat irregular shape and watering large ponds, Brooke have been excavated as tracks leading to them. Gravel and sand pits may meres, may reservoirs for water for cattle or even for the be colonized by bracken, gorse, birch, oak and human But more than of the hawthorn, but rarely by ash (Fig. 10). population10). 70% are pits and ponds in the Fakenham district situated in arable about half of them in the Ponds and Pits fields, middle of fields, away from roads or farm build in Norfolk are A farmer in Great near Faken The great majority of hollows ings. Ryburgh much smaller than one acre in extent and much ham has at least one pit in 20 of his 24 arable modern mineral one hole over 80 feet These are more regular in shape than fields, being deep. such hollows be neither nor workings. In clay country may evidently drainage sumps ponds.

in a bound volume of H. B.: Victoria 9) The 1779 survey is contained 10) Woodward, Geology. County Estate Office. Norfolk. Vol. I. Westminster 1901, 20. plans kept in the Holkham History. Hugh C. Prince: Pits and Ponds inNorfolk 17

* .Q * \ \\? \B e a c o\\n\/\\ W r-^/V \ ^~?\

Fig. 8: Recently abandoned sand and gravel pit at Hempton. Green south of Fakenham, Grid ref. 125/911286. (Photo A. R. H. Baker)

as The modern farmer regards them a nuisance. They occupy much valuable space; in the 24 square miles around Fakenham they occupy 127 acres, or 0.8% of the surface area (Table III).

Table III: Area ocupied by pits and ponds in the Fakenham district11)

Pits and Ponds Surface_._._

Acres Area a Percf"?fsurface Number Per cent cres Pond I? IWood area WPit EZ1 Scrub ?3P Gravel pit I.I Heath 10752 66.9 0.62 471 73.1 j^ble _440 yards_ kncT 4608 59'8 1,29 173 26,9 Fig. 9: The contrast between small regularly shaped hollows Total 15360 126.7 0.82 644 100.0 in themiddle of fields at Beacon Hill and large irregular gravel workings at Hempton Green near Fakenham. Based on field survey in August 1958. The operation of machinery is hindered by their presence in themiddle of fields, and as a result it is impossible to plough straight furrows or drill straight rows. The cover of trees casts its shade on surrounding land and harbours multitudes of pests and vermin, notably rabbits. Crops are or an area stunted severely depleted in which may ten or a extend fifteen feet beyond the edge of hollow. On the other hand, the task of filling

lr) The total area occupied by pits and ponds represents sum the of the areas of 644 ellipses whose lengths and breadths have been estimated on the ground and checked against the six-inch map. The proportion of arable land occupied by hollows represents the total area of hollows in fields that were ploughed or growing arable crops in August, 1958, expressed as a percentage of the total area on of those fields shown the current Ordnance Survey acres 1:2,500 plans. The 10,752 of arable includes land Fig. 10: Old disused gravel pit covered with gorse and occupied by hedges, ditched, footpaths, bridleways and elder at Hempton Green near Fakenham. also by pits and ponds themselves. (Photo A. R. H. Baker) 18 Erdkunde Band XVI

not a a them is expensive and has always proved have vertical shaft penetrating to depth of at trees successful. The thicket of and shrubs has least ten feet (Fig. 13). Ash, hawthorn and oak are first to be cleared; then several hundred cubic the commonest trees, but elder, willow, black yards of material have to be found and carried thorn, holly, alder, elm, sycamore, hazel and across a wet are fields. When this is done, patch may Scots pine also frequently present (Fig. 14). a remain incapable of producing normal crop Trees of all ages from young saplings to mature are on (Fig. 11). specimens found the sides of many pits,

a Fig. 11: Wet patch remainingafter pit had been filled in Fig. 13: Pit on level ground covered with ash and near Colkirk. hawthorn near Great Ryhurgh. taken on 3rd 1958 a Photograph August after prolonged (Photo A. R. H. Baker) period of drought. (Photo A. R. H. Baker)

on a Fig. 12: Pit side of hill covered with ashy hawthorn Fig. 74: Pit on level stony ground supporting Scots pine near and oak Raynham Park. and elder neat Pudding Norton. Grid 125/884276. ref. Grid ref. 125/935281. (Photo A. R. H. Baker)

showing how little they have been disturbed in recent times. Yet the of now Marl pits and marling reports people living and the records of marling activity up to the end areas are In of flat arable land pits and ponds of the nineteenth century suggest that many were two or regularly spaced in each field, except where dug formineral manures. three occur side side as on by multiple hollows; For the present purpose the term "marling" is are near to sloping ground they generally situated used refer to the digging of any mineral sub a the highest point in field. Some, cut into the side stances from beneath the surface soil to correct of a are a or to hill, approached by gentle incline which soil acidity improve soil texture. Geologists look like a natural backed a marl as a more may depression, by define calcareous clay containing or steep face ten twenty feet high (Fig. 12). than 10% calcium carbonate, but in Norfolk the on a Others, whose presence level surface is often term "marl" is generally reserved for soft white revealed a dense thicket trees a by of and shrubs, materials containing very high proportion of Hugh C. Prince: Pits and Ponds inNorfolk 19

was calcium carbonate. Joshua Trimmer applied the sloping surface it occasionally possible to cut to term exclusively almost pure calcium carbonate back into the slope far enough to reach the or obtained from the Upper Chalk, transported material by way of an inclined ramp and draw it masses or disturbed of chalk, the intensely chalky out in carts with the aid of a capstan16). The first boulder clay of north-west Norfolk12). In mid method would account for the depth and funnel Norfolk and south Norfolk sandy substances rich shape of pits on level surfaces; the second would lime are also called "marl". The term is on in "clay" explain thewedge shape of the few pits sloping to with a lower lime a applied other substances surfaces. Raising material from deep vertical a content13). In its local meaning, "clay" includes shaft is laborious operation, but less costly than or some of a grey, blue yellow chalky till, which opening broad pit. The cost of digging and more than is contains 80% calcium carbonate and loading the material into carts is often no greater to be burnt for It also pure enough lime14). than the cost of carting and spreading it with as as true includes sandy loam, well clay from the wheelbarrows or cumbrous carts. To carry it the formations. The value of a Gault and Kimmeridge shortest distance, pit should be situated in the the true for a or a so all these materials, except clays, middle of field at the top of slope, that to improving light soils may be attributed largely loaded carts may run downhill. A further advan lime content. On the soils in a a their light sandy tage of digging shaft is that minimum quantity west Norfolk or "marl" is used to reduce "clay" of "uncallow" overburden needs removing. to to acidity, increase thewater-retaining capacity, The "uncallow" is generally spread on the land retard the leaching of plant nutrients from the with the "callow" marl and not thrown back into to soil erosion. On soils topsoil and prevent heavy the pit after themarl has been taken. When ten or sandy calcareous material, the "marl" of south more feet of overburden has to be removed to can be used to soil texture. The a Norfolk, improve reach productive bed, a vertical shaft is most fraction to break down tenacious sand helps stiff, appropriate. The shape, size and position of many a mechanical while the lime clods by process; present day pits correspond faithfully with these fraction not only reduces acidity, but also imparts specifications. an crumb structure a chemical easily worked by The earliest documentary evidence of marling process of flocculating the clay colloids. At least in Norfolk is derived from medieval field-names eleven substances were used to different improve and minor place-names which indicate the pres of land in Norfolk in the mid ence different types of marled land, marl pits, clay pits, loam pits but the method of nineteenth century obtaining or pit holes. One of the earliest references is a grant them was much the same in all districts. acres of five of land, called Marlepitlond, at The of mineral manures was digging practised Saxthorpe in north-east Norfolk made in 127717). over two thousand Pliny in years ago. In the sandy districts of west Norfolk the ferti described how such material was raised by lizing value of white chalk marl was known and windlass from of as much as 100 feet. This depths widely exploited in the thirteenth, fourteenth and a a method of sinking deep shaft and excavating fifteenth century. W. G. Clarke states that "land bell below is described shaped cavity by many which is now apparently primitive heathland was later observers and has been in the reported profitably cultivated" at that time18). Among other several On a present century by authorities15). places he identifies the present Lambpit Hill in Thetford Warren as the Lampythowe referred On the of as 12) Trimmer, Joshua: Geology Norfolk to in 1338, in which the element "lam" means the of soils. illustrating laws of the distribution Journ. Roy. "loam". Another near Thetford is referred to Soc. 7, 1847, 444?485. pit Agric. in 1535 as Place-names contain 13) In other counties these terms have different mean Fryers Calkepitt. ings. What is described in west Norfolk as "marl" would ing the element "cork", as in the present Cork be "chalk" in while much probably called Hertfordshire; mere Bottom, Wretham, or Corkes Pitte, on the of what is called "clay" in Norfolk would be described as "marl" in Hertfordshire or Kent. an manure. 14) Woodward, H. B.: The Geology of the Country Marl, ancient Nature 183, 1959, 214?7. One around Fakenham, Wells and Holt. Mem. Geol. Surv. of the best twentieth century accounts is by Sherlock, a London 1884, 23, reports that chalky boulder clay in pit R. L.: The Geology of the Country around Aylesbury and near Holt was found to contain 91% calcium carbonate, Hemel Hempstead. Mem. Geol. Survey. London 1922, 55. a material so free from other detritus as to be readily 16) Young, Arthur: Annals of Agriculture. 19. Bury mistaken for pure chalk. St. Edmunds 1793, 478. on 15) Russel, Sir E. John: The World of the Soil. London 17) Historical Mss. Comm.: Report the Mss. of the 1957, 172, quotes a passage from Pliny's Natural History Marquess of Lothian at Blickling Hall, Norfolk. London describing the method of extracting marl from bell pits in 1905, 50. The marlpit is also referredto in a grant of 1252 Britain two thousand years ago. Russell observed the cited on p. 48. same method used by a gang of itinerant workmen at 18) Clarke, W. G.: In Breckland Wilds. 2nd. edit, Rothamsted in 1915. The observations of agricultural revised and re-written by R. Rainbird-Clarke: Heffer, are writers on this subject reviewed by Fussell, G. E.: 1937, 97. 20 Erdkunde Band XVI

Holkham map of theManor of Farnworth Hall in Holkham and probably several others25). Marling Ashill, 1581, probably refer to the hard chalk of was usually paid for by the tenant himself, except that name described by Arthur Young19). Many when new land was being enclosed and improved. hundreds of early forms of place-names have yet The Audit Account Books of the Holkham to be studied before a geography of marling in Estate, which begin in 1707, record only the medieval Norfolk can be written, but it is evident payments made by the landlord as a contribution from the earliest farm and estate maps that marl to the initial cost of reclamation; the tenant, for a an pits were widespread feature of the landscape of his part, generally agreed to pay increased north-west Norfolk by 1600. rent26). A typical entry in the Audit Account, under to such an A remarkable collection of maps and plans of "Holkham, 1712", referring reads: the Holkham estate dating back to 1575 show agreement, many marl pits and clay pits20). Most were located "Allowed Thos Magnus for filling and spreading acres in minutely subdivided fields and small closes of 500 load ofmarie laid upon 10 inHigh Close as was two or three acres immediately surrounding villag by agreementwhen he took thefarme which part of es and hamlets, and itwould seem that before 1660 the consideration of his increase of rent... ? 7.10. Od" most in north-west Norfolk on lands that marling Marling, together with hedge planting and the were under cultivation. It is not certain out on regularly building of farms, was carried newly how extensive the was at this in practice period enclosed land in every part of theHolkham estate the rest of the in the old county, particularly during the first half of the eighteenth century enclosed districts of it is on a mid-Norfolk, although (Fig. 15). By 1750 marling large scale had clear itwas not an innovation of the entirely early come to be regarded as an essential step in the In east Norfolk chalk eighteenth century. shipped reclamation of land from sheepwalks27). To more from Erith and Northfleet in Kent Greenwich, than one writer marling was the cornerstone of was carried as much as ten or fifteen miles inland the improvements made in west Norfolk hus from the where Defoe observed it was ports, bandry during the early eighteenth century. One farmers "to their eagerly sought by lay upon land, asserted that "all the countryfrom Holkham to and that in prodigious quantities" 2iV). Although Houghton was a wild sheepwalk before the spirit of this trade have contributed to the of may fertility improvement seized the inhabitants.What has wrought the coastal of east it is fringe Norfolk, unlikely these vast improvements is the marling; for under the that chalk was used outside the Loam a imported whole countryrun veins of very rich soapy kind, which In other of the marl was Region. parts county theydig up and spread upon the old sheepwalks; and in the field in which itwas used. generally dug then, bymeans of inclosure, they throw theirfarms into was a course the After 1660 it is evident that marling regular of crops, and gain immensely by on won It is an to extensively practised lands newly from improvement"2*). oversimplification say occurs in veins under thewhole "breaks", from sheepwalks and from heaths22). It thatmarl county, but the effect of its on of came to play a leading role in the reclamation of application many types on the land was "The this land is light sandy soils in west Norfolk, notably spectacular. fertility of great estates of Raynham23), Houghton24), list of the Cholmondeley (Houghton) MSS. Cambridge marl under the General Estate 19) Young, Arthur: Annals of Agriculture 39. Bury 1953. lists Accounts, St. Edmunds 1803, 172. 1718?1745, 3 vols. were no ?N?. Tne state of in Norfolk. Gentle 20) They show, for example, that there less than 25) Husbandry 28 pits inTittleshall in 1596, 10 in Longham in 1580 and man's Magazine 22, 1752. 453, credits Mr. Allen of Lyng 4 inWest Lexham in 1575. House, north-east of Dereham, with initiating large-scale as a means of heathland in west Nor 21) Defoe, Daniel: A Tour through England and marling reclaiming Arthur: cit. 1804. adds the names Wales (1724). Everyman. London 1927. Vol. I, 99. folk; Young, op. 365, are of Lord Townshend and Mr. to the list of 22) "Breaks", "brakes" or "brecks" temporarily Morley pioneer or cultivated enclosures from sheepwalks heaths, which improvers. a or to revert to The nature of these is 165 are cropped for year two, then allowed 26) agreements discussed, p. are in in R. A. C.: Coke of Norfolk and the rough grazing. They described Saltmarsh, John, Parker, Agrarian a Econ. Hist. Rev. 2nd. Ser. 1955. 156?166. und Darby, H. C.: The Infield-Outfield System on Nor Revolution, 8, on was to folk Manor. Econ. Hist. 3, 1935. 30?44 and Mosby, Marling the demesne lands normally charged the Farm referred to in E.T.: A J. E. G.:op. cit. 127?131. Account, Rogers, J. at Rainham of and Prices in 23) Saunders, H.W.: Estate Management History Agriculture England, vii, Part I. Oxford 646. in the Years 1661?1686 and 1706. Norfolk Archaeology 1703?1793. 1902, on The role of in the reclamation of soils 19, 1917. 39?66 shows that marling began the Rayn 27) marling light the is discussed at ham Estate before 1664, much earlier than suggested by during early eighteenth century length in Naomi: The Revolution in Nor Prothero, R. E. (Lord Ernie), English Farming Past and Riches, Agricultural Hill Present. London 1912, 174. folk. University of North Carolina, Chapel 1937, and Norfolk 152. 24) Plumb, J. H.: Sir Robert Walpole 33, 77?81, Ser. 1952. A Gentlemen : Revised Husbandry, Econ. Hist. Rev. 2nd. 5, 86?89, 28) Society of England Displayed. A.: A Hand and Owen. London 1769. 318. refers to marling 1701, p. 87. Chinnery, G. by Russell, P., Price, i, Hugh C. Prince: Pits and Ponds inNorfolk 21

1729-30 ^.Queries ^>Ny + Southcreake 1726-8 >y - \ Dunton 1734-5 "X 1 Fulmodeston 1712-50 X + \ + \S Flitcham 1735-45

Massinghaml708-I4 I ^Xr^^^N^-^1 + \ ,Wellinghaml738-9 >. _ yWeasenham 1738-50/ + Q.?. ^ _ .-^ Mn\ + B.?..ngford .726-42 Tittles^ 1742-50 V=?

Castle Acre 1735-53 \ \ FE

> Dates refer to entries in _^ f -?k' -^^^^^^-^ j Holkham Audit Account i V_^-s_h ^ Books f f

Ten miles /

Fig. 15: Marling on the Holkham estate between 1712 and 1756. Based on Holkham Audit Account Books record payments for the initial improvement of land.

de la wholly artificial", declared the young Due years' residence in east Norfolk (1780-1782), a a Rochefoucauld after visiting prosperous farm made careful study of the properties and mode atDunton in course occurrence 178429). In the of his visit he of of the marls and clays used learned that this and other farms in in many the different parts of the county30). Samples district had been uncultivated waste fifty years of chalk marl from Thorpe Market on the state earlier and owed their high of cultivation "to northern edge of the Loam region, clay marl estate the discovery ofmarl". On maps of the mid from Hemsby in East Flegg, soft chalk from eighteenth century pits appear frequently in the Thorpe-next-Norwich, and hard chalk from midst of "breaks". In the 1750's a pit ismarked in Swaffham on the borders of the Breckland and the Break in Marl Great Massingham; in 1779 there is Good Sand Region were analysed and all were a a a New Marl'd Break in Rougham and Claypit found to contain high proportion of calcium Break in to name Tittleshall, but three examples carbonate. But their usefulness also depended on from maps of the Holkham estate. the rate at which they weathered and mixed with While newly reclaimed intakes inwest Norfolk the soil; and on the nature of the soil itself. It was were being marled possibly for the first time, the recognised locally that the presence of buddle or was corn activity being revived in the old enclosed marigold (Chrysanthemum segetum), smart lands in east Norfolk. William Marshall, who weed (Polygonum Hydropiper), quick or couch a acquired knowledge of the practice from two grass (Agropyron repens) indicated that the land needed It was also observed that the Ed. A marling. 29) Marchand, Jean: Frenchman in England 1784, being Melanges sur l'Angleterre of Francois de la Rochefoucauld. Translated with notes S. C. : by Roberts, 30) Marshall, William The Rural Economy of Nor Cambridge 1933, 230; other observations on marling folk.London 1788. i, 16, 18?27, 150?157, 217; ii, 193, appear on p. 172?173, 217, 218?219. 363?364. 22 Erdkunde Band XVI

of the county was justly famous had been achieved by the institution of 21-year leases, by the enlarge ment of farms, by the enclosing of heathland, by strict adherence to regular rotations of crops and by marling, which he claimed to be "the most important branch of Norfolk improvements"^). or on a In 1804 marling claying was practised large scale in most parts of the county (Fig. 16), as as but the quantities used were no longer great in 1771, at the time of Arthur YoungV Tour33). was to demonstrate the - Experience beginning 1804 ^ ?^_ advantages of smaller dressings. In the country between Warham and Holt where itwas customary acre to spread 60 loads34) per in 1771, good results were obtained with 25 to 30 loads in 1804; and r' s? land in Massingham that received 70 loads per 's 111 acre in the 1770's derived no less benefit from . 'i Pm 35 to 40 loads per acre 25 years later35). But there were still great differences between the amounts used in different localities. Much larger quantities east. were applied in west Norfolk than in the In e??? the west of from 40 to 1844 dressings "clay" ranged 140 loads per acre; in the Loam Region dressings were not more than 40 loads per acre, and the east widely dug white chalk "marl" of Norfolk a rate to was generally spread at of 8 12 loads per acre. we To appreciate the scale of these operations may reckon that a forty-acre field clayed at the rate of 60 loads acre, which was 6 ^ per quite typical ^^V^~7oo^L^x> w-^?,_^ I or for west Norfolk, required 2,400 loads, about cubic of material. To this 16: marl in 3,200 yards provide Fig. Quantities of spread Norfolk. a hole 60 feet in diameter and over 30 The circles are proportional to the number of loads of marl quantity, Young feet would have to be for a ten-acre spread per acre. Information derived from Arthur deep dug; (1771 and 1804) and R.N.Bacon (1844) and other accounts. field a hole 30 feet across and over 30 feet deep would be required. Similar diggings might be or at intervals of or years, disease "anbury" or "clubroot" "flnger-and repeated twenty thirty at or near the site of the toe" (Caused by the organism Plasmodiophora usually original pit. Observations confirm that the are brassicae) in turnips and members of the cabbage pits roughly to the size of fields, that their did not occur on recently marled land31). proportional family with the On the other hand, it was noted that coltsfoot capacity corresponds very roughly to amounts Arthur Young, and that (Tussilago Farfara) thrived where marl lay close reported by hollows could have been the surface. When William Marshall wrote, the multiple produced by east extent and variety of workable deposits in repeated digging. The benefits of were never so Norfolk was already well known from exposures marling widely was as were the first half of the in existing marl pits, and attention being publicised they during nineteenth In 1811 was recom directed to the material as effectively as century. claying using it was mended to improve fen peat, although possible. obtained from trenches rather than In the second half of the eighteenth century in generally deep west Norfolk was still as a marling regarded Arthur: General View of the asserted that 32) Young, Agriculture Arthur Young Other pioneering activity. of the County of Norfolk. London 1804. 402. the standard of forwhich that high farming part references to marling on pp. 364, 366, 402?412, 476. Tour the 33) Young, Arthur: The Farmer's through H. V.: East of London 1771. ii: 31) More recently Gardner, H. W., and Garner, England. 17,31,40,152?156,161. A "load" varied in from to and The Use of Lime in British Agriculture. London 1953. 34) quantity place place time to but in Norfolk in the nineteenth 28?31, names a number of other reliable indicators of time, early century are common it was reckoned to be about 36 cubic or acidity which in Britain, including sheep's generally feet, or tons. sorrel {Rumex acetosella)y spurrey (Spergula arvensis) and iy3 cubic yards, approximately 1% Arthur: cit. 402. knawel {Scleranthus annuus and perennis). 35) Young, op. 1804, Hugh C. Prince: Pits and Ponds inNorfolk 23

was pits36). In 1826 William Withers advocated the eredadequate. This view supported by Barugh use of marl to promote the growth of trees on Almack who stated that itwas better to claymore were run poor light soils37). But these small extensions frequently than to the risk of putting on too a was a of well-established practice which strongly large quantity at once41). But he weakened his a urged by the foremost agricultural writers of the argument by selecting, "as favourable specimen period and actively encouraged by wealthy improv of what has been done for the soil ofNorfolk, and as ing landlords such Thomas William Coke to account for its present productive state", a 287 of Holkham38). Most farms in west Norfolk acre farm at South Runcton on which no less were tenants occupied by whose interests in than 54,055 loads of clay had been spread at one were an making improvements protected by long dressing, average of 188 per acre42). Again, at a an leases. During the period of 21-year lease two farms inWest Lexham, light sandy soils were initial outlay of less than fifty shillings per acre clayed at the rate of 40 or 50 loads per acre, and at a return near on secured handsome by ensuring high another Swaffham, the edge of the Breck yields. In other parts of the county, where leases land, at the rate of over 80. seem to have been granted for short periods, The digging of marl ceased in most parts of tenants were less certain of a return on their Norfolk before the First World War, after declin investment; but the existence of many thousands ing for about half a century. H. B. Woodward'j* of in on pits mid-Norfolk and south Norfolk suggests report the geology of the country around that farmers ventured their in as willingly capital Fakenham, Wells and Holt discusses marling marling enterprises with confidence. if it were still practised there in 188 443); but R. N. Bacon, writing in 1844, firmly advocated geological survey memoirs for other districts the use of marl or In his no no was clay39). opinion, leave doubt that it almost discontinued44). county "has been indebtedmore, if so much, tomanures If lime in some form was to be used at all, itwas its as none a obtainedfrom subsoils, Norfolk, and by has evidently cheaper to bring it from a distance than been or larger quantity used, with greater increase of to dig it on the farm45). The was still production"*?). practice evidently The practice of marling has now been entirely extended. A of a farm at Castle Acre means being map superseded by other of improving soil 46 fieldsmarks 35 "new" texture (Fig. 20) containing and and correcting acidity, notably by the use 17 "old" marl another of a farm atWeasen or pits; of pure lime chalk. Since the passing of the 26 fields ham (Fig. 19) containing shows 25 "new" Agricultural Act of 1937, which authorised the and 10 "old" another of a pits; yet newly enclosed payment of subsidies on lime delivered to a farm, farm atMileham shows several new pits dug there much has been done to restore the losses caused in the course of after 1814. In the more a improvements by than half century of neglect. The Loam marl and chalk were Region being shipped subsidy, paying half the cost of the material and in small wherries from staithes near the and pits, its delivery but nothing towards the cost of in areas manure was com use many farmyard being spreading, favours the of light dressings of with marl. or posted lime chalk rather than heavy dressings of im The of marl or recommended on dressings clay by pure marl dug the farm. Many farmers in the Bacon are smaller than those at now generally applied Fakenham district obtain kiln-dried ground the of the nineteenth as use beginning century, partly chalk fromWells; others small lump chalk or a measure of and was economy, partly because it lime waste from beet sugar factories. These ma then that excessive were are to can recognised applications terials light, easy handle and be spread harmful to the land. On soils from 30 to manure or light 40, by drill rotary spreader. Moderate dress on heavy soils not less than 40, and on newly broken land of 100 loads were consid upwards 41) Almack, Barugh: On the Agriculture of Norfolk, Journ. Roy. Agric. Soc. 5, 1845. 307?357, esp. 307?313. 36) Parkinson, R.: General View of the Agriculture of 42) Ibid, 312. the of London 1811. in County . 299, cited 43) Woodward, H. B.: The Geology of the Country Darby, H. C.: The Draining of , 2nd. edit. around Fakenham, Wells and Holt. London 1884. 21?22. 1956. 238. Cambridge 44) Woodward, H. B.: The Geology of the Country 37) Withers, William: A Memoir addressed to the around Norwich. London 1881. 115; Reid, C.: The Geo for the of ... on Society Encouragement Arts the Planting logy of the Country around Cromer. London 1882. 3, 132; and of Forest-Trees. Holt Rearing 1826. 18. Bennett, F. J.: The Geology of the Country around Attle The to 38) marling activity is frequently alluded by borough, Watton and Wymondham. London 1884. 9; and R. Young, Arthur, highly praised by Bacon, N., Blake, J. H.: The Geology of the Country around East but Edward: its Rigby, Holkham, Agriculture. Norwich Dereham. London 1888. 51; Whitaker,W, Skertchly, does not refer to the S. and 1818, practice. B.J., Jukes-Brown, A. J.: The Geology of the on 39) Bacon, R. N.: The Report the Agriculture of Borders of the Wash. London 1899. 74. Norfolk. London discusses on 1844, marling pp. 7, 94, 45) Copland, Samuel: Agriculture, Ancient and Mo 290?293. : 267?273, dern A Historical Account of its Principles and Practice, 40) Ibid, 267. I. London 1864. 694?699, 774. 24 Erdkunde Band XVI

more as ings of not than three to eight tons per how they originated. Names such Hell Pit, on acre, depending the acidity of the soil, may be Hag's Pit, Smokers Hole,Dunfer Hole and Thief's ten us expected to benefit the land for at least years. Pit tell only that they have been landscape a as names were On light sandy soils with pH value as low features since their first recorded. a 4.6, single dressing of five tons of soft lump Early estate maps likewise show thatmany hollows chalk is sufficient to ensure normal crops of sugar existed in the sixteenth and seventeenth century, not came to beet and other sensitive plants for more than how they be there. On the other a 17 years in this part of England46). In 1950 total hand, eighteenth and nineteenth century records of 228,156 tons of liming materials was consumed fail to state precisely the location of the pits. state inNorfolk, or about 4% cwt. per cultivated acre, Account books generally what quantities on a which was rather more than the average for were spread particular farm, but rarely from was England and Wales47). which field the material obtained. Again, The evidence formarling in the eighteenth and there is much less documentary evidence for areas nineteenth century is abundant and decisive. Estate marling in the densely pitted inmid-Norfolk, accounts, surveys and the reports of contemporary east of Attleborough, Dereham and Fakenham, can observers show that many pits and ponds owe than in west Norfolk. All that be stated with is that their present form to the digging of mineral certainty from available historical records manures. many hollows of uncertain origin existed inNor Shallow depressions The evidence for marling does not dispose of the problem of the origin of hollows. It does not tell us whether the pits we see are entirely man or made natural hollows deepened by digging. Several agricultural writers have noted that the surface of the ground was patterned with broad shallow hollows before marl pits were excavated. Thomas Hales writing in 1756 believed that such hollows marked the sites of former diggings and he instructs the reader, "When he hasfound any such Hollows let him mind theCourse wherein they run,for thatWay probably theVein ofMarie runs also"*8). Hales draws upon a wealth of oberservations made in theMidlands and southern England, but does not refer to specifically Norfolk. That Nor \ // 7%./ AlethorpeHalL/5 a folk also had pitted surface in the early eight eenth century is confirmed by an account of husbandry in Norfolk in 1752. It states, "we have an abundance of old pits, and many of them have gone name by the of marie pits, and inclosures have been denominatedfrom them above two hundred years"**). some It is clear that at least eighteenth century were on a a sur marl pits dug pitted not smooth face, and because some of them were named marl was pits it assumed that they had been dug for some that purpose at earlier period. But a great many hollows bear names which do not tell us

46) Oldershaw, A. W., and Garner, H. V.: Light Land Experiments at Tunstall, Suffolk. Journ. Roy. Agric. Soc. 105, 1944. 98; Oldershaw, A.W., and Garner, H.V.: on Land at Tunstall. Wood Liming Experiments Light Journ. ^ Pits and ponds ?^ Depressions Roy. Agric. Soc. 110, 1949. 89. Statistics collected the Lime 47) by Agricultural Depart _440 yards_j ment of the Ministry of Agriculture, cited in Gardner, H. W., and Garner, H.V.: The Use of Lime in British Agriculture. London 1953. 197. Fig. 17: Pits, ponds and shallow depressions near 48) Hales, Thomas: A Compleat Body of Husbandry. Alethorpe Hall. London 1756. 46. Grid ref. 125/950310. Based on examination of 49) ?N?. The state 0f Husbandry in Norfolk. Gentle Air Ministry air photograph taken in 1946 man's Magazine 22, 1752. 453. and field survey in August 1958. Hugh C. Prince: Pits and Ponds inNorfolk 25

on Table IV: Comparison of pits marked on early maps with those shown 1946 air photographs

GREAT MAS SINGHAM WEASENHAM CASTLE ACRE

^ ? g ^ 0 g Cu .2 ^ o a .2 s c? \o o a.'^wco\ow c&Sogsg ?? ?1 SS I ?a S2 ^ Q.i "d % ^^3Q.tJ^G ^^O.v.TJc"^ a ? ?| .SS- g* 8g .s& a>2 81 Ii4 g-3 ss ?-? a? g"3 si ag ?? si ag

c/}t-h c/} o Pt g H S c/)r-< cn o Pm g H S (^th cfl o Pt g H ~ S 1728-44 Pits 9 3 0 1779 Pits 1 0 0 1 1779 Pits 3 2 ~~2 7" 1833NewPits 5 2 3 10 1844Old Pits 1 2 7 10 1844Old Pits U 3 6 20~ 1884NewPits 24 1 1 26~ 1844NewPits 17 7 1 25 1844NewPits 17 10 8 35~ 1946Hollows 1946Hollows 1946 Hollows not shown on 0 17 not shown on 14 11 not shown on 15 16 earlymaps earlymaps early maps Total shown Total shown Total shown on 1946 air 38 23 on 1946 air 33 20 on 1946 air 46 31 photographs photographs photographs

folk at the end of the sixteenth and a are still century; hollows steep-sided pits. Of 12 pits deal of marl was from unidentified on a are great dug pits marked map of 1728?1744, 9 pits at the in west Norfolk the and nine can during eighteenth present time, and the others be recognised as teenth century. shallow depressions. If evidence for the other In north-west Norfolk close of two estates were as as inspection the clear thiswe might conclude and recent air reveals that that a ground photographs large number of shallow depressions origi in addition to and there are steep-sided pits ponds nated before eighteenth and nineteenth century broad shallow are many depressions which plough marling began. This is much less certain at ed over and cultivated The (Fig. 17). shallow Weasenham (Fig. 19). A comparison of R. N. to be rounder and Bacon'j- in 1844 with recent depressions appear smoother, map air photographs than the which generally larger steep-sided pits, shows that almost half the present pits are not are situated within them or at their in out occasionally recorded 1844, and 8 of 35 pits marked on be in two different the 1844 cannot on edges. They may explained map be located air photo either mark the sites of man-made ways: they pits graphs. Digging during the past century may that have been abandoned and deliber account for some new perhaps pits appearing on air filled or are natural hollows. If are ately in; they they photographs, but how the 8 missing nine are filled-in we to find some pits may expect of teenth century pits to be accounted for? If we them marked as on pits early maps; indeed, all dismiss the possibility that the surveyor errone marked on those obliter pits early maps, except ously recorded non-existent pits,we must acknowl ated by buildings, embankments and cuttings, edge that not all hollows or traces of hollows to be discernible on air either be on ought photographs may detected air photographs. Some may as or as shallow be or pits depressions. concealed by crops woodland vegetation, Recent air of of three west others have been photographs parts may completely erased by filling Norfolk show that are parishes steep-sided pits in, weathering and cultivation. At Castle Acre about more numerous than shallow 16 on 50% depres (Fig. 20), pits marked early surveys are not sions but whereas about three shown on air (Table IV); photographs, and nearly one-third of the can be identified on of the are quarters present pits present pits not previously recorded. early estate maps, only about two-fifths of the At both Weasenham and Castle Acre over half shallow are At Great depressions represented. the present shallow depressions are not accounted all are on Massingham (Fig. 18), present day pits for early maps. Some, if not all these, may be recorded on but 6 of the filled-in previous surveys, only pits dug before the eighteenth century, 23 shallow are some present depressions previously but may well be the result of natural pro as or mapped pits ponds. Some of the oldest cesses. 26 Erdkunde Band XVI

Sink Holes or from the surface soil. Nests of gravel or coarse known as "sand are a distinc Solution or ice action have contributed to sand, locally galls", may tive feature ofNorfolk The surface above the formation of The of pipes54). depressions. presence is sometimes level with the sink holes due to solution of calcium carbonate surrounding country but sometimes forms a circular several rainwater and other weak and the col depression by acids, feet in diameter. be smooth and of the surface into cavities is Depressions may lapse underground in or broken and fissured where the fact that chalk lies beneath the regular outline, suggested by recent subsidence has disturbed the surface. most densely pitted parts of Norfolk. Pipes, subsidences and the Breckland meres are cited as Sink holes may subside with dramatic sudden visible evidence of the effect of chemical weath ness. H. B. Woodward reports many eye-witness ering. accounts of hollows appearing in the country Enclosed depressions have been described around Norwich, and similar incidents in other as the fundamental and essential units repeatedly parts of Norfolk observed in past centuries are of limestone and are also charac topography recorded byWilliam Whitaker55). A "cave in" teristic of the In Norfolk a cart English chalklands50). may be precipitated by the passing of farm most hollows lie to the east of the chalk accom outcrop or a heavy downpour of rain, and may be and are underlain chalk at an water the by depths increasing panied by eruption of displaced by a few inches in the Breckland to about from sudden fall of earth from the roof of a cavity. By 100 feet between Norwich and Cromer. East of over a contrast, the ground may subside slowly Norwich the chalk beneath a thick cover plunges wide area. This is how Mannington Mere is of Eocene and more recent formations to a crag reported to have originated in 170456). Sub almost 600 feet at There depth of Yarmouth51). sidence may be a result of human activity caused are few hollows in the eastern coastal areas, very by the collapse of galleries of ancient flint mines but no less than 2000 in the west lie the a beyond and bell pits, producing pitted surface like that of edge of the chalk in the Greensand Belt. Many at Grimes Graves near Brandon or Broom's Hill the latter are situated on boulder intensely chalky near Thetford57). as clay containing almost much calcium carbonate to The circular or meres in as chalk itself and similarly subject chemical steep-sided elliptical on ex the Breckland have been described as "swallow weathering52). The few hollows present non holes due to solution the chalk, and in some posures of Lower Greensand and other of possibly cases the into calcareous rocks older than chalk are unlikely to collapse of surface underground cavities"58). are situated on a have been formed solution. The sink hole The largest of these hollows by sea cannot therefore claim to account for flat surface some 120 to 180 feet above level hypothesis covered with all hollows. if solution features are formed where the chalk is very thinly Again, and in solid chalk should be most numerous in deposits of sand, flint gravels yellowish they meres such the Breckland where the chalk lies close to the chalky boulder clay. Between the large as are hundreds of small de surface and is to the maximum effect of Fowlmere (Fig. 21) exposed one acre in but similar pressions, less than extent, weathering processes. an area of three miles Solution the vertical or in form. Within square undoubtedly produced are in and other around Fowlmere lie 50 such hollows which diagonal pipes exposed quarries in sections cutting through the chalk53). Varying size from 6 inches to 100 feet across, are they Woodward, H. B.: The of and strata 54) Geology England filledwith material derived from overlying Wales. 2nd. Edit. London 1887. 422. Subsidences 55) Woodward, H. B.: Earthquakes and in : 50) The fullest recent account appears Corbel, Jean in Norfolk. Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' de P et de H. B.: Les karsts du nord-quest Europe quelques Society 3, 1884. 637?643; Woodward, Geology Inst. Rhodan. 1957. regions de comparaison, Etudes. Lyon of Soils and Substrata. London 1912. 64; Whitaker, G. V.: The and Coleman, A., and Balchin, W. origin William: The Water Supply of Norfolk. Geol. Survey in the Hills. development of surface depressions Mendip Memoir. London 1921. 40. Proc. Geol. Assoc. 70, 1959. 291?306, reviews English 56) Woodward, H. B.: loc. cit. 1884. 641. studies of karstic depressions. in the of 57) Evans, Sir John: On some cavities gravel Woodland, Austin W.: Water Supply from under 51) the of the Little Ouse in Norfolk. Geol. sources district. valley Mag. 5, ground of Cambridge-Ipswich Geological 1868. 443?447; Clarke, R. R.: East Anglia. London Wartime 20, Parts I?X. London Survey Pamphlet 51?58. of well in south 1960. 1942?1946, provides details borings Water levels in Norfolk. 58) Jones, O.T., and Lewis, W.V.: of the Fowlmere and other Breckland meres, Journ. 97, 52) Woodward, H. B.: The Geology Country Geog. 158. Reference is made to the earlier work done around Norwich. Mem. Geol. Survey. London 1881. 1941. by E.: The Meres of Proc. Camb. Phil. 120, 134, refers to an abundance of pipes in glaciated chalk Marr, J. Breckland, Soc. 1913. which also concluded that the meres and chalky boulder clay. 17, 58?61, cit. 1881. 9. as solution 53) Woodward, H. B.: op. originated depressions. Hugh C. Prince: Pits and Ponds inNorfolk 27

thinnest. They occur infrequently on older forma tions, and are absent from areas covered by post glacial deposits of peat and alluvium. The pos or sibility that they were formed under glacial periglacial conditions cannot be ignored.. Under glacial conditions kettle holes may be formed by detached masses of stagnant ice em bedded within the drift melting slowly to cause a gradual subsidence of the surface62). Such hollows are frequently larger in size than the majority of Norfolk hollows, and also irregular in are shape. They characteristic features of outwash as plains not boulder clay plains such those of Norfolk. They frequently follow the courses of buried pre-glacial valleys as kettle-chains; whereas are the majority of hollows in Norfolk situated on flat interfluves. In 1868 Osborne Fisher a Fig. 2l: Air view of Fowlmere. suggested glacial for some of the Breckland meres on the Grid ref. 136/879895. origin basis of his examination of Rockland Mere, an (Photo J. K. S. St. Joseph, copyright reserved) enclosed depression about 8 feet deep, excavated in boulder clay63). The floor of themere is covered with unsorted masses of and also claimed to be sink Fluctuations in clayey gravel large holes59). flints from the boulder which the level of water in these meres are related to derived clay, upon a in the of water in the lies layer of peat. The validity of the glacial long-term changes height here rests on two from which are hypothesis essential conditions: underlying chalk, they presumed are to be fed that the hollows cut entirely into glacial drift; by pipes. been the last from the sink holes in the Breckland few and that they have produced during Apart of the district because hollows formed hollows in Norfolk penetrate into solid glaciation deeply the of older drifts would have chalk, and there is little evidence that any solution during deposition filled in or modified erosion sub took in the interval between the end been by during place long It is now established that nei of Cretaceous times and the of the sequent glaciations. beginning ther of these conditions is fulfilled in the Pleistocene. It has been noted that Breckland, long pipes nor in other of the floors of sev examined in chalk contain few traces of parts county. The quarries eral meres notch the surface of the below the material derived from strata older than chalk, glacial of the the oldest solution features in level glacial driftwhich might have contained drift60). Among embedded ice masses. The meres also lie Norfolk are the tubular stacks on the coast at beyond the most recent in sand of limit of drift deposits north Sheringham, containing Weybourne Crag are most If the formation of hollows was initiated Norfolk. Indeed, enclosed depressions age61). numerous in areas of Lowestoft till and are solution we should expect to find evidence of pres by ent in areas of older drift. the at work in Eocene and later times, yet process If hollows were formed after the drifts because the surface of the Chalk appears glacial Upper had been laid their in older as not to have been bevelled, nor can it have lain down, presence well as newer drift be accounted for. In below water throughout this period. might Poland, Germany, Holland, Belgium and France, yet not in comparable situations in England, to a Kettle holes and thaw sinks hollows similar those in Norfolk have peri glacial origin ascribed to them64). In order to Almost all the hollows in Norfolk are situated are in areas covered by glacial drift. They most numerous where the drift attains a thickness of 62) Their mode of origin is discussed at length in F.T.: Outline of Glacial Madison more than ten least numerous where it is Thwaites, Geology. feet, 1953, 47?49, and Thornbury, William D.: Principles of Geomorphology. New York 1954. 392. 63) Fisher, Osborne: loc. cit. 1868. 557?558. 59) Jones, O.T., and Lewis, W.V.: loc. cit. 166. 64) References to previous work are cited in Cailleux, 60) Fisher, Osborne :On the Denudations of Norfolk. Andre: Les mares du sud-est de Sjaelland, Danemark. Geol. Mag. 5, 1868. 546. S. R. S. de l'Acad. Sciences 245, 1957. 1074?1076; and 61) Burnaby, T. P.: The Tubular chalk stacks of Pissart, A.: Les depressions ferm?es de la region pari Sheringham, Proc. Geol. Assoc. 61, 1950. 226?241. sienne. Rev. Geom. Dyn. 9, 1958. 73?83. 28 Erdkunde Band XVI

! 1728-44 ^1833^

one mile "^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^Oidi-. * New PitsPits

1884 1946

' ^ C> Old Pits Pits A New Pits O Depressions

Fig, 18: Pits, ponds and shallow depressions at Great Massingham. on Based Holkham Estate maps (1728-44, 1759, 1779, 1833), Ordnance Survey maps (1884) and air photographs (1946). Hugh C. Prince: Pits and Ponds inNorfolk 29

^^^^^^^^^^^^ j^^^^^^^^-^j ' ' ? ^-JJ Fences^^Lj Depressions ^*-U I-Former |

Fig. 19: Pits, ponds and shallow depressions in Weasenham. on Based Holkham Estate maps (1779), R. N. Bacon's map (1844) and air photograph (1946).

177 9 ^ ^1844^ ^^19^

* one mile New Pits ^ * Pits -Former ,_, Fences o Depressions

Fig. 20: Pits, ponds and shallow depressions at Castle Acre. Based on Holkham Estate R. N. Bacon's maps (1779), map (1844) and air photographs (1946).

establish a between the continental 1865. 324; Taylor, J. E.: On a disturbance of the chalk relationship at hollows and those inNorfolk we must determine Swainsthorpe. Geol. Mag. 3,1866.44; Fisher,Osborne: On the Warp (of Mr. Trimmer), its age and probable con their age. Stratified of mud, fossil soils, deposits nection with the last geological events. Quart. Journ. flora peat containing appropriate and fauna have Geol. Soc. 22, 1866, 553?565; Wood, S. V., Jun: On a at not yet been examined in this context, but evi section Litcham affording evidence of land glaciation dence for other forms of action in during the earlier part of the glacial period in England. periglacial Geol. S. and Norfolk is and contor Mag. 4, 1867, 78?79; Wood, V., Jun: accumulating. Festooning Harmer, F. W.: The glacial and post-glacial structures of tions in the drift have been and widely reported Norfolk and Suffolk. Geol. Mag. 5, 1868. 452-456; . a extensively discussed65). An Wood, S.V., Jun: On peculiar instance of interglacial explanation proposed near erosion Norwich. Geol. Mag. 6, 1869. 226?227; on 65) The data superficial disturbances in the drift Taylor, J. E.: On certain phenomena in the drift near collected in the nineteenth century has been largely Norwich. Geol. Mag. 6, 1869. 508?509; Woodward, neglected in recent sutdies and might prove worth re H. B.: On a distrubance of the chalk at Trowse near in examining the light of present knowledge of periglacial Norwich. Geol. Mag. Decade II 6, 1879. 380; Wood phenomena. Such notes appear in Taylor, J. E.: On a ward, H. B.: Disturbances in the chalk of Norfolk. Geol. at displacement of the chalk Whitlingham. Geol. Mag. 2, Mag. Decade II 8, 1881. 93?94. 30 Erdkunde Band XVI

was were during the nineteenth century that they vertically by ice veins or wedges73). Horizontal to formed by pressure and displacement by ice and ice lenses tend concentrate in the upper layers superincumbent drift, but George Slater in of frozen ground and may coalesce with the thick to 1926 demonstrated that this explanation failed ends of ice wedges. In fine-grained materials account to for the whole structures and preferred highly charged with ice any difference in the rate as interpret them features of "fossil glaciers"66). and depth of thawing may be expected to produce The "erratic warp" and "trail" of coarse materials local subsidence from shrinkage in volume. filling throughs and hollows are now considered Differences in the thermal conductivity of bodies by G. G. Dines, S. E. Hollingworth and others of peat, silt, gravel, ice or water in the surface to be solifluction deposits composed of detached layer would cause differences in the depth of and comminuted rocks rearranged after the thawing74). Hopkins illustrates a hypothetical thawing of ice67). Fossil ice wedges, polygonal example of frozen ground initially blanketed by are a a structures and solifluction deposits described well insulated layer of peat, in which distur are a in the Cambridge region68). Stone stripes bance of the peat by frost heaving, exposes patch observed in the Breckland69). In other parts of of bare ground. The greater conductivity of the com conse southern England and the Midlands many bare ground results in deep thawing and as parable surface features are now identified peri quent subsidence. Water collects in this hollow glacial phenomena. The evidence for such condi and further increases the extent of thawing. Small reason areas to tions having existed inNorfolk is beyond of exceptionally deep thaw tend be self able doubt. perpetuating and self enlarging and may even beneath the zone of or from tually penetrate permanently Circular elliptical depressions ranging frozen to form thaw sinks of to across are of areas ground great depth 10 1000 feet characteristic and funnel like Hopkins believes that the and shape. of perennially frozen ground in Siberia form of such hollows "could be achieved the are most on flat surfaces only by Alaska70). They frequent removal considerable material from thefloor" hy and are not known to occur on of more of slopes small streams carrying it into subterranean chan than 5?. are most numerous where Depressions nels below the frozen zone75). If underground the of the frozen zone, the top perennially tjaele, takes the presence of a 75 feet the drainage place permeable lies between 10 and below surface; substratum below the frozen zone is assumed. none occur ismore where the frozen ground than In and size the hollows observed in 100 feet are observed in shape below71). Depressions Alaska closely resemble those in Norfolk, and residual soils, lake fine silts, clay loams deep clays, their situation is comparable. Norfolk hollows and other porous materials. They on or fine-grained are most frequent level gently sloping occur in sands and are not found in gravel. are on recent of rarely ground. They absent deposits Silt, which in its unfrozen state has a of porosity peat and alluvium and are densely concentrated about contain as much as ice 20?30%, may 80% on the retentive boulder clay soils of mid-Norfolk volume when It is banded with by frozen72). and south Norfolk. An appreciable number, how horizontal of clear sometimes in the layers ice, ever, occur in west Norfolk where the chalk is form of tabular or lenticular masses, broken thinly mantled with sand. It is possible that the finely disintegrated frozen chalk, often described Norfolk as disturbed or Slater, George: Glacial tectonics as reflected in by geologists glaciated 66) have some for disturbed drift deposits. Proc. Geol. Assoc. 37, 1926. chalk, would capacity holding 392?400. or under ground ice but less than silt clay. The Dines, H. G., Hollingworth, S. E., Edwards, W., a 67) lying chalk would also provide permeable Buchan, S., Welch, F. B. A.: The Mapping of head de substratum into which thaw sinks might drain. posits. Geol. Mag. 77, 1940. 202?203. Norfolk hollows to be almost as 68) Paterson, T. T.: The effects of frost action and Many appear solifluxion around Baffin and in the dis as in Bay Cambridge deep and steep-sided those observed Alaska; trict. Geol. Soc. 1940. 99?130. Quart. Journ. 96, but the Alaskan hollows are now being formed 69) Watt, A. S.: Stone stripes in Breckland, Norfolk. L.: of frost and ice Geol. Mag. 92, 1955. 173. 73) Wernecke, Glaciation, depth veins of Keno Hill and Yukon 70) Tricart, Jean: Le Modele periglaciaire. Cours de vicinity, Territory. Eng. n. reviews and 1932. 41. geomorphologie. T. II, i. Paris d. 230?234, Mining Journ. 133, most im A. E.: Earth mounds in un recent accounts of periglacial depressions, the 7i) Conversely, Porsild, and thaw arctic northwestern America. Rev. portant being Hopkins, David M.: Thaw lakes glaciated Geog. 28, in rate of ice sinks in the Imuruk Lake area, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. 1938. 46?58, suggests that differences the accumulation cause ice Journ. Geol. 57, 1949. 119?131. may upheaval, producing ground on a mounds or Robert P.: Ground ice mounds 71) Rockie, W. A.: Pitting Alaskan farmlands, pingos. Sharp, Rev. 1942. 134. in the Tundra. Rev. 1942. 417?423 adds that new erosion problem. Geog. 32, Geog. 32, in the of ice mounds accounts for the small 72) Taber, Stephen: Perennially frozen ground collapse ground characteristic of the tundra surface. Alaska, its origin and history. Bull. Geol. Soc. America 54, pools 1943. 1518. 75) Hopkins, David M.: loc. cit. 1949. 130. C. Troll: "Solle" and "Mardelles" 31

by periodic thawing above perennially frozen addition, the solubility of calcium carbonate a ground. In Norfolk the ground has long ceased increases very slightly with decrease in tempera ture. warm to be deeply frozen and we must consider what Under the present dry climate of Nor as a must than changes may have taken place result of folk solution operate less vigorously that complete thawing. If fine-grained materials shrink formerly, yet it is still evident. It is possible and subside uniformly on thawing, the result of many natural depressions originated under peri were complete thawing may be to equalise the local glacial conditions and enlarged by chemical uneven In other differences initiated by thawing. weathering. words, we should expect remnants of frozen silt Conclusions and conjectures eventually to subside to more or less the same as over level the original depressions. Only Apart from the distinctive irregular modern deepened thaw sinks may persist because of the quarries and large circular Breckland meres, the streams sapping of their floors by underground pits and ponds of Norfolk appear to be much to a presumed exist in permeable substratum. alike in shape and size. What distinguishes them If thaw sinks initiated by mechanical processes is their uneven distribution: their presence upon under periglacial conditions survived eventual glacial drifts, their absence from recent peat and on thaw of ground ice theymay have become greatly alluvium; their concentration heavy land, on on enlarged by chemical weathering under colder their sparseness light land; their abundance climatic conditions than those now prevailing76). flat surfaces, their fewness on steep slopes. No Solution varies directly with the amount of water single explanation adequately accounts for all and carbon dioxide available, and these are pre hollows in these different situations. It seems sent in greater quantities under cold conditions certain from historial evidence thatmany pits owe than warm. Air within a snow bank is concen their present form to man's activity, either as trated with carbon dioxide; rain or meltwater mineral workings or as marl pits. It may yet be snow at most on passing through is the optimum tempera proved that marl pits have been dug the ture or for absorbing it; and the ground beneath, sites depressions which originated under peri to or on while unfrozen, is likely be nearly saturated. In glacial conditions hollows formed by the solution of chalk or drift. In Williams, E.: Chemical at low underlying chalky 76) Joseph weathering that case it be demonstrated that man has temperatures. Geog. Rev. 39, 1949. 129?135; Corbel, may use. Jean: op. cit. 1957. 11, 496. merely adapted these hollows for his own

"SOLLE" AND "MARDELLES"

Glacial and Periglacial Phenomena in Continental Europe Carl Troll

Zusammenfassung: ,,Solle" und ,,Mardellen" in der gebenden flachen Ringwall hinterlassen, also Austauseen Glazial- und Periglaziallandschaft des festlandischen (?Thaw lakes") im Sinne vonD. M. Hopkins. Der Nach Europa. weis dieser Entstehung ist von Maarleveld und van den von Die meisten der H. C. Prince im vorstehenden Toorn fiir ein Soil in hollandisch Friesland, also in der Artikel beschriebenen aus Hohlformen Norfolk ent Altmoranenlandschaft gefiihrt worden. Fiir die Mardellen sprechen den sog. Sollen (Sing. Soil) der nordmittel des Pariser Beckens, des Hohen Venns, der Landes und europaischen Grundmoranenlandschaften. Ober sie gibt Lothringens ist die neue Pingo-Theorie ebenfalls heran es eine ausfuhrlichere altere von Literatur, die W. Ropke gezogen worden. Fiir die Solle der Jungmoranenland wurde. Von (1929) zusammengefaBt den Moglichkeiten schaften in der Umgebung der Ostsee mufite man bei der waren zwei noch in neuerer Erklarung Zeit iibrig dieser Erklarung annehmen, dafi sich nach dem Ruckzug geblieben: die Solle als subglaziale Strudellocher oder als des letzteiszeitlichen Inlandeises in das Ostseebecken noch Toteiskessel. Die Erklarung durch Toteis-Ausschmelzung Dauergefrornis gebildet habe. war von Ropke zu der ?Intramoraneneis-Schmelz theorie" variiert worden. Der Toteistheorie steht entgegen, daB die in geschichte Most of the Norfolk and described ten pits ponds fluvioglazialen Ablagerungen vorkommenden, ein by H. C. Prince in the paper are wandfreien Toteisformen meist verschieden groBe und preceding circular or basins of and unregelmaBig geformte, vielfach zerlappte Senken sind, eliptical regular shape wahrend die Solle immer kreisrunde little kleine, oder ovale extent, usually smaller than an acre. They Kessel darstellen. fully to the "solle" of the Gerade dies kann eine neue erklaren. correspond ground ?Pingo-Theorie" moraines of Northern Central which Nach ihr sind die Solle die Reste von Eis Europe, periglazialen are found all over the schwellungshugeln (Eskimoname ?Pingo"), die nach der Netherlands, Denmark, Abschmelzung eine kreisrunde Mulde mit einem sie um Northern Germany and Poland. The "solle"