Raising the Curtain Cultural Norms, Social Practices and Gender Equality in Myanmar 1 We, both women and men, hold equal opportunities and chances since we were born, as we all are, human beings. Most women think that these opportunities and favours are given by men. No, these are our own opportunities and chances to live equally and there is no need to thank men for what they are not doing. Focus Group Discussion with Muslim women, aged 18-25, Mingalartaung Nyunt Township The Gender Equality Network Yangon, Myanmar © All rights reserved Published in Yangon, Myanmar, Gender Equality November 2015 Network 2 Cultural Norms, Social Practices and Gender Equality in Myanmar 3 Contents Acronyms 6 Acknowledgements 7 Executive Summary 8 1. Introduction 10 1.1 Background and Rationale 12 1.2 Objectives and Study Questions 12 1.3 Methodology - In Brief 13 2. Setting the Scene 16 2.1 ‘The Problem is that the Problem is not Seen as a Problem’ 17 2.2 Historical Narratives: Women’s High Status and Comparisons with Other Countries 18 2.3 Gender Inequality and Gender Discrimination: Where is the Problem? 21 2.4 Gender Equality as a ‘Western’ Concept 25 3. Cultural and Religious Norms and Practices 26 3.1 Culture in Myanmar, and Myanmar Culture 27 3.2 The Inseparability of Culture and Religion 29 3.3 Women as Bearers of Culture 30 3.4 The Role of Nuns in Buddhism 32 3.5 Hpon, Respect and Male Superiority 34 3.6 Purity, Female Inferiority and Exclusion 37 3.7 Modesty, Male Sexuality and the Importance of Women’s Dress 38 3.8 The Construction of Ideal Masculinity 41 3.9 Letting the Birds Rest on the Pagoda: Controlling the Self, Enduring Hardship and Sacrificing 42 4. Transgression of Norms 44 4.1 The Train Without a Flag: A Woman’s Individual Worth 45 5. Men, More Valuable than Women? 54 5.1 Son Preference 55 5.2 Bride Price/Dowry 55 5.3 ‘Cleansing the Village’ 56 5.4 Inheritance 56 6. Socialization and Internalization 58 6.1 Socializing Agents 59 6.2 Women’s Internalized Subordination 62 7. Observations of Cultural Changes 64 7.1 Relaxing Social Restrictions for Women 65 7.2 Slow and Partial Change 65 7.3 Resistance to Change 69 4 8. Economy, Work and Livelihoods 70 8.1 Gendered Division of Labour 71 8.2 Old Norms in a Changing Context - What Does it Mean? 74 9. Education 86 9.1 Framing the Issue 87 9.2 Gender Norms, Socialization and Education 87 9.3 Gender Norms, School Attendance, Retention and Performance 92 9.4 Gender and the Value of Education 93 9.5 Gender Norms and Occupational Opportunity Structvures 96 9.6 Redefining and Rediscovering Traditional Values in Education 97 10. Sport 100 11. Health 104 11.1 Women as Reproductive Beings 105 11.2 The Sex Taboo 109 11.3 Menstruation as Dirty 114 11.4 Pregnancy and Childbirth as Shameful 115 11.5 Decision-Making on Sexual and Reproductive Health 117 12. Media 122 12.1 A Changing Media Environment 123 12.2 Media Liberalization and Cultural Globalization 124 12.3 The Victimization of Women 125 12.4 The Objectification and Sexualization of Women 128 12.5 Stereotyped and Narrow Roles for Women and Men 128 12.6 Gender and the Media Industry 129 12.7 Gender and Visibility in Print Media 130 12.8 Who Gets to Speak About What? 133 12.9 Percentage of Stories Focussing Centrally on Women 135 12.10 ‘Women’s Magazines’ as Socializers of Gender Norms 135 12.11 Critical Examination of Marriage 138 12.12 Stories that Transgress Norms 138 13. Conclusion 140 13.1 Key Findings 141 13.2 Concluding Discussion 143 13.3 Recommendations 145 Annexes 146 Annex 1. Methodology 146 Annex 2. Case Stories 154 References 162 5 Acronyms AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome BBC British Broadcasting Corporation CU Coordination Unit DVD Digital Versatile Disc ERC Ethical Review Committee BPfA Beijing Platform for Action CESR Comprehensive Education Sector Review CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women FGD Focus Group Discussion GEN Gender Equality Network HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus KII Key Informant Interview LGBT Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender MMCWA Myanmar Maternal and Child Welfare Association MWAF Myanmar Women’s Affairs Federation MRTV Myanmar Radio and Television MSWRR Ministry of Social Welfare, Relief and Resettlement NGO Non Governmental Organization NRC National Registration Card NSPAW National Strategic Plan for the Advancement of Women SCR WG Social and Cultural Norms Research Working Group SC Steering Committee STD Sexually Transmitted Disease STI Sexually Transmitted Infection VCD Video Compact Disc VOA Voice of America 6 Acknowledgements Trying to discuss such complex issues as ’culture’, ‘gender’ and ‘gender equality‘ in Myanmar is an enormous challenge. Enormous because of the richness of cultural traditions and values that underpin the social fabric of this country, and the impossibility of doing justice to these. Enormous because this very social fabric is currently being stretched and tested as the country is rediscovering its social voice after decades of imposed doctrines. Enormous because the profound need for critical analysis of the issue of gender (in)equality is only paralleled by the need for social harmony, peace, tolerance and understanding. Enormous also because of the real risks of misinterpreting information as the nuances and layers can be ever so easily lost in translation, interpretation and differences of lived experiences. It is hoped that the value of this study stretches beyond these pages. This study was conceived and coordinated by the Gender Equality Network (GEN), Myanmar. During the process of researching this topic, a large number of people have been involved and GEN would like to extend its deepest gratitude to everyone who has worked so hard to make this report come about. Most importantly, GEN would like to thank the 543 men and women who shared their time and their experiences with the researchers, without these men and women this body of work would not have been possible. GEN is sincerely grateful to the insightful and committed research team who conducted this research - Annami Löfving (Lead Researcher), Aye Thiri Kyaw (National Researcher), and Mi Mi Thin Aung (GEN Research and Training Coordinator). Their collaboration and inputs throughout the process have been invaluable. While the contents of this report reflect the collaborative effort of many organizations and individuals, these three women have made an outstanding contribution to increasing the understanding of the relationship between social and cultural practices and gender equality and inequality in Myanmar. Special thanks go to Annami Löfving for her comprehensive and thoughtful analysis. Thanks also to Pyo Let Han for her support with media analysis. GEN thanks the teams of field researchers who worked hard to collect the information that this report is based on, often under difficult circumstances. The GEN member organizations who seconded their staff, facilitated the processes of data collection, and supported the piloting of the research tools, deserve special recognition and thanks. GEN gratefully acknowledges its government partners - the Minister and staff of the Department of Social Welfare, Ministry of Social Welfare Relief and Resettlement, and the Ethics Review Committee, Department of Medical Research (Lower Myanmar) for their comprehensive review and constructive guidance to the research team. Particular thanks are due to the entire Gender Equality Network, the staff of the Coordination Unit, the Steering Committee, the GEN Research Working Group, and the individuals who guided, reviewed and supported this work throughout various stages of its development. Also, sincere thanks to the external professionals who supported the study with translation. GEN gratefully acknowledges and thanks the donors whose collective support enabled the Network to initiate this work, and to now put these findings to effective use - ActionAid, CARE International, Irish Aid, the Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund, Norad, Pyoe Pin and Trocaire. 7 Executive Summary Myanmar is giving increasing attention to gender inequality as Gender inequality in Myanmar has historically not been an impediment to development and the attainment of human acknowledged as an issue of concern. The idea of Myanmar rights. In the National Strategic Plan for the Advancement as a country with equal opportunities for men and women of Women (NSPAW) 2013 – 2022, the Government has emerged in colonial times and has remained the official signalled its commitment to promoting and protecting the rhetoric throughout military rule – a stance that is still rights of women. There is increasing momentum within civil reproduced today. Lack of data has held back the emergence society networks and organisations to promote programming of alternative discussions about gender relations. Adding to and advocacy for women’s rights and gender equality. The the available evidence base, this study shows how social and emerging global recognition of the strong relationship cultural norms carry ideas of different functions and worth between social norms and women’s and men’s opportunities for men and women, impacting on their life opportunities. and actions is also beginning to be discussed in Myanmar, Women, regarded as ‘bearers of culture’, are often blamed for particularly as media is opening up. However, little information what are seen as disappearing cultural values. is available on this topic. A central feature of cultural and religious narratives is male This study was conceived by the Gender Equality Network spiritual superiority, positioned in opposition to female worldly with the objective of furthering the understanding of social inferiority. Perceptions of women’s lesser value are linked to and cultural norms in Myanmar and their impact for men ideas that their bodily functions, notably menstruation and and women in relation to family and community life, work, childbirth, are impure.