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Home , Amoghavarsha, Bhattaraka, Chavundaraya, Dadaga, Devanahalli, Dharanendra

Volume 3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 International Journal of Academic Research

Published by Office Address Sucharitha Publications Dr.T.V.Ramana Visakhapatnam – 530 017 46-8-10-B/1,Near. Aditya Public School – Jagannaickpur, Kakinada- 533002 website :www.ijar.org.in Andhra Pradesh-India [email protected] [email protected]

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Special issue on

“STUDIES OF SOCIETY IN TRANSITION” (SKETCHES OF MEDIEVAL SOUTH INDIAN HISTORY)

EDITOR DR. VIDYA .H .N. HOD & Associate Professor Department of History Government Arts College Hassan -

CO -EDITOR & AUTHOR DR.PUTTARAJU. K. Lecturer in History Post Graduate Department of History Sir M. V. Post Graduate Center University Of Toobinakere- District Karnataka

July 2016

About the Editor

Dr. Vidya H N, is working as HOD in the department of history government arts college Hassan . She has put up 20 years of service. She has been guiding m. Phil & ph. D students of various universities.. She has published more than 50 articles on a variety of issues in newspapers & published two books & published research articles in various journals. She has been conducting annual exhibitions in historical artifacts & rare coins. She has delivered lectures on different topics. She is utilizing ICT to form edu cds on a new light on Harappan Excavations, Asoka– The King Of Universe, Nalanda University- The Seat Of Knowledge , Dr. Vidya .H .N. Tajmahal – The Myths & Reality , South Indian Inscriptions, Etc. She Has Edited Special Issue Journals on

She Has Edited Special Issue Journals on :

1. Some reflections on Gandhian thoughts , vol.1issue 4(1)October December 2014 2. visualizing higher education, Vol 2 Issue 1(1) Jan March 2015 3. Readings in rural sociology, Vol .2 Issue 1 (2) Jan Mar 2015 4. Genesis & growth of national consciousness in Mysore region Vol 2 Issue 2 (2) April June 2015, 5. The pavilion -some reflections on the emerging trends in Indian sports , Vol 2 Issue 2 (4) April June 2015 6. Women- quest for equality Vol 2 Issue 2 (6) April June 2015 7. India in transition- some reflections on the changing facets of urban India , Vol.2 Issue 3 (2) July September 2015 8. The medallion – emerging aspects of sports in India Vol 2 Issue 3 (4) July September 2015 9. Manuscript conservation (New approaches towards Manuscript conservation Vol 2 Issue 3 (6) July September 2015 10. Library & information science - exploring new prospects of library development in India, Vol 2 Issue 4 (2) October December 2015 11. Building young India ( empowering strategies for Indian youth ), Vol 2 Issue 4 (6) October December 2015 12. Global India (impact of global trends in India). Vol 3issue 2 (3) February 2016 13. The Digital Stadium (The Impact of Digital Trends on Sports Sector). 14. The New India (The new Trends in Socio cultural Transformation in youth ) Now she has edited a special issue on The Emerging India – the New Trends which is a collection of articles on various emerging trends following Economic liberalization.

About co-Editor

Dr. Puttaraju K. is presently working as a lecturer in Post graduate Center in Sir M. V. Post Graduate center in . He was born in kallanakere village of hobli of Mandya district. He had his post graduate degree from Manasa gangothri Mysore in 1997 & he took his doctorate degree on a topic entitled “The Sevunas Of Devagiri & The Contemporary Powers– A Study In Interstate Relations” under the supervision of Prof. Shivanna in 2002. He has also completed his diploma in Indian Epigraphy. Since then, he has completely engrossed himself in historical research.

He has presented research papers in several History seminars & conferences. He has published more than 35 research papers in various. He has published books “Reflections on ”. & “ Reflections on Hoysala History ” , “ Princedom of Mysore & It’s March Towards Modernity & Progression ,The Reflections of Colonial Rule on State , Society & Polity ” , “Cultural Heritage & Historical Legacy of Mandya District ” & “ Tourism In Mandya - Problems & Prospects ” , “Reflections on The Phases of Nationalist Struggle In Karnataka” .with ISBN numbers. He has published his thesis “The Sevunas of Devagiri & the Contemporary Powers– a Study in Interstate Relations”. All these research based activities are it is an exemplar of his dedication towards Historical research. Now he is publishing a book on “Studies of Society in Transition- Sketches of Medieval South Indian History” which is a collection of research articles presented in different seminars & conferences.

EDITORIAL BOARD Editor-in-Chief Dr. T. V. Ramana Andhra University Campus, Kakinada - Andhra Pradesh, India, 533 005

ADVISORY COUNCIL Prof. M. SundaraRao, Chairman, Board of Studies, Dr.J.Chandra Prasad, Director, S.V. Institute of Dept. of Economics, Andhra University, Technology, Tanuku, West Godavar District, AP Visakhapatnam Dr.V.Mahipal, Executive Director (Social welfare) Prof. R.Sudarshana Rao, Dept. of Economics, & Chief Planning Officer (Rtd), Kakinada, Andhra Andhra University, Visakhapatnam and member of Pradesh State Finance Commission, Govt. of Andhra Dr.K.VictorBabu, Guest Faculty, Department of Pradesh Philosophy, Andhra University – Visakhapatnam; Dr.P.SubbaRao, Director (i/c), Centre for Study of Chief Editor of IJMER and Associate Editor of Social Inclusion and Exclusive Policy, Andhra IJAR University, Visakhapatnam Dr.K. Radha Pushpavathi, Dept. of Economics, S.K.S.D.Mahila Kakalasala Tanuku, West Prof. Y.Somalatha, Special Officer, Andhra Godavari District, AP University Campus, Kakinada, AP Dr. Zoran Vu, ISI, Rector, St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Prof.B.Kuberudu, Dept. of Management Studies, Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Andhra University Campus, Kakinada

EDITORIAL COUNCIL FROM ABROAD

Dr. Zoran Vu, ISI Rector, St. Gregory Nazianzen Prof. Roger Wiemers, Professor of Education, Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Guatemala, GT,U.S.A

Dr.A.Heidari, Faculty of Chemistry, California Dr Leo O.N. Edegoh, Department of Mass South University (CSU)Irvine, California, USA Communication, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli, Anambra State, Nigeria Prof. Josef HOCI-ITL, Department of Political Economy University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Dr.V.V. Ratnaji Rao Chowdary, Dept. of Business Member, Austrian Parliament, Austria & Economics, Wollo University Dessie, Ethiopia

Prof. Alexander Chumakov, Chair of Philosophy Dr.K.Chaitanya, Department of CHEMISTRY, Department Russian Philosophical Society, Russia Nanjing University of Science and Technology, China Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco, Founder and President Escuela Virtual de Asesoria Filosofica Dr.I.Ketutdonder, Depasar State Institute of Hindu , Indonesia Prof. Igor Kondrshin, Member of the Russian Philosophical Society, the Russian Humanist M.Ebrahimi, M.Ebrahimi, Department of Society and Expert of the UNESCO, Moscow, Industrial Engineering, Amirkabir University of Russia Technology, 424 Hafez Avenue, 15916-34311, Tehran,

EDITORIAL COUNCIL FROM INDIA

Prof. M. SundaraRao, Chairman, Board of Studies, Prof.P. Dakshina Murty, Prof.in Physics, Dept. of Economics, Andhra University, University College of Engineering, Jawaharlal Visakhapatnam Nehru Technological University, Kakinada Prof. J.V.K.V. Pandit, Dept. of. Political Science &Public Adnm, Andhra University Campus, Dr. T.Ashok, Dept. of English, Andhra University Kakinada Campus, Kakinada, AP

Prof. D. Satyanarayana, BVC Institute of Technology & Science, Amalapuram, AP Dr. Vidya. H.N, Department of History, Government Arts College, Hassan, Karnataka Swami Maheshwarananda, Founder and President, Dr. C. Jaya Subba Reddy, Department of Shree Vishwa Deep Gurukul Swami Mathematics, SVU College of Sciences, Maheshwarananda Ashram Education & Research Center, Dr.K.John Babu, Department of Journalism & Dr. Sudhansu Ranjan Mohapatra, Centre for Mass Comm. Central University of Kashmir, Juridical Studies, Dibrugarh University, Kashmir Dibrugarh, Assam

REVIEWER COUNCIL Dr.J.Ratna Prabhakar, Dept. of Commerce, Dr. R. Rao, Dept. of (Enghish), Government City College,(aff) Osmania University, Humanities, JNTUK, Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad Dr. E. Ashok Kumar, Department of Education Dr. A. Srinivas, Rajiv Ganghi Institute of Law North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong College & Dept. of Humanities, JNTUK Dr. K. V. Ramana Murty, Dept. of Management Dr. Merina Islam, Department of Philosophy Studies, Andhra University Campus, Kakinada Cachar College, Assam Dr.Ranjit Kumar Siringi, Dept. of Management Dr. R. Dhanuja, PSG College of Arts & Science Studies, Andhra University Campus, Kakinada Dr. M. Satyanarayana, Dept. of political science& public Administration, Andhra University Campus, Dr. Bipasha Sinha, S. S. Jalan Girls’ College Kakinada, AP University of Calcutta-Calcutta Dr.V.V.S. Krishna, Dept. of Economics, Andhra University Campus, Kakinada, AP Prof. S. Mahendra Dev, Vice- Chancellor, Indira Dr.M.Mani Shekar, Dept. of MHRM, Andhra Gandhi Institute of Development Research University Campus, Kakinada Dr.D.Thirupathaiah, Dept. of Economics, 1. Dr.D.K.Prabhakar, Department of S.K.R.B.R College, Narasaraopet, Guntur, district, Telugu, Jnanabharathi Campus, A.P University, Bangalore Dr. Ch. Rama Krishna Dept. of Commerce, P.R.Govt. College(A), Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater, Former Vice Chancellor, Singhania University, Rajasthan

Editor-in-Chief, IJAR – July, vol.3, issue 7(2), 2016 Typeset and Printed (Sucharitha publications) in India: IJAR, concentrates on critical and creative research in Multidisciplinary and multiple languages Academic Research. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and modern thought. Views expressed in the articles is exclusively of the authors, thus, journal is not responsible of it in any case

visit:www.ijar.org.in E mail: [email protected] July, 2016

C O N T E N T S

Volume 3 Issue 7(2) July, 2016

S. Page

No No

Impact of Hindu tenets on jainism in medieval 1 1. -with special reference to hoysala period A Leader Par Excellence- Personality Sketch of Military 10 2. General Perumala Dandanayaka An Evaluation of Sources of Revenue During Hoysalas 13 3 Educational Promotion during Hoysala Period & Impact on 19 4 Societal Values Realization of Religious Equality Through Religious 23 5 Donations During Hoysalas - A Note on Sravanahalli Record of Chandaladevi The Implications of Endowments By Women –With Special 27 6 Reference To Hoysala Period Stages of emergence of as a commune – roles & 31 7 responsibilities of a temple in medieval south India Sacrificing for a royal cause - reflections on lenka deaths 37 8 during Hoysala period Agraharas of Mandya district- with special reference to 40 9 Hoysala period Diplomatic Relations Between Sevunas of Devagiri & 44 10 Hoysalas of Dorasamudra – A Study In Medieval South Indian Interstate Relations 11 New reflections on coins of Sevunas 54 Reflections on societal progression through royal women - 58 12 status of women during Hoysala period as reflected through epigraphs of Hassan region New light on epigraphs from Pandavapura on Hoysala 62 13 lineage The archeological importance of during Hoysala 66 14 Period Role of forts in 18th century warfare-Reflections on the new 70 15 archaeological Discoveries in Dindigul fort

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected]

The Impact of Hindu tenets on Jainism in medieval south India -with special reference to Hoysala period

Abstract The Hoysalas kings who ruled South India have left behind a legacy of rich culture, fine arts and social life. Their contribution to societal cultural and architectural life is very significantly remembered in the annals of South Indian history. Religion always played a pivotal role and represented the policy of toleration and equality of faiths followed by the medieval South Indian rulers. The Hoysala kings were very cautious in their religious policy because they ruled over a large area with subjects who followed various religions. Jainism was a royal religion along with & . Sub sects such as Kalamukha Shaivism, Pashupatha Shaivism also had significant number of followers. This paper probes in detail about discernible changes in Jainism & the impact of Hindu religion on Jain religious practices & rituals . Key words: Hoysalas, Shaivism ,Vaishnavism , changes in Jainism , impact of Hindu religion on Jainism , Art Culture & religious beleifs number of basadis. I was a Vaishnavite but he had much Introduction: Hoysala kings were respect for Jainism. He visited Jains by belief is evidenced through Shravanabelgola in A.D. 1159 and several inscriptions & contemporary made grants to Jaina built literary evidence. Their Jaina origin by his minister Hulla. ( Ram Bhushan was established through Hoysala Prasad singh , Jainism in Early kings such as Sala, Nripakama, Medieval Karnataka ). Vinayaditya, Ereyanga and Ballala I who were devout Jains. Most of their Many of the feudatories of the subordinate & contemporary rulers Hoysalas were Jainas by profession. were also Jains. Abundant Jaina The Santaras are good examples. monuments and inscriptions bear Bhuja-bala Santara, one of the chiefs witness to their patronage to Jainism. of this dynasty, caused tempel to be constructed in his capital, Hombuja, Hoysala kings & Jainism -Ereyanga, in 1061AD. The Seuna kings had the Hoysala king, is said to have Jaina raja-gurus though they were made many grants for worship in not Jains themselves . (Ram Bhushan various , food and vessels in Prasad singh , -Jainism in Early Shravana-belgola . It was during the Medieval Karnataka). They made time of Hoysala A.D. grants to Jaina that Jainism had its hey-day in establishments. Simghaṇa, one of the Karnataka. His queen, Shantale , was kings of this dynasty, made donations a devout Jaina and got constructed a to the Jinālaya in Purikere-nagara, www.ijar.org.in 1

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] for the worship and made grants to language and literature, outlook on the temple of Ananta-- life and behavior, superstitions, Jina- . Jina-bhattaraka beliefs and practices, religious was the Raja-guru of Rāma-chandra. festivals and fasts, sacraments and All medieval dynasties supported all rituals, there are various common religion because it was apolitical things between Jainas and , exigency besides the need of the and especially the vegetarian Hindus, subjects was demanding. ( Presley .A. in various geographical regions of Franklin -Religion under India. Bureaucracy Policy and Administration for Hindu Temples in In fact there are certain castes whose South India Cambridge university members are found in both the press 2008). Hindus and the Jainas and to some extent marital relations are still Contemporary dynasties.- Rattas of maintained between the Jaina and , Sendrakas, Silaharas, Hindu sections of the same caste. Guttas of Guttal, Nolamba pallavas, In the south India , Mannera Masalevade chiefs, Jainism, for all its prominence in Nidugallu chiefs, Banas of Khanda- aristocratic circles, was attacked by vamandala (Kopana), Kongalvas Hindu devotional movements that Santaras and Changalvas all these arose in South India as early as the royal dynasties were followers of 6th century. One of the most vigorous Jainism. of these Hindu movements was that of Veerashaivas or lingayats , which Similarities & dissimilarities with appeared in full force in the 12th Hindu philosophy _In matters like century in northern Karnataka, a theories of rebirth and salvation, stronghold of Digambara Jainism. descriptions of heaven, earth and hell, The Lingayats gained royal support, and belief in the fact that the and many Jains themselves converted prophets of religion take birth to the Lingayat religion in the according to prescribed rules; one can ensuing centuries find similarities between Jainism and . Since the disappearance of Political affinity -The ’ from India, the Jains and involvement in politics allowed Hindus came closer to each other and Jainism to prosper in South India that is why in social and religious life Jain teacher Suddattacharya was the the Jains on the whole do not appear guiding principle behind the to be much different from the establishment of the Hoysala Hindus. In matters like dress and kingdom Many political and ornaments, occupations and aristocratic figures had Jain monks as professions, games and amusements, spiritual teachers and advisers.

www.ijar.org.in 2

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected]

Epigraphical evidence reveals an residential pontiffs in temples or elaborate patronage system through basadis . A legacy of this which kings, queens, state ministers, transformation is the contemporary and military generals endowed the Digambara practice of the Jain community with tax revenues bhattaraka, through which a priest and with direct grants for the takes monastic initiation but, rather construction and upkeep of temples. than assuming a life of naked ascetic During the 10th century the Ganga wandering, becomes an orange-robed General Chamundaraya oversaw the administrator and guardian of holy creation of a colossal statue places and temples along with Gommateshwara at Shravanabelgola. dispersal of scholastic commitment. While had rejected the Some medieval Jain writers saw this claims of the caste system that compromise with ancient scriptural privileged Brahman authority on the requirements as both a cause of and basis of innate purity, a formalized evidence for the religion’s inexorable caste system nonetheless gradually decline. appeared among the Digambara Bhattaraka sampradaya-These followers. This hierarchy was headed traditional depicted and sanctioned by Digambara institutions. They were in his Adipurana, The hierarchy responsible for training scholars, differed from system in maintenance of libraries, managing that the were assigned a endowments, presiding over place of prominence over the installation ceremonies and managing Brahmans and in its connection of Jain spiritual institutions. Thus a purity, at least theoretically, with a Bhattaraka sampradaya influenced moral rather than a ritual source. In both . He was an expert in addition, Jinasena did not see the all scriptures, had the authority to caste system as an inherent part of recite the suri- while the universe as did Hindu consecrating images. He was also theologians and lawgivers. responsible for preserving the The reciprocal influence- There are a religious & scholastic order. He was large number of epigraphical the head of the six limbs of the instances referring to unique ritual such as shravaka, shravika, practices , prevalent festivities, social pandita (), muni (vrati), gatherings , ceremonial customs and Bhattaraka. Their which were practiced by Jains in pedagogic temperament & disposition Hoysala society. In the period of 6th – was collectively mirrored in the late 12th century, Jain monks of both didactic progression & societal sects, perhaps influenced by intense advancement. royal patronage, changed from being Pilgrimage - A great deal importance wandering ascetics to permanent came to be attached to pilgrimages to www.ijar.org.in 3

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected]

Jain shrines especially during practice and participated in the October – November every conversion of Hindu Raj put clans in year. pilgrimage viewed as a western India that subsequently particularly meritorious activity, is became shvetambara jain caste popular among Jains . Places of groups. Although most pilgrimage were created during the accepted the practice of image medieval period at sites marking the worship, the lonka , did not. principal events in the lives of Founded by the mid-15th-century , some of which were layman lonka , the lonka gaccha destroyed during the Muslim denied the scriptural warranty of invasions, which started in the 8th image worship and in the 17th century. Other shrines that have century emerged as the non-image- become pilgrimage destinations are worshipping sthanakavaasi sect. At Shravana Belgola in Karnataka state, the end of the 18th century, the sthanakavasi underwent a schism Sub sects- In the 10th century, when bhikshu founded the Digambar tradition was divided into terapanthi sect, which claims to have two main orders. The MUla snagha avoided heresy and laxity throughout which includes Sena gana, Deshiya its history by investing authority in a gana and Balatkara gana traditions single teacher. Kastha sangha , which includes the gana and Lat-vagad gana Yanthra worship-The Chakra traditions. The Bhattarakas of Yantra puja is another great and Mudbidri festivity. It is designed in pure and belong to Deshiya gana and holy place. The yantra was colorfully Bhattaraka of Humbaja belongs to designed with wheat, green dal, black Balatkara gana Instantaneously gram, gram and rice. Holy various Shwetambara monastic sub recitation, meditation, worship and sects appeared, forming on the basis prayer are carried out for the of both regional and teacher Navpad and also, worship is offered associations. Some of the most to other gods, goddesses. powers etc. important of these sub sects still Asceticism -Importance on asceticism exist, such as Kharatara gachcha th increased. Jainism encourages which became popular in 11 fasting, practices, meditation in century.and the tapa gaccha. These difficult postures, and other included lay followers, often differed austerities. According to Jains, one's markedly from one another over highest goal should be salvation. For issues of lineage, ritual, and this, a soul has to be without the calendar, and claimed to attachment or self-indulgence. This represent the true Jainism. According can be achieved only by the monks to tradition, their leading teachers and nuns who take vows of ahimsa, sought to reform lax monastic www.ijar.org.in 4

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] , asteya, brahamcharya Mula Sangha is an ancient monastic ,aparigraha . order. Mula literally means root or original. The great Chaturmasa- It is a holy period of preceptor kunda kundacharya is four months (July to October), associated with Mula Sangha. The beginning on the eleventh day of the oldest known mention of Mula first bright half moon, until Sangha is from 430. Mula Sangha was prabhodhini ekadashi the eleventh divided into several branches. day of karthika . Chaturmasa is still According reserved the year for penance, to Shrutavatara and Nitisaara bhatta austerities, fasting, bathing in holy raka Indranandi, Arhadbali rivers and religious observances for had organised a council of Jain all. During this period , all followers monks, and had given names (gana or resolve to observe vow , be it of sangha) to different groups. The four silence or abstaining from a favorite major groups were Gana, Sena food item, or having only a single Gana, Gana and Simha Gana. meal in a day. The observation of The Bhattarakas of Shravanabelagol Chaturmasa became more a mudabidari , and Humbaja belongs pronounced. There were constant to the Nandi Gana. references in epigraphy during Yapaniya was a Jain order popular in Hoysalas.It is a holy period of four western Karnataka which is now months (July to October), beginning extinct. The first inscription that on Shayani Ekadashi—the eleventh mentions them by Mrigesavarman day of the first bright half, Shukla (AD 475–490) a Kadamba king of paksha, of Ashadh (fourth month of Palasika who donated for a Jain the Hindu lunar calendar)— temple, and made a grant to the sects until Prabodhini Ekadashi, the of Yapaniyas, Nirgranthas (identified eleventh day of the first bright half as Digambaras), and the Kurchakas of Kartik (eighth month of the Hindu (not identified). The last inscription lunar calendar) which mentioned the Yapaniyas was in Hinduism, . found in the Tuluva region is reserved the year for southwest Karnataka, is dated Saka penance, austerities, fasting, bathing 1316 .According to Darshana-Sara, in holy rivers and religious they were a branch of observances for all. Devotees resolve the Shwetambara sect, however they to observe some form of vow, be it of were regarded to beDigambara by silence or abstaining from a favorite Swetambara authors. The Yapaniya food item, or having only a single monks remained naked but followed meal in a day some Shwetamabara views. They also Sanghas - There were many Jain possessed their own versions of texts sanghas during this period. the that have been preserved in the following were very popular. www.ijar.org.in 5

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected]

Shwetambara tradition. The great Jains .The Jain community started grammarian Shakatayana, who was a adopting some of the Hindu festivities contemporary of . Temple or basadi became a place of the Rashtrakuta king high social congregation . Festivities was a Yapaniya, as mentioned by such as Shrutha Panchami , Malayagira in his commentary on Panchamai , Siddha Chakra, Shrutha the Nandi . Nompi ,Jivadaya asthami, Gana- there were many ganas of Nandishwara Asthami etc became Jains which had influence in society popular. Large mass of people joined gachchaanyavaya bali .gachcha was together in these festive days. the branch of Gana & anvaya was the Goddesses such as Padmavathi sub division enjoys an independent religious life and is very popular amongst Shastradana- the practice of “ Jains. According to shastradana” was influencing the the Digambara tradition, scholarship in . Each and her husband 1 branch had its own basadi . There protected Parshva when he was were cognizant changes in secular & harassed by Meghalin. Shwetambara religious literature. These basadis tradition, however, does not list were called by different names such Padmavati among the main queens of as Chaityalaya Chaitya Jinagaara, Dharanendra. Basadis etc. Some of the important places in Southern Karnataka where Worship of Female Goddess – good Jain basadis can be seen are Worship of females goddesses such as Sravanabelgola, Jinanathapura , Padmavathi & became Basadi halli Halebeedu, , popular . The (guardian Chikka hanasoge, Nitturu Arasikere spirit) of the Eighth Tirthankara, and other places. Besides these places Shri Bhagwan listed above there are also a number Chandraprabhu in Jainism and was of places in the region where Jaina one of the most widely basadis are still extant. Many of them invoked in Karnataka duri are either in disrepair or have been ng the early medieval period. renovated during later times thus “Bhirava padmavathi kalpa” a losing their original shape. treatise on the spells & mystical forms of Padmavathi made this Festivals – Some of the Hindu worship popular following the Hindu religious beliefs & worships such as tradition of worshipping goddesses puja Deepa puja , Sharat Lakshmi & Saraswathi . pooja, Shruthu panchami , Jnana padmāvatī was considered as the panchami etc have been imbibed by protecting goddess of 23rd Theerthankara. Goddess Padma vathi was encompassing www.ijar.org.in 6

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] several affiliations closely linked ‘Yashodharacharite’ and Bharatesha with Atharva veda. According to Vaibhava’ are very significant sacred Jain literature Jvalini Kalpa, a compositions. ( Pollock, Sheldon cult in her honor was started by (2003). "Critical Tensions in the a tantrik teacher of the monastic History of literary order called Dravida gana. A legend culture".). has it that, the Goddess herself, Scholarship Jain scholars have also instructed proficient saint contributed to the advancement of Elacharya to systematize the occult sacramental religious and lore sacred to her. From the philosophical literature of the inscriptions it is evident that rites Kannada language. They have were performed in her honour. written in major languages such as Scholarship -Many versatile scholars , and Kannada. of this period wrote on both religious Kundakunadacharya, & secular literature adding to the Gunabhadracharya and scholastic temperaments. Jain writers , ‘Panchastikayasara’, continued to use the ‘Samayasara’, ‘Pravchansara, traditional champu, composed of ‘’, ‘Purvapurana’, prose and verse. Important literary ‘Dhavala traya’ are very significant contributions in Kannada were made scholarly works which have not only by court poets but also by augmented the progression of noblemen, commanders, ministers, Literary activities of Medieval ascetics and saints associated with Karnataka. ( Nandi R.N. Religious monasteries. Great Jain poets such as Institutions and cults in the Deccan Pampa and at the beginning of 600-1000 A.D. 1973 ,Origin Medieval Period. Pampa was a great and Nature of Shaivite Monasticism – scholar who twisted an infra the case of Kalamukhas in R.S. structure for Kannada poetry which Sharma and V. Jha ed. Indian has stood the test of time for 1100 Society Historical probings Delhi years. Pampa, Ranna, , 1974,The Origin of the Veerashaiva , . Keshiraja, Movement IHR II No.1 1975Client Ratnakarvarni and Brahmashiva ritual and Conflict in Early have made exceptional scholastic Brahminical order IHR VI Nos 1-3 contributions to the advancement of 1979 Feudalization of the State in the Kannada language and literature. Medieval South India Social Science A series of literary texts based on the Probing 1984). life & contributions of Jain Theerthankaras worthy of special Sumantha Bhadra- Sumantha mention. ‘Adipurana’, ‘Ajitapurana’, bhadra was the first Jain writer to ‘Mallinatha purana’, ‘Shantipurana’, write on nyāya, , which has had the ‘Ananthanathapurana’, largest number of commentaries www.ijar.org.in 7

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] written on it by later Jain logicians. helped them to stay ahead in literary He also composed the Ratnakaranda & religious sphere. They continued to Srāvakācāra and the Svayambhu evolve as a part of Hindu religion Stotra. Scholars such as Simhanandi, with peaceful co-existence in this Vajranandi , Charukeerthi , religion even after Hoysala regime Sripaladeva, Traividya acharya, weakened in southern India. Hemasena, Elacharya, Anathaveerya were important scholars of that period. The place where Elacharya References propounded his system is described 1. Padmanabha S Jaini –Collected as Malaya Hemagrama in the south papers on Jain studies , Motilal Karnataka region identifiable publications, New with Maleyur in Chamarajanagara Delhi 2000 in the of the in 2. Padmanabha S Jaini- Hinduism & of Karnataka .As described in an Jain religion in Collected papers inscription dated 909 AD this place is on Jain studies , Motilal holy to the Jain disciples. The Banarasidas publications, New inscription also registers a grant in Delhi 2000 the favor of a Jain basadi . 3. - Facets Of Pontification – Like in Hindu religion Jainology popular praksashan even Jain religion came to have Bombay 2001 pontiff sets. Besides Jain pontiffs are 4. Vyas R T – Studies In & mentioned in epigraphs namely Iconography, Abhinav Akalankadeva , Ajithnatha deva , publications Bombay 2001 Muni Chandra sena deva, Shruthi 5. Mahaveer Jain – The Concept Of keerthi punditha, Damanandi Dharma In Jain Religion , trividya deva , Bhanu keerthi deva Abhinav publications Bombay ,Kumara nandi deva. 2001 Conclusion - Jainism which enjoyed a 6. Ram bhushan Prasad singh- highly respectable status under the Jainism In Early Medieval liberal patronage of the Hoysalas Karnataka , Motilal Motilal suffered a setback during the Banarasidas Publications, New beginning of the rule. Delhi 2008 This was apparently due to the 7. Dundass Paul – The Jains , sudden emergence of Veerashaivism Rutledge publications 2002 on the one side and Sri Vaishnavism 8. Vishwanath Pandey - The world on the other, which wielded of Jainism : Jaina history, art, considerable influence on the ruling literature, philosophy and families of Vijayanagara. Their religion. 1996 absorption of Hindu, conventional, 9. Jain religious facts & practices iconographic & cultural traditions official website 2014 www.ijar.org.in 8

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10. Jain world official website 2014 11. Kalghatgi , Dr.T.G. Gommateshvara Commemoration Volume: Ed. (S.D.J.M.I. Managing Committee Sravanabelagula, 1981

12. Jeevandhara kumar Hotapeti - Dhavala Teertha - 1996: Ed Published by: S.D.J.M.I. Managing Committee Shravanabelagola, 1981 13. Jeevandharkumar Hotapeti- Dhavala Teertha - 1995: Ed.

(Published by: S.D.J.M.I. Managing Committee Shravanabelagola, 1981) 14. Burton Stein -Social mobility and medieval South Indian Hindu Sects in J. Silverberg (Ed) Social Mobility and the Caste System in

India Paris 1966 15. Malini Adiga, The Making of Southern Karnataka: Society, Polity and Culture in the early medieval period, AD 400-1030. : Orient Longman -2006 16. Kamath Suryanath U, -A Concise

from pre- historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC, Bangalore (Reprint 2002), 17. Dr.T.G.Kalghatgi ( Ed) Gommateshvara Commemoration Volume: Ed. Published by:

S.D.J.M.I. Managing Committee Shravanabelagola, 1981)

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A leader par excellence- personality sketch of military general perumala dandanayaka

Abstract

Hoysala dynasty ruled over a vast region of south India & witnessed a great stable polity, secular society & flourishing economy. Their contributions to the field of administration, state craft & religion excelled all other contemporary dynasties. They bequeathed a great living through spotlighting on all round progression of empire. All the rulers of this dynasty achieved socio religious synthesis. This comprehensive societal policy replicated righteous influence on other nobility as well. Nobles , rich merchants & especially Hoysala generals excelled with each other in promoting social harmony & religious secularism. They ranked on top in streamlining collective & communal relationship. They focused on congenial living among all members of society. Amidst political upheavals & military turmoil, these Generals commissioned themselves in a variety of socio cultural bridging activities. Such visionary & futurist measures reflected an affirmative support for the survival of Hoysala dynasty along with tumultuous political situations. This paper examines on such warrior leader Perumala dandanayaka who was a great soldier, great warrior & a philanthropist, being an important military head . He achieved socio religious harmony by sheer amalgamation of valor & compassionate concerns.

Key words : Hoysala warriors , Perumala dandanayaka , military achievements , philanthropic achievements , tumultuous political situations

influence on other nobility as well. Royal people, rich merchants & Introduction – Hoysala dynasty ruled especially Hoysala military generals over a vast region of south India & excelled with each other in witnessed a great stable polity, promoting social harmony & religious secular society & flourishing secularism. They ranked on top in economy. Their contributions to the streamlining collective & communal field of administration, state craft & relationship. They focused on religion excelled all other congenial living among all members contemporary dynasties. They of society. Amidst political upheavals bequeathed a great living through & military turmoil, these Generals spotlighting on all round progression commissioned themselves in a of empire. All the rulers of this variety of socio cultural bridging dynasty achieved socio religious activities. Such visionary & futurist synthesis. This comprehensive measures reflected an affirmative societal policy replicated righteous support for the survival of Hoysala www.ijar.org.in 10

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] dynasty along with tumultuous  Punganuru political situations.one such general  Chitradurga who was perumala dandanayaka great soldier, great warrior & a philanthropist, being an important Panchikeshwara style of temples - military head achieved socio religious He made Panchikeshwara style of harmony by sheer amalgamation of temples popular meaning temples valor & compassionate concerns. with five compartments. He built (Ayyar, V Venkatasubba Vaishnava temples in Aalagodu, (1943). South Indian Inscriptions Vol Belluru, Bemmatturu, Hedetale , XII. Madras. Archaeological Survey of , Kaligaanahalli, India). Kellavatti, Narasamangala ,Tirumala Narasipura. Perumala dandanayaka - as a military chief -Peramadideva was the Donations to agraharas- He was a Military head of Hoysala king great educationalist. He gave huge Narasimha III, He worked under two donations to Udhbhava Hoysala kings Someshwara Vishwanatahapura Agarahara. He Narasimha III & Ballala III. He was a was very much interested to extend great soldier, great warrior, great the educational benefits to people of educationist & a philanthropist. He this region. was titled as “lokopakaara” He gave Titles of perumala dandanayaka Perumaala dandanayaka was a man of distinct character which is depicted in his titles donations to 15 Vaishnava centers & of socio religious charity. 12 Shaiva centers excavated 7-8 tanks. His children were also very Other donations- Perumala courageous & valorous Among them dandanayaka was also instrumental Madhava Dandanayaka & six sons He in making contributions to other was a Tamilian but he learnt temples in the present Mysore Kannada & supported the cause of region. Kannada language .The following were the temples he built for Shaiva Temple of gopala swamy –This followers. Temple is dedicated to Lord Venugopala Swamy was constructed  Agara in 1315 by Perumal Dandanayaka.  Halasooru The temple has an architectural style  Belluru of the Chola kings The Gopuram of  Hagalahalli the temple is single-tiered and is  Yelanduru supported from the compound wall of  Aaladuru the enclosure. These attempts of the  Balaganchi generals well establishes the political  Holenarasipura relations between Hoysalas & Cholas.  Hanagallu The political situations during this www.ijar.org.in 11

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] period was one of tribulations & turmoil. There were clouds of Turkish invasions .the ravaging References armies of Delhi sultans was entering 1. Dr. Suryanath Kamat, -A the southern borders. Still the Concise history of Karnataka circumstances was reclining deeper from pre-historic times to the because the succumbing of Pandyas present, Jupiter books, MCC, Hoysalas Cheras was imminent. Bangalore, 2001 There was no support for these 2. Mahalingam, T V (1991). A dynasties except that there was some Topographical List of acrimony between them which did Inscriptions in the Tamilnadu not fructify in any positive and States Vol VI. New amalgamation. Delhi. S. Chand & Company Conclusion – Thus Hoysala Ltd dynasty was one of the premiere 3. Del Bonta, R.J., Berkson, C., ruling families of Karnataka which 1977, “The Hoysala Legacy”, has contributed hugely to the cultural in “ In Praise of Hoysala wealth of the state, particularly in the Art” , Marg, Vol. 31, No.1, fields of architecture and sculpture. Marg Publications, Bombay The history of the Hoysala dynasty in 4. B. Sheik Ali-The Hoysala inextricably linked with the events Dynasties’, (Ed ) Mysore that were enacted in the other University, Mysore 1972 important dynasties of the South 5. Ayyar, V Venkatasubba such as the Chalukyas, The Cholas (1943). South Indian and the Pandyas. All this was possible Inscriptions Vol XII. Madras. because not only kings & royal Archaeological Survey of India personalities but also military 6. K. Sundaram, Studies in Generals & war lords contributed to Economic and Social the promotion of art & architecture. Conditions in Medieval Thus Perumala deva was one such Andhra (1000-1600 A.D.), great military general under Hoysala Madras, 1968, kings who was not only 7. Mahalingam, & B.A. Saletore, philanthropic but was also a great "The karmas- Their Historical military general who proved his valor Importance," Journal of the in war field also. He was a bridge University of Bombay, Vol. between Chola kings & Hoysala kings VII, July 1938, Part I,pp. 29- in the wake of political turmoil which 93 existed during this period the acts of

Perumala dandayanayaka stands high in the .

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An evaluation of sources of revenue during Hoysalas

Abstract During Hoysala period the economic life was well grounded & economy was affluent. There were several instances of their references in vast number of epigraphs in the region. Economy, being the life blood of administration Hoysala rulers gave paramount weightage to the fiscal matters. The economy of this region could be studied through the working of the land revenue system ,collection of taxes ,coinage , exports ,market economy , tax collectors bureaucracy , mechanism of trade ,trade guilds , the financial system & various other issues connected with economic activity etc. The economic system of the Hoysala Dynasty was principally dependent on agricultural activities. Key words: Hoysala rule, avenues of income, revenue system, revenues bureaucracy, need for new tax mechanism

Introduction – The economy of were exported to countries and Hoysalas which is reflected through territories the working of the land revenue system ,collection of taxes ,coinage , The taxable items- Taxes such as exports ,market economy , tax house tax, manure tax, cattle tax, collectors bureaucracy , mechanism of garden tax ,well tax etc besides there trade ,trade guilds , the financial were taxes on drugs, spices, clothes, system & various other issues areca nut, saffron, women goods, fine connected with economic activity etc cloth, betel leaf ,cart loads, turmeric, exhibits great & flourishing economy. ass loads ,sandal items ,horses The economic system of the Hoysala ,barbers, silk ,sugar ,grain ,sesames Dynasty was principally dependent on ,elephants, bulls ,fuel carts, fruits, agricultural activities. Two kinds of leather , ropes ,masons ,ferry tax etc property-owners were there – prabhu were internal taxes. Taxes and duties gavunda or lord of gavundas and were imposed on weddings, lines of praja gavunda or gavunda of people. work, commodities in transit on carts The business of import and export or horse-drawn vehicles, and cattle. was thriving and export commodities Taxes on manufactures of betel included spices, cloths, valuable leaves, black pepper, paddy, ghee, stones, herbs, salt manufactured from palm leaves, condiments, sugar, salt pans, earthenware, gold, coconuts,) and goods such as gemstones, rhino horn, ivory, aloe valuable stones, gold, , wood, ebony, sandalwood, fragrances, fragrances, fiber, ropes, seasonings and natural resin. These accommodation, fireplaces, stores, sugarcane presses, and cattle pans www.ijar.org.in 13

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] have been found from the village bulls ,fuel carts, fruits, leather ,ropes registers. ,masons ,ferry tax etc . The sources of revenue- The treasury was an imperative ingredient of the The nature of taxation- Nature of state. Taxes such as house tax, taxes during this period show that manure tax, cattle tax, garden tax they were heavy. The Inability to pay ,well tax etc besides there were taxes taxes made some people to move away on drugs, spices, clothes, areca nut, but such instances were very few. saffron, women goods, fine cloth, The villager had to pay a number of betel leaf ,cart loads, turmeric, ass taxes such as house tax, manure tax , loads ,sandal items ,horses ,barbers, cattle tax, garden tax, well tax etc. silk ,sugar ,grain ,sesames ,elephants, They had to render free service bulls ,fuel carts, fruits, leather , ropes sometimes they had to provide service ,masons ,ferry tax etc .The records of as soldiers. These taxes illustrate that the period mention a formidable the state had large revenue which array of taxes and many of them was spent on the protection of the were main sources of income to the state the maintaining of a very large state . Land revenue was a very army king and his court officials were important tax and source of state paid in the form of share of revenue revenue. It was assessed in proper Taxes were collected both in kind and proportion to the produce and cash this necessitated a formulation differed according to the crops and of an organized department to seasons. The usual practice was 1/4th.. maintain account and to safeguard The additional demands for the money allocation of revenue for maintaining irrigation works and various administrative purpose. other public utility works were the The revenue officers- The revenue order of the day. The other sources of department consisted of various revenue were customs and excise officers such as sunkada veggade was duties, transport , mines ,ferry , assisted by number of officials. They professional taxes, forest produce, helped him in collecting revenues as voluntary contributions, unclaimed well as taxes. Dasavandha or 1/10th of properties, and tributes from the revenue of a place granted by feudatories . In addition to taxes and some of them must have been a part tolls listed above taxes were levied on of their share which they received as various goods of merchandise such as their salary. The epigraphs speak of drugs, spices, clothes, areca nut, officials gifting a part of their share of saffron, women goods, fine cloth, taxes to the temples. Many epigraphs betel leaf ,cart loads, turmeric, ass record grant of their share to the loads ,sandal items ,horses ,barbers, services of temples as an act of silk ,sugar ,grain ,sesames ,elephants, charity. Generally, the proceeds were collected during harvest season. Some www.ijar.org.in 14

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] records give a factuality about given. In times of famine & severe privations & hardships suffered by calamities, consideration as regards the people at the hands of cess was shown. The upper strata of unscrupulous officers and the king people donated profoundly for ordering that those officers should secular & religious purposes. The not enter the concerned villages to epigraphical evidences make us collect taxes and if the officials believe that the people lived a high- exacted tolls, firewood grain gifts quality and contented life. Epigraphs ornaments clothes would be flogged. mention all types of vegetables and People not paying taxes were very few food articles of consumption as or their number was negligible. available for living which goes to Sometimes there were call against show that the people lead a collection of taxes by people. A large comfortable & relaxed life. number of occupations & livelihood activities are mentioned in epigraphs Tax assessment - This was done by which goes to show that all these the village assembly who were occupational cliques had to pay levies responsible for collecting for the to government regularly. government. Land revenue was called Siddhaya and included original Farming as a primary occupation assessment called as Kula and various cesses. Taxes were levied on As majority of the people lived in professions, marriage, goods in villages’ agriculture and cattle transit on chariots, carriages, rearing was the main occupation. domesticated animals. Taxes on Owning of landed property was commodities like gold, precious considered as a privilege, as land was stones, perfumes, Sandalwood, ropes, the best gift. Land was under yarn, residence, hearth, shops, cattle common ownership. We also find a pans, sugarcane presses and produce mention of landless laborers in like black pepper, betel leaves, ghee, epigraphs. Any type of rewards for paddy, spices, palm leaves, coconuts any type of meritorious & and sugar are mentioned in praiseworthy work was the gift of records. Cattle tax was land. Religious & secular beliefs called balavana and loom tax was induced individuals and groups of called maggadere. Fines for violating persons to organize works of charity. tax laws were also collected. The Among these types of gifts of charity, village assembly could levy tax for a gifts to temples outsized and feeding specific purpose like construction of a ascetics and distribution of food was water tanks. an important act of charity. The tendering system-Epigraphs The sarvamanya landed gifts - The mention contributions to various Sarvamanya type of gifts were also services in the form of coins. There www.ijar.org.in 15

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] were ample evidences to show that Imports -Import of horses on the the coinage was firmly established. western seaboard was a flourishing Coin was a means of exchange. They business and inscriptions speak of were minted in mints known as merchants who were kammata. Goldsmiths were employed active. The were engaged in through government for this purpose. supporting the need for horses from These people worked through guilds. all South Indian & North Indian An inscription from Hassan region kingdoms. Rich forest produce mentions of coins such as Pana, visa like Teak was exported through ports ,hon, hana , Nishka etc. Both gold of Kerala. There are references to and silver coins are mentioned in Merchants from this region who inscription. The king appointed settled in Halebeedu Beluru faithful officers to look after the regions. Virgals or hero stones in mints . the coastal areas depict ships indicating active sea trade with Gadyana coin- Gadyana was a shipping fleets. Piracy was common monetary unit. Those which were and Virgals made for dead heroes minted at Lokkundi were known as have been found all over the Hoysala ‘Lokki gadayana’. Dwarasamudra had empire Inscriptions mention a a mint. Gadyana was a gold coin of flourishing textile industry. Trade highest value. The other coins were with overseas kingdoms reached functional denominations of unprecedented levels. gadyana. Pana was 1/10th of the value of gadayana. Haga was also a coin. Exports- South India especially Visa which was 1/16th of a pana. Bele exported textiles, was lesser in value than a haga. All spices, medicinal plants, precious Hoysala coins were of gold in three stones, pottery, salt made from salt denominations. was the top pans, jewels, gold, ivory, ebony , order coin which weighed 63 grams. wooden items camphor , etc were sent This was a clear replica of Chola coins to china..In addition, perfumes .Kalanju was about 1/4th of a tola in especially sandalwood reached weight and 2 kalanjus were equal to western ports which was the entry 20 kasus and one kasu was 15grms in port to , Greece , & weight. These coins are mentioned in Alexandria . Architects known as several epigraphs of the region. There Vishwakarmas, sculptors, quarry were a number of measures as found workers, goldsmiths and others mentioned in these epigraphs. They whose trade directly or indirectly mention the names such as Salage related to construction of temples Mudes.Veeraganga Kolagas Solage were also prosperous due to the Kolagas , Solages , Mudes, Kammas , vigorous temple building activities Khambas ,Nivarthanas etc. undertaken.

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Conclusion- Thus there were many Inscriptions Vol XII. Madras. sources of revenue during Hoysalas. Archaeological Survey of India The economy was depended on 6. Burton stein, Cynthia Talbot, several sources of revenue. The Arjun Appadurai, etc have monetary management was run studied temples during smoothly through the assistance of medieval period. Burton Stein- occupational guilds. Hoysalas enjoyed the Economic Function of a great export import facility. The Medieval South Indian epigraphical evidences make us Temple. The Journal of Asian believe that the people lived a high- Studies Vol. 19, No. 2 (Feb., quality economic life during 1960), pp. 163-176 Hoysalas . Incessant wars 7. Burton Stein-The Economic necessitated heavy imports of horses Function of a Medieval South & Hoysala kings supported all types Indian Temple. The Journal of of industries & the economy was thus Asian Studies Vol. 19, No. 2 flourishing. (Feb., 1960), pp. 150-2

References 8. Alexandra Mack-Complexity and Economy in Pilgrimage

1. Dr. Suryanath Kamat, -A Centers Concise history of Karnataka of the Vijayangara Period; from pre-historic times to the Department of Anthropology, present, Jupiter books, MCC, Arizona State Bangalore, 2001 University Temple pp 22-24 2. Mahalingam, T V (1991). A Topographical List of 9. Arjun Appadurai- Kings, Sects Inscriptions in the Tamilnadu and Temples in South India, and Kerala States Vol VI. New 1350-1700 A.D- Indian Delhi. S. Chand & Company Economic Social History Review 1977; 14; 47 Ltd 1 3. Del Bonta, R.J., Berkson, C., 10. Burton Stein, "Integration of 1977, “The Hoysala Legacy”, the Agrarian System of South in “ In Praise of Hoysala India" in R.E. Art” , Marg, Vol. 31, No.1, Frykenberg(Ed.), Land Marg Publications, Bombay Control and Social Structure 4. B. Sheik Ali-The Hoysala in Indian History, Madison, Dynasties’, (Ed ) Mysore 1969, pp. 191-194; & "Goddess University, Mysore 1972 Temples in Tamil Country, 1300-1750 A.D.," presented to 5. Ayyar, V Venkatasubba the CSRI Workshop, (1943). South Indian University of Chicago, May 24- 26, 1974, passim.

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11. Kesavan Veluthat- The Early Medieval in South India .Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.

12. Krishnaswami A , The Tamil Country under Vijayanagara, Annamalainagar, 1964, pp. 98- 105 13. Lee risha-Constructing Community: Tamil Merchant Temples in India and China,

850-1281 14. K. Sundaram, Studies in Economic and Social Conditions in Medieval Andhra (1000-1600 A.D.), Madras, 1968, 15. Mahalingam, op. cit., pp. 386-

389; see also B.A. Saletore, "The karmas- Their Historical Importance," Journal of the University of Bombay, Vol. VII, July 1938, Part I,pp. 29- 93 16. George W. Spencer, "Religious

Networks and Royal Influence in Eleventh Century South India," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, XII, Pt. I, January 1969, pp. 42-56; ibid., "Royal Initiative under Rajaraj

I," The Indian Economic and Social History Review, Vol. 7, No. 4, December 1970, pp. 431-42.

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Educational promotion during Hoysala period & impact on societal values

Abstract

Education during Hoysala period championed many societal values. The life of the student here reflected ideal principles. While living with the preceptor the life of the student in Agrahara was very well designed. Education was an embodiment of virtues & intrinsic values. The education was embedded with regulations & disciplinary restraint. The lessons of responsibility, submissiveness, compliance, devotion etc were taught as a part of education. The educational values were perpetual & ceaseless as it meant to endow with insight about salvation. This paper examines the social values of education taught in Agraharas. The ethical values of such education reflected in the cultural transition o f this period.

Key words: Hoysala period, Agraharas, disciplinary education, perpetual nature of education, cultural transition

Introduction -Hoysala period was an transaction. The master pupil eyewitness to a colossal cultural relationship was held high. The transition under Hoysala rulers violation of any of these principles through intensification of temple was treated as a wrongdoing which building , creation of Higher could not be rectified by any educational institutions, promotion of probability. It attracted severe donations to educational institutions , punishment also. ( George W. enhanced endowments of land , & Spencer, "Religious Networks and money, rapid progress in conception Royal Influence in Eleventh Century of religious and secular literature etc South India," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Impact of education on social values - Orient, XII, Pt. I, January 1969, Agraharas during this period "Royal Initiative under Rajaraj I," The promoted the individual pupil with Indian Economic and Social History highest concern . This assisted in Review, Vol. 7, No. 4, December building up a strong master -pupil 1970). relationship and consequently personal attachment between the As the Education taught in preacher or preceptor and the pupil Agraharas during this period and the master was of an abiding included both mundane and ultra nature. The work of teaching was mundane life of man and hence it regarded as a sacred duty by all played a significant role in the life of masters and not a merely a business and process of internal development www.ijar.org.in 19

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] of an individual. The epigraphs from taught the lesson of dutifulness Kikkeri Hosa Govindanahalli through the habits of early rising, , , Bachihalli timely bathing , studying, reciting, , Santhehalli , Beluru , Dorasamudra , assisting , etc. The education in Betthalli , Nuggihalli , Virupaskihalli Agraharas during this period taught , Goruru ,Navilahalli , Naaguru , the habits of simple living through Somapura , Kadaluru , Kavinahally , limited clothing, limited eating and Baguru , etc maintain very clearly very limited routine needs. His life that promotion of “Self” was very was structured so as to un vitiate imperative to living a good life. him from luxury living such as heavy eating, uncontrolled luxury habits The education inculcated in etc. Control over the sensual Agraharas during this period instilled appetites was repeatedly emphasized. in students the spirit of dutifulness, (Kesavan Veluthat- The Early faith, morality and self discipline. The Medieval in South India Students were thus made obedient in .Oxford: Oxford University Press, Learning, Intelligent in applying 2008) . their knowledge for society & skills in earning an honorable livelihood. The education in Agraharas during this period sought during this time This education in Agraharas during made a student chaste in habits, this period was always considered an great in thinking, divine in behavioral inevitability for attaining sublimation attributes and a master in all of life or salvation. Men were given scholastic temperaments. The the knowledge of the almighty, his education in Agraharas during this ultra powers and cognizance through period contributed towards social life religious instruction and practicality also. A pupil who received such rich which assisted in attaining or valuable education grew to be emancipation. ( Kesavan Veluthat- responsible householder when he The Early Medieval in South India married. He rightfully discharged .Oxford: Oxford University Press, duties towards society, village, and 2008). family. He was alive to all types of responsibilities which the society Agraharas & societal values asked for. He was bound by his duties Agraharas during this period towards society in all respects. championed many societal values. Society never faced the problems of The life of the student here was very any anti social mentality rising up ideal. While living with the preceptor nor unsocial element rising its the life of the student in Agrahara tentacles in society there by was very well designed with damaging the societal well being or regulations & discipline. He was ruining the social welfare. The the social organization was well set and www.ijar.org.in 20

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] was in a position to contribute to the George W. Spencer, "Religious total human progress. Highest water Networks and Royal Influence in mark was thus achieved through Eleventh Century South India," educated human beings and society Journal of the Economic and Social held high several social values. As a History of the Orient, XII, Pt. I, undeviating outcome of societal January 1969, "Royal Initiative under modification the Hoysala society Rajaraj I," The Indian Economic and underwent a lot of mobility among Social History Review, Vol. 7, No. 4, the various scholar groups. They December 1970) . exhibited a propensity in , Upanishads , Kavyas, Grammar , The education in Agraharas during Astrology , Astronomy etc this period assisted maintenance of required institutional arrangements , As the encouragement of education cognitive living with cohesion , gave was catering to the societal needs religious satisfaction, heightening self there were lot of changes in the esteem with great knowledge, helped religious & ritual practices as well. adoption of relevant practice ritual, The scriptural rigidity was becoming helped development of sacred & easier. The education of the period sacramental beliefs , informal stood a witness to improved & simple &indirect agencies of socialization & ritual practices in several ways. There communication, motivational are ample corroboration with regard reorganization of community , social to religious literature being composed & academic support ,spread of by other seatrain scholars. The classical knowledge rewriting of scriptures, agama literature, secular adaptations etc Conclusion- Thus the education in was an important reflection of Agraharas during this period sought educational pattern. The varied to make a student chaste in his Upanishadic conceptions of god was habits, great in his thinking, divine in often quoted, that Brahman rituals his behavioral attributes and a were not essential to spiritual release, master in all scholastic and that individuals might choose temperaments. Thus the social different or methods of organization was well set and was in worship. Books on Ritualistic a position to contribute to the total practices were written as straight societal progress. Highest water mark consequence of this development. was thus achieved through education Epigraphs of this period include vast and society was stimulated to hold quotations on Vedic conceptions. This high several social values. The social broad outlook facilitated through values of education taught in education helped the growth of Agraharas were reflected in the social alternative ritual perspective in the mobility,architectural enhancements, realm of religious ritual practices. ( literary & scholastic fields. The www.ijar.org.in 21

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] ethical values of such education No. 4, December 1970, pp. reflected in the cultural transition of 431-42. this period was carried by other 7. K. Sundaram, Studies in dynasties which followed the fall of Economic and Social Hoysala empire. Conditions in Medieval Andhra (1000-1600 A.D.), References Madras, 1968, 8. Mahalingam, & B.A. Saletore, 1. Kesavan Veluthat- The Early "The karmas- Their Historical Medieval in South India Importance," Journal of the .Oxford: Oxford University University of Bombay, Vol. Press, 2008. VII, July 1938, Part I,pp. 29- 2. Krishnaswami A , The Tamil 93 Country under Vijayanagara, 9. George W. Spencer, "Religious Annamalainagar, 1964, pp. 98- Networks and Royal Influence 105 in Eleventh Century South 3. Lee risha-Constructing India," Journal of the Community: Tamil Merchant Economic and Social History Temples in India and China, of the Orient, XII, Pt. I, 850-1281 January 1969, pp. 42-56; ibid., 4. K. Sundaram, Studies in "Royal Initiative under Rajaraj Economic and Social I," The Indian Economic and Conditions in Medieval Social History Review, Vol. 7, Andhra (1000-1600 A.D.), No. 4, December 1970, pp. Madras, 1968, 431-42. 5. Mahalingam, & B.A. Saletore,

"The karmas- Their Historical

Importance," Journal of the University of Bombay, Vol. VII, July 1938, Part I,pp. 29- 93 6. George W. Spencer, "Religious Networks and Royal Influence in Eleventh Century South

India," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, XII, Pt. I, January 1969, pp. 42-56; ibid., "Royal Initiative under Rajaraj I," The Indian Economic and Social History Review, Vol. 7,

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Realization of religious equality through religious donations during Hoysalas - a note on sravanahalli record of chandaladevi

Abstract: This paper deals with donations of women towards uplifting Jain religion during Hoysala period with special reference Chandala Devi the senior queen of Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana. The Hoysalas kings who ruled South India and they have a great legacy of rich culture, fine arts and socio-cultural life. Their contributions to societal cultural and architectural life are very appreciably considered in the annals of medieval south Indian History. The Hoysala kings were very watchful in their socio religious policies because they ruled over a large area with people who followed various religions. Jain religion which a royal religion along with Shaivism, Vaishnavism, pashupatha sect, etc was boosted by royal patrons as well as common people with equity..

Key words: Hoysalas, religious policy, Jainism. Status of women, contributions of women ,Chantdala devi

Introduction The Hoysala kings were to show that women could follow any very watchful in their socio religious religion. The example of Hoysala policies because they ruled over a queen Shantala showed that even large area with people who followed women could achieve greatest various religions. Jain religion which spiritual bliss through self efforts. a royal religion along with Shaivism, They kept alive the spirit of healthy Vaishnavism, pashupatha sect, etc religious tradition & helped it was boosted by royal patrons as well continue through their own selfless as common people with equity. This contributions. paper deals with donations of women towards uplifting Jain religion during Position of women in medieval south Hoysala period with special reference India- The Position of women in Chandala devi the senior queen of medieval south India represents the Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana. This status of women. One of the truest exhibits the equality of women in measures of a nation’s advancement society. This also depicts the is the state of its women. It is democratic spirit that prevailed in the through the women that a new society in religious matters. All these generation comes up. As portrayed in works were considered as meritorious history and mythology a woman a in society. It was a tradition of good Hindu women was educated and faith that kept them to bestow such several of them achieved fame as huge endowments. We have instances scholars some were philosophers and www.ijar.org.in 23

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] some were queen regents. Women the construction of temple in this enjoyed freedom of movement and region–epigraphs speak of many expression and were accorded a women who built jinalayas and position of dignity and respect in the basadis also gave grants to other family and society despite her religious institutions. Women made education and liberation Hindu endowments to other religious woman was expected to portray and institutions and mutts as an act of reflect the virtues of womanhood charity. Women were religious and fulfill her prime responsibility minded & this was fanned by the as a wife and mother .These roles presence of Bhakthi cult as well. required of her certain prescribed behavior and rights and The spread of Jain religion responsibilities in return for which The historicity of Jain tradition is she was assured of maintenance, amply borne out both by literacy and support and respect. archaeological evidences in this The woman in medieval Indian region. The evolution of and society they were not restricted from development of Jain religion in enjoying political social cultural Hoysala kingdom forms an integral religious and economic activities part of the study of Jainism in though modesty was considered the Medieval South India . Among the highest among their graces. This high various religions that existed in ideal of womanhood and feminine Karnataka Jainism is the oldest. This virtues is reflected in some of the religion has given lot of contributions hymns of the Alvars such as those of to the development of culture , society Tirumangal Alvars a contemporary of , religion ,art and architecture. The Nandivarman pallvamalla. The building of Jain basadis among Jain women of Tiruvallikeni in Madras devotees forms an interesting topic. are referred to as peerless on earth The erection of Jain images of presumably noted for their beauty theerthankaras and their attendant and virtues of charity. deities forms an important topic in the of Jain The status of women were high in the Basadis. upper strata of society. Their rights of property may be presumed and the Jainism & women Jainism also charities and gifts to temples attest to allowed women to thrive in all fields.- this fact. The position of women Jain women Maravve and Balabbe during this period needs special are said to have been a disciple of mention. There are veritable Madhava Chandra of Jaina Mula epigraphic sources to define their sangha .A Record from thumba emerging potency to deliver their records the construction strength. many women supported of a basadi by Asavabbarasi queen of www.ijar.org.in 24

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] kadamba chief Ereyanga deva. sangha. It mentions that the Village Chandaladevi wife of senior queen of Mandagere was received as baluvali Hoysla Vishnuvardhana gifted the by the queen from her father prithvi hamlet of kavanahalli in the village of Kongalvadeva. Royal women had Mandagere for the worship and property rights which they claimed offerings and feeding the ascetics and through fathers as ancestral property. students in the veera kongalva It is known that Kongaldeva was the jinalaya. With the rapid spread of father of Chandala devi and Jainism there arose several Jain kongalvas were feudatories of settlements in various parts of South Hoysalas. It is known that even India. Especially Karnataka. though her husband king Vishnuvardhana was attracted Sravanahalli record –This refers to a towards Sri Vaishanva religion she gift of Kaavanahally a hamlet of the continued to support Jain religion village Mandagere by Chandala devi through benefactions. Royal Women the senior queen of Hoysala could choose their socio religious ties Vishnuvardhana and her younger on par with their husbands.( Burton brother Duddamalladeva for worship Stein-The Economic Function of a and offerings and feeding the ascetics Medieval South Indian Temple. The in the Veera Kogalva Jinalaya. The Journal of Asian Studies Vol. 19, No. gift was made over to the Jain guru 2 (Feb., 1960). Prabhachandra Siddantha deva disciple of Meghachandra Trividya The conclusion- Thus we find from deva of Mula sangha .Desiga gana epigraphs sources that the women pustaka Gachcha and Konda had ample opportunities to cultivate kundanvaya. It is said that the the religious urge and give concrete Village Mandagere was received as expressions to it in their own way. It baluval by the queen from her father is interesting to know that not only prithvi Kongalvadeva. Some other women belonging to upper strata but epigraphical information throw light also even ladies with humble origins on this. ( Burton Stein-The Economic took an active part in constructing Function of a Medieval South Indian the temples for various gods and Temple. The Journal of Asian Studies various religious monuments such as Vol. 19, No. 2 (Feb., 1960). basadis and feeding homes for ascetics, mutts. Women from all Historic importance of the record sections of life offered liberal grants This record is important because of to such as lands and money for following reasons . It mentions Jain various varieties of worship festivals schools of philosophy. It mentions for maintenance of gods chariots Siddantha deva disciple of building lamp lighting for priests etc Meghachandra Trividya deva of Mula for feeding the ascetics & others. This

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International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] exhibits the equality of women in in Tamil Country, 1300-1750 society. This also depicts the A.D.," presented to the CSRI democratic spirit that prevailed in the Workshop, University of Chicago, society in religious matters. All these May 24-26, 1974, passim. works were considered as meritorious 6. Kesavan Veluthat- The Early in society. They kept alive the spirit Medieval in South India of healthy religious tradition & .Oxford: Oxford University Press, helped it continue through their own 2008. selfless contributions. 7. Krishnaswami A , The Tamil Country under Vijayanagara, References Annamalainagar, 1964, pp. 98-105 1. Burton stein, Cynthia Talbot, 8. Lee risha-Constructing Arjun Appadurai, etc have Community: Tamil Merchant studied temples during medieval Temples in India and China, 850- period. Burton Stein-the 1281 Economic Function of a Medieval 9. K. Sundaram, Studies in South Indian Temple. The Economic and Social Conditions Journal of Asian Studies Vol. 19, in Medieval Andhra (1000-1600 No. 2 (Feb., 1960), A.D.), Madras, 1968, 2. Burton Stein-The Economic 10. Mahalingam, op. cit., pp. 386-389; Function of a Medieval South see also B.A. Saletore, "The Indian Temple. The Journal of karmas- Their Historical Asian Studies Vol. 19, No. 2 (Feb., Importance," Journal of the 1960), University of Bombay, Vol. VII, July 1938, Part I,pp. 29-93 3. Alexandra Mack-Complexity and 11. George W. Spencer, "Religious Economy in Pilgrimage Centers Networks and Royal Influence in of the Vijayangara Period; Eleventh Century South India," Department of Anthropology, Journal of the Economic and Arizona State University Temple Social History of the Orient, XII, Pt. I, January 1969, pp. 42-56; 4. Arjun Appadurai- Kings, Sects ibid., "Royal Initiative under and Temples in South India, Rajaraj I," The Indian Economic 1350-1700 A.D- Indian Economic and Social History Review, Vol. 7, Social History Review 1977; 14; No. 4, December 1970, pp. 431-42. 47

5. Burton Stein, "Integration of the

Agrarian System of South India" in R.E. Frykenberg(Ed.), Land Control and Social Structure in Indian History, Madison, 1969, pp. 191-194; & "Goddess Temples www.ijar.org.in 26

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The Implications of Endowments by Women with Special Reference to Hoysala Period

Abstract: Women could thus gift lands, convert villages as Agraharas, erect stone epitaphs, could build jinalayas, could consecrate images, could renovate temples, and could build extensions to temples such as Mantapas and Gopurums etc. Their support also was extended to building works of public utility such building tanks anicuts bands and river . This above narrated discussion goes to depict the empowerment of women. During Hoysala period many women indulged in various welfare activities both socio religious and administrative. They had the power to express their like mindedness of converting the villages as Agraharas and educational centers. This also explains their responsibility towards heralding a good administration. Their involvement in these activities was the outcome of the progressive societal life boosted by Hoysala kings who were the epitome of benevolence and good administration.

Key words: Women during Hoysala period, donations & charities . Implications new researches

Introduction : During Hoysala period Chicago, May 24-26, 1974 deals about many women are mentioned in the charities & donation to temples. epigraphs as to have donated lands or It is said that this village was received money or other assistance to their as Baluvali by the queen from her express their within religion Their father Prithvi Kongalvadeva. Another empowerment of rights can be seen in 12th century inscription eulogizes following records. Chandaladevi wife Bammavve of kikkeriyapura as of senior queen of Hoysla devotee of god Brahmeshwara in Vishnuvardhana gifted the hamlet of Kikkeri . An inscription from this kavanahalli in the village of pale mentions to royal gift of the Mandagere for the worship and village Boovanahalli to the offerings and feeding the ascetics in brahmeshwara temple built by the veera kongalva jinalaya. Burton bammmavve nayakiti. Some women Stein, in his "Integration of the erected hero stones in memory of Agrarian System of South India" in valorous deeds of their husbands R.E. Frykenberg(Ed.), Land Control brothers or fathers .Malavve elder and Social Structure in Indian sister of Maleya got erected a hero History, Madison, 1969, pp. 191-194; stone. Maleya swami was the & "Goddess Temples in Tamil pattanaswami who fell while fighting Country, 1300-1750 A.D.," presented the Muslim army ibid p.65 this was to the CSRI Workshop, University of when Hoysala king Someshwara was

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International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] ruling the Hoysala empire .Women his wives ketavve nayakiti hinnavve also laid down their lives as . anyakiti and manchavve nayakiti ten An inscription from agrahara lenkitis and 21 lenkas became bachihally refers to the death of when Hoysala Nrasimha III died. kanneya nayaka his three wives Another inscription refers to the vummavve javanavve and Kallavve construction of Bhairaveshwara ten lenkitis and 21 lenkas all of temple at Bommayanayakanahally or whom laid down their life as garudas Bhiaravapura. By rekhavve elder on the demise of the Hoysala King sister of mahapradhana Someya Someshwara . An epigraph from EC dannayaka. She converted the village Vol VI P.82 reveals the fact that the into an agrahra and granted it with 4 hero belonged to the mugila family vrittis of god and some lands to her and that his predecessors had son in law Mareya nayaka the similarly become garudas his Sthanika of Machanakatta her genealogy is given . daughter Tippavve and Tippavve’s The stone inscriptions and hero daughter Soyakka. This grant is stones called as preeti daana which was The stone inscriptions and hero made voluntarily swayichche stones proudly mention the odambattu ( EC VI kr 98 Bhairapura genealogies of such lenkas who Vol Vi pp.79-80. ) It belongs to the became garudas. These are described period of Narasimha deva III. as the nayakas of lenkavali and as the Sometimes stone inscriptions were senanayakas of the nayakas in erected by officers in commemoration chaerge of kannadiga manneya. They of queens for example the were administering kabbahu nadu mahapradhana Adisingeyya nayaka sivaneya nayaka along with five converted the village of Kallhalli into lenkas had given up his life when an Agrahara and renamed it as Ballala deva died. Like wiseLakkeya Devalapura after the queen nayaka and his wife gangadevi and Demaladevi. The gift made by the three other lenkas had become king to Rajaguru Gummatadeva garudas. Ganda narana setti and his apapears to have made over by the wife maravve nayakiti are stated to donor to the mahajanas Varahanatha have become garudas to the Hoysla kallahalli Kr 108 p.96 EC vol VI. king Ereyanga while his son hoyisala Madala mahadevi consecrated the setti and his wife machavve nayakiti grant of a village to god had laid down their lives with Tuvveshwara. Another record refers Bittideva their son kureya nayaka to the renovation of the ranaga with the wives maravve and chikka amantapa and probably also the madavve and seven lenkas became mukha mantapa by awoman who was garudas to . Rangeya the daughter of Bogegowda nayaka son of kanneya nayaka with granddaughter of Marinanje gauda

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International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] and great granddaughter of Boge Journal of Asian Studies Vol. 19, gowda. A records the No. 2 (Feb., 1960), pp. 163-176 death of Nagaya son of Bangali 2. Burton Stein-The Economic Ereyamma in a cattle raid. Function of a Medieval South Indian Temple. The Journal of Asian Studies Vol. 19, No. 2 (Feb., Conclusion – Thus Women could thus 1960), pp. 150-2 gift lands, convert villages as Agraharas, erect stone epitaphs, 3. Alexandra Mack-Complexity and could build jinalayas, could Economy in Pilgrimage Centers consecrate images, could renovate of the Vijayangara Period; temples, could build extensions to Department of Anthropology, temples such as Mantapas and Arizona State University Temple Gopurums etc. Their support also was pp 22-24 extended to building works of public 4. Arjun Appadurai- Kings, Sects utility such building tanks anicuts and Temples in South India, bands and river canals. This above 1350-1700 A.D- Indian Economic narrated discussion goes to depict the Social History Review 1977; 14; empowerment of women. During 47 Hoysala period many women 5. Burton Stein, "Integration of the indulged in various welfare activities Agrarian System of South India" both socio religious and in R.E. Frykenberg(Ed.), Land administrative. They had the power Control and Social Structure in to express their like mindedness of Indian History, Madison, 1969, converting the villages as Agraharas pp. 191-194; & "Goddess Temples and educational centers. This also in Tamil Country, 1300-1750 explains their responsibility towards A.D.," presented to the CSRI heralding a good administration. Workshop, University of Chicago, Their involvement in these activities May 24-26, 1974, was the outcome of the progressive 6. Kesavan Veluthat- The Early societal life boosted by Hoysala kings Medieval in South India who were the epitome of benevolence .Oxford: Oxford University Press, and good administration. 2008. References 7. Krishnaswami A , The Tamil Country under Vijayanagara, 1. Burton stein, Cynthia Talbot, Annamalainagar, 1964, pp. 98-105 Arjun Appadurai, etc have 8. Lee risha-Constructing studied temples during medieval Community: Tamil Merchant period. Burton Stein-the Temples in India and China, 850- Economic Function of a Medieval 1281 South Indian Temple. The

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9. K. Sundaram, Studies in Economic and Social Conditions in Medieval Andhra (1000-1600 A.D.), Madras, 1968,

10. Mahalingam, op. cit., pp. 386-389; see also B.A. Saletore, "The karmas- Their Historical Importance," Journal of the University of Bombay, Vol. VII, July 1938, Part I,pp. 29-93 11. George W. Spencer, "Religious

Networks and Royal Influence in Eleventh Century South India," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, XII, Pt. I, January 1969, pp. 42-56; ibid., "Royal Initiative under Rajaraj I," The Indian Economic

and Social History Review, Vol. 7, No. 4, December 1970, pp. 431-42.

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Stages of emergence of temple as a commune – roles & responsibilities of a temple in medieval south India

Abstract : Temples have been a part of splendid Indian heritage ever since the dawn of community living. Temples were not only places of worship but also communes of joint living. A temple was a societal force to reckon with including varied degrees of development as a commune.The ascendency of the temple as a religious institution forerunning socio religious responsibilities as a role model in a community was a measured & stable progress. The temple represented a revolutionary force in south India through several quarter of spiritual & theistic offshoots. This paper focuses here is on key features of a temple, it’s structure as a temple and it’s magnitude as a undisputed political conformist with versatile dimensions which evolved and the steady advancement of distinct regional cultures and economies.

Key words: Hoysala period , roles of temple , responsibilities of temple, contributions of temples , shift in roles , community empowerment.

Introduction -There have been were redistributed during the pre numerous studies discussing the colonial period. Stein notes that "fairs origin of a temple as a community. augmented urban trade. Regular and Burton stein, Cynthia Talbot, Arjun periodic fairs were established on the Appadurai, etc have studied temples main roads to great temples during during medieval period. It proved a the times of major festivals"( Burton strong ideological weapon during the stein, Cynthia Talbot, Arjun movement and was able to Appadurai, etc have studied temples register Hindu Brahmanical religion during medieval period. Burton Stein- as a comprehensive leader of the Economic Function of a Medieval answering diverse community needs. South Indian Temple. The Journal of Its potential as an institution was Asian Studies Vol. 19, No. 2 (Feb., realized by almost all dynasties which 1960) & Burton Stein-The Economic ruled south India. The temple had Function of a Medieval South Indian functions of administrative, social, Temple. The Journal of Asian Studies economic, political, and cultural Vol. 19, No. 2 (Feb., 1960), nature that were interrelated in a multifaceted manner. The temple 1. Temple as a coherent institution- grew into an Institution The other stimulus to the incorporating all these features. In literature of the early medieval his work on the Tirupati temple, age was chronicles of ruling Stein concluded that temples became families of the period. (Cynthia centers through which state resources Talbot) Temples gave institutional spotlight to this www.ijar.org.in 31

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reformed Hinduism. The temple land became a property, land received a variety of gifts and gained elevated resale ability & endowment in the form of lands, value. It became a commodity flower gardens, oil mills, the with high assessment. Sale deeds musical instruments, ornaments, of lands being sold or purchased cows, betel leaves, areca nut, oil, are found in epigraphs of this images, fruits &flowers, carts, region. troughs, golden armors , 3. Temple as an urban centre – pedestals, curtains, cots, seats , Temple had a correlated crowns, bells , thrones , salvers augmentation to become a n ,worship articles etc. these urban centre. Both ruling families donations were made by the king , lavished treasure for adorning the the queens, the members of royal deities and attracted a large court , their staff, Ministers, & permanent population of priests the landed gentry. Many occasions at each temple and multitude of were chosen for donations such as pilgrims whose needs created the victorious expeditions, birth of basics for extensive urban centres. heirs, royal birthdays , & any Such an increase in importance of other events of good fortune. the city led to a natural Thus, the temples served as a population increase as well as bridge of Dharma between the demands for more resources. But people of different classes and the growth was also constrained by king. The temple during this the huge battlements thrown up period enjoyed numerous around, punctuated by the privileges such as free grazing massive Gopurams. The only lands, free lands for worship , viable solution was to erect yet free cattle stock , free work force , another wall around the existing free claim over stray property, one. While Agraharas became exemption from tolls and other joints of community living, the levies, besides big landed vicinity became a suburban center properties. with temples and students 2. Temple as a shaper of regional flocking to this center from culture -Temples and kings were surrounding neighborhood. This decisive in determining regional lead to several livelihood cultures; both institutions had the requirements such as water, further effect of stimulating wells, provisions etc. Construction urbanization. Temple depicted of tanks and sluices thus followed almost everything connected with immediately.. Individuals or socio-economic life of the corporate bodies were encouraged community. It carried vigorous to build tanks by means of land messages of good over evil. As grants and remission of taxes. The

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maintenance of the irrigation required. There were several works involving repairs to injunctions & sanctions the damaged tanks removal of silt and temple wielded. The temple was prevention of damage was a the only authorized institution to mandatory duty which was vested deliver sanctions on the king & in the Village Assembly. The his authorities . He could endorse source of finance for their his legitimate mark on the maintenance often came from dynastic ascendency only through private charity , temple spiritual sanctions. King looked at contributions , state help and the spiritual support of the temple income from excavated tank ( priest for dynastic Burton Stein). squabble/dispute/ re 4. Temple as a commune-The types arrangement/split/ partition / of people needed to keep the division etc. Any rescheduling of household of the temple running cabinet, alteration in transfer of a included suppliers of food, capital city , or a military flowers, and baskets, potters, expedition ,marital alliance with carpenters, blacksmiths, leather- the neighbourhood dynasty , or a workers, sweepers, tailors, encamping of the royal entourage bamboo workers, painters, and , each had a analogous link with washers. Arts surrounding the the temple authorities. The nobles temple and its festivals included & the clergy men had to adhere to music, dance, drama, painting, the authoritarian power of the calligraphy, and cottage industries temple establishment. Hence, we such as white wash, enameling , see escalation of the endowments dyeing, pottery, tailoring, to temples by the nobility during embroidery, and the manufacture 10th & 12th centuries. of bangles, mud lamps , flower 6. Temple as an endowment asset - bags , flower baskets , colors , Temple administrators, acting on turmeric pastes, beaded necklaces behalf of people as men of godly , agarbattis, aromatic cones, stature , honoured generous temple furniture, and toys. people who endowed the temple 5. Temple as a king maker-Temples with diversified donations/ played a major role in royal activities such as worship at a politics not only because the temple, giving gifts of land , giving ruling aspect of the was gifts of agricultural produce , emphasised, but because of the giving gifts of jewels of gold & nature of temple ritual. Temple silver etc. The greater the gift, the acted as a king maker because of greater the honour which was the superior powers it had & it shown as a part of the ritual of could dictate terms as & when worship. Hence there was

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amplification in the number of groups provided media for sacred spiritual performances in translating Dravidian culture the temple. The Temple catered to from India to South-east Asia, a various ritualistic performances spill-over and extension beyond increasing annually The gift of the subcontinent of early land was attached with medieval urbanization. The early sacramental sanctions through medieval period was a distinct the temple . It was considered as departure in many ways and it Raja dharma or royal duty. was the pattern for future Epigraphs of Hoysala period development. The regionalization point out very evidently to the of culture, of religion and of quintessence of Raja dharma in politics was the critically these lines.“This bridge of significant process of the early dharma is common to all kings medieval age. This involved two and should be protected by you sorts of subordinate processes. from time to time” . Land gifts One was the extension and were given by those kings who transformation of Sanskrit forms could perform Tula purusha, dating from Gupta times. Many Gosahasra , Ashwamedha ,and forms, however, were adapted to other such Yagas. The ritual rites local values and were brought into became a mandatory obligation localized culture through for king to involve himself in modification. Simultaneously as religious executions. The royal well, local and even folk cultural court volunteered such ritual elements were given Sankritic practices very often. It was meanings. This sort of considered a pious act besides a synthesizing of political, religious part of Raja dharma. The king and cultural elements was a had to keep his subjects happy by central feature of the regional generating welfare measures. He process and assured that had to keep his kingdom free whatever unity is assumed about from invasions & atrocities of the classical Gupta age was neighbourhood kings. He had to forever dissolved in later times. evolve a competent & proficient 8. Temple as a centre for expanded administration in all respects. legitimacy-Ambitious chiefs tried 7. Temple as a corporate body -Rich to legitimize their enlarged and powerful associations of political claims through their urban-based corporate trade utilization of Jain, Buddhist, and bodies in south India conducted Hindu rituals. This utilization their commerce over the whole of became a process of the peninsula and beyond to regionalisation of politics in that South-east Asia. These trade it was necessary to mix northern

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symbols of divinity with local as Nobles , Military Generals, ones, since the gods of the Hindu war Lords etc patronized pantheon were distant from the Brahmin families, through experience of ordinary people. granting them rich villages and 9. Temple as a center of commodity fertile lands, in return for production-This period of political priestly services which would and cultural creativity coincided legitimize their status. with the rapid development of were not only necessary to would- commodity production, the be kings over expanded domains; manufacturing by hand of goods they were also interesting to the which made India's reputation in lords of villages as a way of these early times as a land of strengthening their authority fabulous wealth and elegance. ( K. over the low status laborers who Sundaram, Studies in Economic worked their rice fields. ( K. and Social Conditions in Medieval Sundaram, Studies in Economic Andhra (1000-1600 A.D.), Madras, and Social Conditions in Medieval 1968).This reputation attracted Andhra (1000-1600 A.D.), Madras, people to the subcontinent, 1968) . feeding further the vitality of commerce within and beyond South Asia. It is often observed Conclusion- Thus the foremost reason that Jain and Buddhist ideologies that the South Indian temples were lingered so long in India because able to perform this integrative they provided a moral shadow to function was their wide appeal in the the practical values of merchants society & their ability to incorporate and moneyed men. They may also members of different communities have provided an institutional into one community of worship. By framework that linked Buddhist providing employment to artisans, and Jain monasteries with the peasants and by lending money to high commerce of the age. Hindu agriculturalists in their vicinities, temples would eventually assume South Indian temples also that role. Another aspect of the redistributed the property of the political and cultural development wealthy to other segments of society. of the age was the widespread The widespread approval accorded to acceptance of caste as a way to patrons of temples meant that, incorporate disparate groups into during the later Vijayanagara age, the new states and the new links religious gifting could be used as a between urbanization, commerce strategy by outside warrior. It led to and manufacturing. the total regionalization of culture, of 10. Temple as an elitist forerunner - religion and of politics. The people from elite class such

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References 6. Kesavan Veluthat- The Early Medieval in South India 1. Burton stein, Cynthia Talbot, .Oxford: Oxford University Arjun Appadurai, etc have Press, 2008. studied temples during 7. Krishnaswami A , The Tamil medieval period. Burton Stein- Country under Vijayanagara, the Economic Function of a Annamalainagar, 1964, pp. 98- Medieval South Indian 105 Temple. The Journal of Asian 8. Lee risha-Constructing Studies Vol. 19, No. 2 (Feb., Community: Tamil Merchant 1960), Temples in India and China, 2. Burton Stein-The Economic 850-1281 Function of a Medieval South 9. K. Sundaram, Studies in Indian Temple. The Journal of Economic and Social Asian Studies Vol. 19, No. 2 Conditions in Medieval (Feb., 1960), Andhra (1000-1600 A.D.), Madras, 1968, 3. Alexandra Mack-Complexity 10. Mahalingam, & B.A. Saletore, and Economy in Pilgrimage "The karmas- Their Historical Centers Importance," Journal of the of the Vijayangara Period; University of Bombay, Vol. Department of Anthropology, VII, July 1938, Part I,pp. 29- Arizona State 93 University Temple pp 22-24 11. George W. Spencer, "Religious 4. Arjun Appadurai- Kings, Sects Networks and Royal Influence and Temples in South India, in Eleventh Century South 1350-1700 A.D- Indian India," Journal of the Economic Social History Economic and Social History Review 1977; 14; 47 of the Orient, XII, Pt. I, 5. 1 Burton Stein, "Integration of January 1969, pp. 42-56; ibid., the Agrarian System of South "Royal Initiative under Rajaraj India" in R.E. I," The Indian Economic and Frykenberg(Ed.), Land Social History Review, Vol. 7, Control and Social Structure No. 4, December 1970, pp. in Indian History, Madison, 431-42. 1969, pp. 191-194; & "Goddess Temples in Tamil Country, 1300-1750 A.D.," presented to the CSRI Workshop, University of Chicago, May 24- 26, 1974, passim.

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Sacrificing for a royal cause - reflections on lenka deaths during Hoysala period

Abstract: There is huge number of Hero Stones called popularly as Veeragals and Mahasatikals in local language, spread extensively in & around the boundaries of Hoysala country. These stones inscriptions known generally as hero stones speak about mortified deaths called as Lenka or Garuda deaths. These stones are very important from the point of view of Historical analysis. They frequently portray the warriors, their valorous deeds, their martyrdom, & their venerable deaths along with royal people or for a royal cause. These are very interesting as a resource of historical study about medieval south Indian society. They illustrate death of persons in peculiar & unusual circumstances. This paper portrays the variety. Nature of such deaths & analyses the socio religious causes of these kinds of martyr deaths during Hoysala period. The paper argues about introduction of the innovative conception of lenka deaths as an answer & as an evidence of new found authority in times of political turmoil.

Key words: Hoysala period, hero stones, lenka deaths, socio –religious background, causes for increased deaths.

Introduction-These stones .There was such unauthentic deaths inscriptions known generally as hero which were published through stones speak about mortified deaths inscriptions in the local language so called as Lenka or Garuda deaths. that the death of such people were These stones are very important commemorated. This was considered from the point of view of Historical as ideal death as well. analysis. They frequently portray the warriors, their valorous deeds, their Types of deaths During the period martyrdom, & their venerable deaths under study we come across various along with royal people or for a royal types of deaths identified generally as cause. These are very rich source of velevali , jolavali, lenkavali, historical study about medieval south sahagamana, & nishidhi Indian society. A group of people have been mentioned in inscriptions. called as lenkas / garudas died along All these types of death have been with the death of the king . There mentioned in epigraphs & other were both men &women in this contemporary literary records. The group. They died through beheading nature of death differed in each case themselves with sharp weapons. This while some were sacrificial deaths has been depicted in the outer walls some were self immolation type of deaths. www.ijar.org.in 37

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& wars. The whole of south India was Epigraphical instances- There are facing strife & struggle. several epigraphs which deal with 2. Smaller kingdoms were under Lenka deaths. An inscription the threat of being devoured by the narrates the death of Gandanarana bigger ones. The menaces of the setti and Maravve Nayakitti are Turkish armies were close by. stated to have become Garudas to the 3. The kings have to face the Hoysala king Ereyanga, while their external enemy as well as internal son Hoysala Setti and his wife adversary. This called for the change Machavve nayakitti laid down their in royal portrayal of supremacy. lives along with Hoysala king 4. The power politics was thus Bittideva . Their son Kureya Nayaka made a part of the royal insignia. with his wives Maravve and Chikka Kings needed to boost his subjects in Madavve and seven lenkas became to believing that he had a great garuda to Hoysala king Narasimha I . admirer . He wanted to prove that he Another inscription narrates the is supreme & he was the political death of Rangeya nayaka , son of head of the situation. Kanneya nayaka , along with his 5. Thus a tradition of having a three wives Ketavve Nayakitti, set of people supporting the king in Honnnavve Nayakitti and Manchavve life & death was manifested during Nayakitti along with ten lenkittis this period. These followers who were and 21 lenkas became garuda when the staunch followers of the king Hoysala king Narasimha III died. sacrificed their lives at will for the Another record refers to the death of sake of the kings. Hadapada Saayanna who along with his Master Someya dannayaka of The death of the garudas Bematurakal fought and killed the The death of Hoysala king Bittideva, enemies in a battle against Kampila Narasimha I , Narasimha II , at Holakere. The deceased hero hailed Narasimha III etc was followed by the from the village Chittanahalli. There death of these garudas. The deaths are instances of such deaths being came in at a right time because the increasing at the time of the death of ideals of honesty & virtuousness was the authorized king. attached to ideals of Bhakthi .These The political implications-There was lenkas were also called as garudas at several political manifestations to a later stage. The garuda was the such peculiar deaths. vehicle of god . Hence the name carried religious footage. The 1. The period of Hoysalas was a garuda signified valor , courage , period of great military activity. It honesty & unconditional faith was the period of political tribulations towards the master. The garuda was thus a symbol of sincere loyalty to the www.ijar.org.in 38

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] king. The garudas were sacrificing Sects in J. Silverberg (Ed) Social their lives almost hereditarily. Mobility and the Caste System in Sometimes the whole family became India Paris 1966 martyrs. Thus Hoysala society 2. Malini Adiga, The Making of witnessed a clear change in socio- Southern Karnataka: Society, cultural values. This period also Polity and Culture in the early depicted the transformation of medieval period, AD 400-1030. political spirit that prevailed. This Chennai: Orient Longman -2006 was a clear changeover in socio- 3. Kamath Suryanath U, -A Concise religious matters. The political history of Karnataka from pre- turbulence necessitated several historic times to the present, innovative ideas to create a positive Jupiter books, 2001, MCC, atmosphere for the incumbent & the Bangalore (Reprint 2002), question of fidelity mattered most in 4. Dr.T.G.Kalghatgi ( Ed) these cases. It was thus a conception Gommateshvara Commemoration of an original political ascendency. Volume: Ed. Published by: S.D.J.M.I. Managing Committee Conclusion- thus during the Hoysala Shravanabelagola, 1981) period political situation demanded 5. K. Sundaram, Studies in such new innovative methods to Economic and Social Conditions signify political authority. This was in Medieval Andhra (1000-1600 an answer to the internal adversaries A.D.), Madras, 1968, as well. All these act of suicidal 6. Mahalingam, & B.A. Saletore, deaths were considered as "The karmas- Their Historical meritorious in society. It was hailed Importance," Journal of the as a tradition of good faith & University of Bombay, Vol. VII, martyrdom. The political injunctions July 1938, Part I,pp. 29-93 of the turbulent time kept them to lay 7. George W. Spencer, "Religious down their lives. They became ideal Networks and Royal Influence in instances to show that both men & Eleventh Century South India," women could follow their inclination Journal of the Economic and towards martyrdom and become an Social History of the Orient, XII, icon of virtuous nature & deliver good Pt. I, January 1969, pp. 42-56; ideals without gender discrimination. ibid., "Royal Initiative under The society came to reflect the Rajaraj I," The Indian Economic honesty & integrity of people and Social History Review, Vol. 7, towards royal insignia. No. 4, December 1970, pp. 431-42.

References :

1. Burton Stein -Social mobility and

medieval South Indian Hindu

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Agraharas of Mandya district- with special reference to Hoysala period

Abstract: This paper examines the process of institutionalization of educational centers during Hoysala period. Being a great period of literary & scholastic progress, the Hoysala period was known for extensive distribution of educational centers as well. South Indian history has extensive referenced to the establishment of Agraharas as the centers of learning. These Agraharas were the centers of imparting education. These were donated to learned Brahmans & scholars who excelled in various shastras. . Such villages were called Chaturvedi Mangalas, also meaning the centers of study of Four sanctified Vedas..

Keywords : Hoysala period , Agrahara , educational institution , progress , support form elite class, political support.

Introduction – The process of institutionalization of educational centers during Hoysala period. Being a great period of literary & scholastic progress, the Hoysala period was known for extensive distribution of educational centers as well. The spread of educational institutions & the attitude of the political power holders towards institutionalizing them for political benefits . South Indian history has extensive referenced to the establishment of Agraharas as the centers of learning . These Agraharas were the centers of imparting higher education.

The sacred study of all four Vedic Texts was considered as the most blessed Act even during Hoysala period. . The scholars who received land grants had to carry on their specified six duties like Yajana,Yaajana, Adhyayana, Adhyaapana, Daana and Pratigrahana as according to the Smriti Texts were acted as custodians of Vedic Knowledge .The Brahman Scholars were given land , house and other provisions for their scholastic work. The suburban center away from residential locality was together later developed into a great educational center called popularly as Agraharas. The extensions in towns which were reserved for Brahmins were called ‘Brahamapuris’In these Agraharas and Brahmapuris Brahmans who had achieved mastery over the Vedas and the Vedangas. In the same way, Agraharas established for the Veerashaiva scholars came to be called “Shivapuris”. Maradipura, Maddur and areexamples for such Shivapuras.

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Subjects of study The Epigraphs of the region mention chandassu ,tarka shastra ,shatkhandas ,nyaya, Mimamsa Veda and Vedantha ,alankara were taught. It is known from titles of scholars as Gnana vidya Parinitha ,Yagna Parayana ,Veda parayana , Mouna anushtana parayana, Kalamukha Samayakartara Tarka praveena etc. Some of these scholars had titles such as called as Aneka Vidya Visharada Gadya padyaVacho vilasa Maha vaada Vichara parinitha etc.. The instruction was given mostly in Logic, Grammar , Theology , Criticism, Philosophy , Mathematics and other subjects.

Centers of study Mandya, Tonnuru, Malavalli, , Nelamangala, Udduru, Tondanuru , , Boodanuru Akki Hebbalu, , , Kikkeri ,Doddarasikere, Bhairapura, Varahanatha Kallahalli, Kellangere, Doddaga, Hosaholalu, Hariharapura, Sindaghatta, Sravanuru Bachialhalli Malaguru, Guttallu, Agrahara Bachahalli, Byalandakere were important educational centers during this period .Other places such as Doddajataka, Govindanahalli, Hariharpura, Hemmanahalli, Honnenahalli, Hosa Budanuru, Hosaholalu, Hosakote and Dadaga. Kambadahalli were also linked agraharas centers . Hosaholalu Kambadahalli, Kelagere, Kere Tonnuru , Sooranahalli, Srirangapattana, Sukhadere were famous for Jain learning centers. Navile, Palagrahara Satanuru, Somanahalli Srirangapattana . Navile, Palagrahara Satanuru, Somanahalli Srirangapattana were popular study centers for Sri Vaiashnava religious learning. Akki hebbalu- Sri Lakshmi devi, Sri lakshmi narasimha & sri konkaneshwara temples were built in Akki hebbalu which flourished as a great center of Vaishnava learning. Nagamangala –Nagamangala was another important learning center with the establishment of Sri Channakeshava Sri Lakshmi Sri Soumya Keshava , Sri Mahalingeshwara temples to credit. Centers such as , Ramapura , Nelamne , Maralgadde , came to be identified with Shaiva learning centers. The Melukote was also an important Vedic education centre, according to inscriptions. Antaravalli near Malavalli, near Srirangapattana Mandya District Gazetteer and were also famous Agraharas. Besides these established Agraharas several other smaller & lesser known places were also spreading education .

Epigraphical references- An inscription of 1276 A.D. belonging to Hoysala King Narasimha III found at Hosa boodanuru village mentions ‘Srimad anadi Agraharam Mandayada Matrajanagalu’ illustrates that the present Mandya was an Agrahara during Hoysalas . According to another inscription from Nagamangala it was an ancient Agrahara. There are references to the renovation of this Agrahara by the Bammaladevi, royal queen of Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana. The village of Belluru was also an important Agrahara and inscriptions of 12-13th centuries confirm that it was renamed as Udbhava www.ijar.org.in 41

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Narasimhapura Agrahara. Marehalli near Malavalli was another important Agrahara under the Cholas in the 11th century & 12th century . Tonnuru was also another important Agrahara and inscriptions reflect that it was called Yadava Narayana Chaturvedi Mangala and Agrahara Tondanuru. The epigraphs mention donors of land to agraharas in great poetic titles such as Ashritha Kalpa vriksha , Bandhujana Chinthamani , anandana vinoda, sakala jeeva dayanidhi, chatusamaya samudhdharana, kalideva paadaraadhaka. An inscription from Nagamangala refers to a grant of land & house to Chakravarthi Bhatttopadhyaya a great master & scholar , from a local officer , on the occasion of his son receiving initiation from the recipient . Great men of letters flourished here. They hailed from vibrant scholastic backgrounds ,various geographic localities and from many cultural standards.

Salaries for teachers -Most of these teachers who taught in Agraharas received benefits and endowments in the form of villages which were freed from all imposts. This also explains the monetary benefits extended to these teachers in lieu of salary. The Agraharas were made a sub urban center by constructing a temple or through consecration of images and deities wherein habitation were made. Besides they were honored through many titles and many benefits by elite class and by Royal Court.

Benefits Of Agraharas -These Agraharas helped the society in following respects

1. Assisted Maintenance of required institutional arrangements 2. Cognitive living with cohesion 3. Gave Religious satisfaction 4. Heightening self esteem with great knowledge 5. Helped adoption of relevant practice ritual 6. Helped Development of sacred & sacramental beliefs 7. Informal &indirect agencies of socialization & communication 8. Motivational reorganization of community 9. Social & academic support 10. Spread of classical knowledge

The beneficiary granted lands to temples in the period immediately following the transformation of villages into Agraharas .Most of the settlements converted into Agraharas during this period were peasant Villages. Not all Agraharas were made free of imposts & taxes. The grantees had to pay a quit rent. From the times of Narasimha I onwards the Agraharas were also taxed or were made to pay a part of their revenues to state as a share. The temple net work provided a viable Mechanism for the royalty & nobility to

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International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] assert privileged claims over land .Local rural resources were rearranged or redistributed through the establishment of Agraharas.The Legitimacy of such creation of Agrahaars was discernible in the active participation of the agencies of political power in the creation of promotion of a network of temple centered monastic groups .Epigraphs mention that land donations were made by kings who performed Tula purusha. Shivachaara sampanna. These Agraharas & scholastic activities & other attitudes related to them were maintained throughout because the members of the society found themselves in a supportive social environment & they interacted with each other through scholastic attributes. Conclusion-Thus the act of establishing agraharas was not merely symbolic of the desire of the persons for the acquisition of great knowledge & attainment of salvation through education but it was also social, political, cultural , economic & moral benefits it was offering to the whole society .

References : 1. K. Sundaram, Studies in Economic and Social Conditions in Medieval Andhra (1000-1600 A.D.), Madras, 1968, 2. Mahalingam, & B.A. Saletore, "The karmas- Their Historical Importance," Journal of the University of Bombay, Vol. VII, July 1938, Part I,pp. 29-93 3. George W. Spencer, "Religious Networks and Royal Influence in Eleventh Century South India," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, XII, Pt. I, January 1969, pp. 42-56; ibid., "Royal Initiative under Rajaraj I," The Indian Economic and Social History Review, Vol. 7, No. 4, December 1970, pp. 431-42. 4. Burton Stein -Social mobility and medieval South Indian Hindu Sects in J. Silverberg (Ed) Social Mobility and the Paris 1966 5. Malini Adiga, The Making of Southern Karnataka: Society, Polity and Culture in the early medieval period, AD 400-1030. Chennai: Orient Longman -2006 6. Kamath Suryanath U, -A Concise history of Karnataka from pre- historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC, Bangalore (Reprint 2002), 7. Dr.T.G.Kalghatgi ( Ed) Gommateshvara Commemoration Volume: Ed. Published by: S.D.J.M.I. Managing Committee Shravanabelagola, 1981)

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Diplomatic Relations Between Sevunas of Devagiri & Hoysalas of Dorasamudra – A Study In Medieval South Indian Interstate Relations

Abstract :The perceptive study of the relations between the Sevunas and the Hoysalas of Dorasamudra is very important to identify the political contention that existed among the south Indian dynasties during medieval period. Sevunas kingdom from the beginning had to fight against the Hoysalas. Both stood antagonistic & aggressive to each other. They fought several battles towards gaining supremacy in Deccan But their antagonistic strategy led way to hostilities. Each marched against other aggressively. An absence of susceptible & sensitive diplomatic communications between these two kingdoms caused malicious spoil. An affirmative shift towards reconciliation & mutual understanding might have led to a ceasefire between these two kingdoms. But non existence of good relations between these two kingdoms attracted many enemies in & around Deccan peninsula. These two kingdoms were engrossed in mutual betrayal & infidelity . The imprudent & indiscreet diplomatic relations between these two kingdoms projected unpredictability & volatility. This paper attempts to bring out the causes behind betrayal & deceptive strategies between these two kingdoms & probes in detail about the intimidating approach of the rulers towards their exit from the Southern political map.

Key words: Hoysalas , Sevunas , interstate policy , diplomatic relations , Islamic impact on local dynasties.

Introduction: The perceptive study of Sevunas & Hoysalas. The credit of the relations between the Sevunas establishing an independent kingdom and the Hoysalas of Dorasamudra is goes to Bhillama V, whose very important to identify the instantaneous predicament was to political contention that existed surmount Kalyana area, which had among the south Indian dynasties already been conquered by the during medieval period. Sevunas Hoysala Vira Ballala II .The kingdom from the beginning had to Kadambas, the Sinda of Yalburgi and fight against the Hoysalas. Both other trusted feudatories of the stood antagonistic & aggressive to Chalukyas were reluctant to accept each other. Sevuna over lordship. He finally succeeded in bringing under his The reign of Sevuna king Bhillama V control all these feudatories. At the marks an imperative segment in the same time a few feudatories of the history of interstate relations of the Chalukya were not ready to submit to www.ijar.org.in 44

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Bhillama V. Before unfolding the armies fought a battle. There are no Hoysala - Sevuna conflict, it is epigraphical evidences which refer to necessary to know the gains of Vira the results of the battle. But from Ballala II, which led to a long drawn Hemadri's account it is very clear that rivalry between two dynasties. After Bhillama V fought against the the fall of the both Hoysalas and acquired the Hoysalas and Sevunas tried to 'Kalyanalakshmi' occupy as much as territory as possible. As a consequence they It was a great success to Bhillama V. fought many battles. Ballala was Bhillama V being encouraged by his contemplating to expand his territory victory , chased the army of Vira in the north. In about 1187 A.D. he Ballala II. When Ballala II's army led a campaign against the Pandya retreated, Bhillama V seems to have chief of Uchchangi and achieved a occupied many places on the border decisive victory against him. Thus a major portion of Kuntaladesa Afterwards he turned his attention was occupied by the Sevuna army. against Kalachuri kings and inflicted He soon crossed the Malaprabha river a defeat on them. The Kadamba and by the end of 1189 A.D., kings were subdued and the fort of his authority was recognized in came under his control. The and Dharwar district. feud between the Kalachuri kings and Soratur was the farthest point in the Chalukya King Someshwara IV, gave South that Bhillama could reach him an opportunity to push his forces though some of his inscriptions, further. He captured a considerable apparently by convention refer to his portion of the Chalukya territory being the lord of the whole of before 1189 A.D. He is described as Kuntala. But soon the Hoysala army the conqueror of the region as far as opposed the move of the Sevuna Heddore i.e., the river Krishna troops .The above mentioned including the tracts of Puligere and inscriptions state that Bhillama was Belvola. It is very difficult to say pushed back up to Lokkigundi, But a whether he marched as far as few inscriptions mention, that he was Krishna or not. Undoubtedly he repulsed up to river Krishna. A succeeded in extending his territory decisive battle was fought at Soratur in the northern direction. Finally he between Bhillama V and Vira Ballala succeeded in occupying Kalyana. II. As Kalyana was occupied by Vira There are Bhillama’s records also Ballala II, the Sevunas were which help us to provide clue that he disappointed. Therefore the Sevuna ruled for two more years after the ruler Bhillama V decided to capture battle with Ballala II in 1189 A.D Kalyana from the hands of the Another inscription from Karadkal Hoysalas. In Kalyana itself both the www.ijar.org.in 45

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1bearing identical date refers to him. date of the battle. According to Fleet The third one comes from it took place in the latter half of 1191 Bhairavadigi in district and is A.D.Fleet has stated that Bhillama dated 1191 A.D. mentions about his lost his life in the battle itself. The rule. The fourth and fifth are from above conclusion is supported by the Muttagi and Hippargi in the same fact that very few records of Ballala district also speak of the rule of fall within this period and none of Bhillama. The former of them is these associate him with his capital dated in July 1192 A.D. and the Dorasamurda. They clearly establish latter, in the month of Aug. of the the fact that he was away from the same year. All these records which capital. In this connection another refer to the reign of Bhillama, clearly inscription from Arsikere dated April indicate that he was on the throne till 1190 A.D. states that Ballala’s queen at least the month of Aug. 1192 A.D. Umadevi was ruling then from Dorasamudra. A number of inscriptions belonging to Ballala III and his successors mention But there are evidences to prove that this great battle. Ballala’s own Bhillama survived the battle and inscription of 1202 A.D. describes as lived for at least two years after that. follows, "when Bhillama, priding in A passage from Vyavaharaganitaa a his military strength faced the enemy Kannada work on Mathematics by on the battle field, Ballala pushed Rajaditya, refers to this battle and forth his single elephant, pursued the while describing it says that Bhillama enemy from Soratur to Lokkigundi ran away with his horses from the and killed him." Another inscription battlefield. After that his son Jaitugi of his son Narasimha II credits him had succeeded him in 1192 A.D. with the victory thus, “When the Bhillama V was succeeded by Jaitugi Sevuna king came with his huge force II. He ruled from 1192 to 1200 A.D. consisting of two lakhs of soldiers, Even during his reign also the twelve thousand horses, and the like, hostility continued between the Ballala, with his single elephant Sevunas and the Hoyasalas. Jaitugi pushed back the rival army and tried to reconquer the territories pursued the enemy from Soratur to which were lost to Ballala II. the river Krishna” E.C. Vol. V, Ak. Bhillama could not push beyond the No. 5. & Ibid, Vol. VII, Hl. 48. In this river Malaprabha. But Jaitugi seems battle Bhillama suffered a to have moved to the south of this humiliating defeat. The latter river and succeeded in capturing statement is apparently exaggerated, . An inscription dated 1195 since Bhillama is known to have held A.D. Koligunda states that Ballala the territory below the Krishna river conquered Lakkundi by defeating in 1192 A.D. Different views have Jaitugi. Though Ballala was able to been expressed by scholars about the www.ijar.org.in 46

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] capture Lakkundi, still he was to accept the authority of the sensing danger from Jaitugi's side . Hoysalas, but they could not stand up against the latter power and were This is evident from the references in subjugated by Ballala. The then inscriptions to his repeated Sinda chief Ishvaradeva II was not campaigns at Lakkundi and other happy about his subordinate position places in this northern part of his and was revolting against Ballala territory. For example, he was in whenever an opportunity arose. Lakkundi in 1199 A.D. In 1200 A.D. he was at Huligere In 1205 A.D. he When the Chalukyas reestablished was again camping at Lakkundi As their authority after defeating the indicated by the existence of an Kalachuris, Mallideva II, the inscription of Singhana dated 1202 successor of Ishvaradeva, preferred to A.D. at in Dharwar District, his accept Chalukya Someshvara IV’s influence was slowly spreading in over lordship to Ballala II. He, that area, but obviously, by then he however, could not continue in this had not yet established his rule there. position for long, as the Chalukya This was because Hoysala Ballala II power also disappeared. Ballala II had a stronger hold in this area and decided to bring this Sinda chief he did not allow Singhana to under his control. After repeated penetrate into it. He therefore chose attacks, he finally succeeded in to wait for a more opportune time subduing the Sinda chief by 1198 and planned his southern expedition A.D. Sinda chief had no alternative after his campaigns in the north. than to accept the over lordship of Ballala II till about 1204 A.D. But A study of the inscription of his reign Ishvaradeva III, who succeeded as well as those of Ballala shows that Mallideva was eager to throw off the he did not directly attack the latter. Hoysala yoke. The support which he Instead he first put down the smaller expected from Singhana II, who was powers like the Kadambas of , the marching southward to conquer the Silharas of , the Rattas of Hoysala territories, made him to Savadatti and the like. Apparently oppose the Hoysala kings. He formed Singhana thought of first bringing an alliance with Singhana II to free them under his control, thus himself from the clutches of the preventing them from joining Hoysala kings. His inscription of Ballala’s side. The Sinda chief always 1208 A.D. significantly states that the often proved to be a source of trouble Sindas succeeded in establishing to Hoysalas and preferred to accept independent authority over the the overlordship of Sevuna. Being the territory, thus ignoring the Hoysala trusted feudatories of the Chalukyas kings, who were quite powerful then. of Kalyana and also of the Kalachuris From an inscription of 1215 A.D. it is in the past, the Sindas were reluctant understood that he was www.ijar.org.in 47

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] acknowledging the authority of Sinda chief wanted to maintain his Singhana. Vira Ballala II was upset independent position. by this development. Inscriptions show that after the death As a result he attacked the Sinda of Isvaradeva in about 1229 A.D. his territory The battle took place near son Kesavadeva continued the same Madanabage, modern Madanabhavi, a hostile attitude towards the Sevunas village near Belagutti. In this battle generals. An inscription of 1232 A.D. probably Hoysala kings were not states that he attacked successful in subduing the Sinda Honnabommisetti, the governor of army. It seems many battles were but was defeated. But fought between the forces of Sinda when the Sevuna ruler tried to Chief and the Hoysala. Many records impose his authority over him by reveal that a fierce battle was fought appointing his own officer to govern between Ishvara’s general Chinnayya that area, the Sinda chief raised the and the Hoysala army in 1216 A.D standard of revolt. Isvaradeva was helped by many small chieftains such as the Nayakas of Santalige - nadu to maintain his independence . When the Hoysala Generals failed to subdue Sinda chief, Hoysala king Biradeva, the successor and probably Ballala II himself marched with an the son of Keshavadeva, continued army and invaded Belagutti, which his struggle against the Sevunas. was now in charge of Bommideva of Many hero stones which have been Bandanike, obviously a subordinate discovered in the Sinda territory refer of Ishvaradeva. to many battles that were fought between 1244 and 1249 A.D. An Even then the Hoysalas king were inscription of 1244 A.D. states that not successful, as the Sinda chief when Biradevarasa was ruling at received support from the Sevunas. Belagavatti, Lakhanapala attacked Many hero stones which have been his territory and a battle took place at discovered are the concrete evidences Hattivur. This Lakhanapala has been to the skirmishes that took place identified with Lakshmipala, the between the Sinda kings and the general of Singhana, who participated Hoysala kings. It is clear if Sevunas in a number of battles fought on ruler had not come to the help of behalf of the Sevuna king. These Sinda kings, definitely they would victories of Singhana were due to so have been subdued by the Hoysala many factors. Ballala II himself kings. But the relationship between personally had to withdraw from his the Sevunas and the Sinda chief were northern frontier in order to solve a strained soon. It appears that the crisis in the Chola kingdom. Taking advantage of the weakness of Chola www.ijar.org.in 48

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Kulottunga III, the Pandya king the headquarters at Kannanur. But Maravarma Sundara Pandya led an Narasimha’s involvement in the invasion into Chola territory. Chola Chola country adversely affected the ruler could not withstand the attack northern boundaries of his kingdom. of the Pandya. During this crisis he This was a golden opportunity to appealed to Vira Ballala II for his Sevuna ruler Singhana II to push his help. Ballala II realised that this territory Southwards. Narasimha opportunity would definitely enhance made many attempts to expel his influence in the Chola territory. Singhana from Southern occupations. He deputed his son Narasimha I to A battle was fought in 1223 A.D. It help the Cholas. Chola ruler with the resulted in the death of two generals, help of Narasimha I regained his Vikrama and Pavusa on the Sevuna throne and expelled the Pandyas from side. These battles continued for a the Chola territory.. Probably this long period. An inscription of 1235 was the factor which resulted in the A.D states that the Hoysala general success of the Sevunas ruler against led an attack against the the Sindas Dinakara Desai, op cit p. Sevunas. Inspite of these attacks 53-4. After this Ballala deservedly Narasimha could not expel Sevuna earned the title 'Chola-rajya- ruler from Southern strongholds. pratishtapanacharya' (the restorer of Nevertheless, he seems to have made the Chola kingdom) and Pandya some attempts to recover the lost Gajakesari territory from the Sevunas.

Vira Ballla II was succeeded by king An inscription of 1248 A.D. gives Narasimha to the Hoysala throne in Someshvara the title seunorbbipala- 1220 A.D. began to evince interest in bal-arnava-davanala, indicating the affairs of the Chola kingdom. thereby that he had a clash with the Rajaraja III, the successor of Sevuna army. But there are not Kulottunga, marched to the Pandya other records to throw much light on country and attempted to re-establish the conflicts between these two the Chola supremacy. In retaliation dynasties. The Hoysala kings, during the Pandya ruler invaded the Chola the reign of Someshvara tried to kingdom and occupied Tanjore. recover the territories which they had Rajaraja fled from the capital. lost to the Sevunas. But Someshvara Narasimha again marched and helped met with reverses. indicates that the the Chola ruler and reinstated former successfully opposed the Rajaraja on the throne. From these Hoysala army. Someshvara interventions the Hoysala kings were preoccupation in the affairs of the benefited. In 1226 A.D. Tamil country was probably the main Narasimha’s younger son Smvara reason for his setback in the fights was placed in charge of those with the Sevuna king As Someshvara territories in the Chola kingdom with was forced to go again to solve the www.ijar.org.in 49

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Chola Pandya conflict, the northern the throne in 1271 A.D. But his rule frontiers of his kingdom were lasted only for a few months. neglected. King Kannara who was succeeded by king Mahadeva in 1261 During his reign also the hostilities A.D saw the division of Hoysala between the Sevunas and the Hoysala kingdom into two parts. King kings continued. As Narasimha III Someshwara had divided the Hoysala was entangled himself in his fight Kingdom giving the Karnataka against his own half-brother, territories to his son Narasimha III, Ramanatha, found it very difficult to and the Tamil country to Ramanatha, protect the northern frontiers. another son of his by a Chola Therefore Ramachandra also after his princess. But the brothers were not accession turned towards the Hoysala satisfied with the division. kingdom. He sent his general Ramanatha was constantly invading Joyanayaka of Haveri to invite the the Karnataka territory of Narasimha Hoysala territory. This attack was III. This situation in the Hoysala followed by a more vigorous one territory encouraged Mahadeva to towards the end of 1276 A.D.. The march towards the South. In his Sevuna army gained an upper hand expedition first he attacked the and marched very close to the territory of the Kadamba Chief Hoysala capital.. The Sevuna Kavadeva and subdued him. Another generals boasted that they would Chief attacked by the Sevuna ruler conquer Dorasamurda and would was Santara Chief Bommarasa. destroy Hoysala kingdom Saluva Tikkama’s attempt to conquer Later , he attacked the Hoysala Dorasamurda were foiled by the kingdom itself. But both the rulers Hoysala Ankanayaka. The Sevuna claim victory over the other. An army lifted the siege of and inscription of 1271 A.D. of the retreated . Unfortunately the Sevuna Hoysala ruler states that Mahadeva inscriptions give different versions of ran away from the battle field. But a this campaign. The Harihara few Sevuna records also found in the inscription of 1277 A.D. claims that which speaks of Saluva Tikkama successfully Sevuna victory Ramachandra, the son completed the campaign against of Kannara overthrew him and Dorasamudra by capturing it and forcibly occupied the throne. But he collecting much booty. Further the also faced very serious problems. record says that on his way back he halted at Harihara and built a Therefore it is very difficult to say temple of Lakshminarayana and whether the Hoysala kings drove Mahadeva. But these claims of the away the Sevunas from their capture of Dorasamurda far from territory. After the death of true. Singeya Nayaka the governor of Mahadeva, his son Amana ascended Kummata in stood as www.ijar.org.in 50

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] the strong supporter of the Hoysala was a feudatory of Hoysala Ballala III king and participated in many battles and the two armies met at Nulgeri , fought against the Sevunas. His son the result of this battle seems to have Khandeyarayaraneya had been inconclusive, for Yebaranayaka participated on the Hoysala side, in attacked the territory again in 1302 the battle of Belavadi. A.D. and this time on the instruction of Ballala, Sodaladeva opposed the In view of this, Ramachandra took Sevuna General at Salur. steps to put down Singeyanayaka by sending an army against him in the In 1303 A.D. Kampiladeva the beginning of 1280 A.D. Even after general of Ramachandra attacked this incident the hostilities continued. Holakere and in the battle that Therefore Sevuna Ramachandra sent ensued, Ballla's general an army again against the Governor Someyadandanayaka lost his life. of Kummata in 1283 A.D . In the Someya had married the sister of battle Sevuna army retreated again Ballala ( E.C. VIII, Nr. 27; MAR, .Finally through diplomacy the 1931, p. 186, No. 72, Ibid, 1944, p. Sevuna ruler tried to win over to his 160, Nos. 38 and 39 ). Towards the side Singheya nayaka. end of 1308 A.D. offensive came from the side of Ballala III, when he Unfortunately Ankanayaka lost his attacked Nakkigundi. It appears, son in one of the battles. Another from the records that Ramachandra general who took part in the battle on suffered reverses and Ballala sides of the Hoysalas was destroyed the fort E.C. IX, Bn. 53; Khandeyarayaraneya, also known as E.C. VII, Sa. 156. Nakkigundi, Kampilaraya though its name is similar to the village where the record is found. i.e., Meanwhile Sevuna kingdom was Nekkundi. But both cannot be the attacked by Ala-ud-din Khilji, and its same since the latter village which is ruler Ramachandra was defeated. in Bangalore Taluk could not have Ala-ud-din Khilji collected much been in the Sevuna territory. wealth from Ramachandra and Further, it figures in an inscription as returned. Instead of taking a lesson Nergunde Thus Ramachandra from this attack and patching up the engaged himself in warfare with the differences with his neighbours to put Hoysala kings by neglecting his up a united opposition in the event of northern frontier. The result was a further attack, Ramachandra another attack on the Sevuna continued his enmity with them He kingdom by the Delhi Sultan in 1307 started attacking the feudatories of A.D. the Hoysala kings. His general Yebaranayaka attacked the territory Conclusion- The above study reveals of Santara chief Ketayanayaka, who that the Sevunas and the Hoysala www.ijar.org.in 51

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] kings of Dorasamurda stood as preventative measure but to succumb inveterate enemies for an elongated to Islamic armies. An impressive & period. The Sevunas in order to tactful strategy towards cessation of occupy the former Chalukya territory hostilities would have heralded a fought many battles against the bright era in the diplomatic relations Hoysala kings. Similarly, the Hoysala leading to armistice & peace kings once being the feudatories of agreement. A closer interstate truce the Chalukyas of Kalyana claimed would have negotiated amicably their right over Kalyana and its towards closure of divergence. There southern territories. Many wars were was no anticipatory diplomatic fought to achieve their ends. As a appraisal .The comprehensive result of these incessant wars, both assessment of the northern enemy the kingdoms were weakened and fell was ignored completely. This a prey to the unfamiliar & alien disregard & ignorance gave a severe incursion. The onslaught if Muslim blow to these two kingdoms & the armies claimed the death knell of severity of the blow was not only these two kingdoms. A lack of ultimate but it was complete. diplomatic communications between these two kingdoms. An affirmative References :- shift towards reconciliation & 1. Burton Stein -Social mobility mutual understanding might have led and medieval South Indian to a ceasefire between these two Hindu Sects in J. Silverberg kingdoms. But non existence of good (Ed) Social Mobility and the relations between these two Caste System in India Paris kingdoms attracted many enemies in 1966 & around Deccan peninsula. These 2. Malini Adiga, The Making of two kingdoms were engrossed in Southern Karnataka: Society, mutual betrayal & infidelity . The Polity and Culture in the early imprudent & indiscreet diplomatic medieval period, AD 400-1030. relations between these two Chennai: Orient Longman - kingdoms projected unpredictability 2006 & volatility. 3. K. Sundaram, Studies in Conclusion- This political instability Economic and Social & unsteadiness among Deccan Conditions in Medieval kingdoms was blessing in disguise to Andhra (1000-1600 A.D.), the Islamic incursions .These Madras, 1968, kingdoms failed to identify the 4. Mahalingam, & B.A. Saletore, precariousness of the situation. The "The karmas- Their Historical state of affairs were so quick in Importance," Journal of the changing that a king on throne University of Bombay, Vol. hardly could take any decisive www.ijar.org.in 52

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VII, July 1938, Part I,pp. 29- 93 5. George W. Spencer, "Religious Networks and Royal Influence

in Eleventh Century South India," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, XII, Pt. I, January 1969, pp. 42-56; ibid., "Royal Initiative under Rajaraj I," The Indian Economic and

Social History Review, Vol. 7, No. 4, December 1970, pp. 431-42. 6. Kamath Suryanath U, -A Concise history of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, 2001, MCC, Bangalore (Reprint 2002), 7. Dr.T.G.Kalghatgi ( Ed) Gommateshvara Commemoration Volume: Ed. Published by: S.D.J.M.I. Managing Committee Shravanabelagola, 1981)

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New reflections on coins of Sevunas Abstract: The coinage under Sevunas even though depicted influences of coinage of other contemporary dynasties but there were specialties which were discernible about their specialties. The shape , the weight , the look & the script everything had a specialty under coinage of Sevunas . This paper expresses new reflections on the coinage system of Sevuna period based on new archeological evidences. The distribution of the Yadava gold coinage was fairly uniform throughout the areas subject to their influence. There was, however, a definite shortage of silver in South India, and even billon coins were seldom issued. The tiny size of the silver coin introduced in the Yadava kingdom hints at a local scarcity of silver and consequent high price. Key words: Sevunas coinage, new researches on coins , contemporary influences , specialty of the coinage Introduction- The Sevunas of 970 A.D.) He was succeeded by Devagiri, also known as the Yadavas Bhillama II (970 - 1005 A.D.) . He of Devagiri came to prominence as became a feudatory of the Chalukyas independent rulers in the latter half of Kalyana. Taila II, the Chalukya of the 12th century, but their political ruler overthrew the Rashtrakta career had commenced two centuries authority and established an earlier, that is in the middle of 9th independent kingdom. Bhillama II century A.D. itself. Sevuna Chandra who had been hitherto the I (C.835 to 860 A.D.) is the earliest Rashtrakta feudatory, was now member of the family. Details about forced to change his allegiance to the him are to be found only in the Chlakyas of Kalyana. Once he records of his successors and in the became a feudatory, Bhillama turned narrative of Hemadri. The out to be a very important ally of the Sangamaner epigraph states that the Chlkys. He was succeeded by Vesugi territory over which he ruled came to I (C. 1005 - 1010 A.D.) . be known after him (Seunachandra I). Vaddiga I, fourth in order of Then Bhillama III, the son of Vesugi I succession after him, is known to be a ruled from (1010 to 1055 A.D. It subordinate of Rashtrakta Krishna seems he made an attempt to assert III (939 to 967 A.D.). On the basis of his independence from the this fact, Sevunachandra may be Chalukyas. But I by giving surmised to have ruled approximately his sister Avvaladevi in marriage to between 835 A.D. and 860 A.D. Bhillama III diplomatically won over Amoghavarsha I Nripatunga was to his side. After him Vesugi II (C- then the ruler. Accordingly 1055 to 1068 A.D.) ruled. During the Dhadiyappa I, Bhillama I and Rajugi reign of Sevunachandra a civil war (C. 860 to 935 A.D.) were the broke out between Samvara II and predecessors of Vaddiga I (c. 935 to his younger brother Vikrmaditya VI. www.ijar.org.in 54

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Sevunachandra II supported The gold coin- The gold coin found Vikramditya VI. With the accession during the prominence of Yadavas of of Vikramditya VI to the Chalukya Devagiri was not flat, hut cup shaped throne in 1076 A.D. Sevunachandra’s due to the force of the central punch. prestige and status increased. As a The metrology of the issue was reward for his services more remarkably well regulated, with territories were added to the Sevuna minimal variation in weight from the fief by the Chlukyan . minting ideal. These coins of Yadavas Afterwards Singhana I (1110-1145 of Devagiri, called 'padma tankas' in A.D.), Mallugi II (c. 1155 to1165 the literature from their central A.D.) and Ballla (c. 1165 to of a padma or lotus, were the coins of 1173 A.D.) ruled. However with the the Devagiri treasury. On the other accession of Bhillama V (1173 -1192 hand, the silver coinages of the A.D.), the fortunes favored him to Yadavas were rare, being known from realize the dreams of establishing an a single lot gathered in the Nasik independent kingdom. region, and stray pieces.

Gadhaiya paisa coins-The Coins of yadavas of devagiri Coins of distribution of Gadhaiya paisa coins Yadavas of Devagiri included both was found to extend into the gold and silver coins although the Godavari valley, which lay in the former was common. Coinages of Yadava kingdom. However, it is also South India have been regarded as estimated that the use of a relatively forming a separate field of pure silver coin may have been the investigation. That this distinction is greater imperative, especially in an substantive and not arbitrary is area where relatively pure precious obvious from the very different metal coins were the norm currency systems of the Deccan and the South. The major gold resources The value of silver coin The value of of India were scattered throughout silver is considered to be relatively the peninsula, and they provided the high for a coin weight of just 0.917 g. metal for gold currencies in most presumably this was done to permit parts of the Deccan in the early modest purchases. The scarcity of the medieval period. By AD 1185, Yadava silver coinage, which after all had no King Bhillama V had established his local tradition of use, indicates a very rule throughout the country, limited distribution during the establishing his capital at Devagiri dominion of Yadavas of Devagiri. near present day (). The kingdom was a 1. The major gold resources of India powerful presence in the thirteenth were scattered throughout the century, constantly involved in peninsula, and they provided the warfare in the south and north. metal for gold currencies in most

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parts of the Deccan in the early 3. A catalogue of Yadava coins in medieval period Andhra Pradesh, State 2. use of a relatively pure silver coin Museum, by Subramanyan, R. may have been the greater Hyderabad, 1965. imperative, especially in an area 4. Copper plate Inscriptions in where relatively pure precious the Hyderabad Museum, Ed. metal coins were the norm Ramesan, Andhra Pradesh 3. The scarcity of the silver coinage, Archaeological Dept. which after all had no local Hyderabad. tradition of use, indicates a very 5. A Corpus of Inscriptions in the limited distribution during this Districts of H.E.H. period Nizam's Dominions, Ed. P. 4. the silver coinages of the Yadavas Shrinivasachar, Department were rare, being gathered only in of Archaeology, Hyderabad. the Nasik region 6. A Corpus of Inscriptions of the Kannada Districts of Conclusion- The distribution of the Hyderabad (Hyderabad Yadava gold coinage was fairly Archaeological Series, No. uniform throughout the areas subject 18).Ed. Desai, P.B., to their influence. There was, Department of Archaeology, however, a definite shortage of silver Hyderabad. in South India, and even billon coins 7. , Dept. of were seldom issued. The tiny size of Archaeology, Govt. of Mysore. the silver coin introduced in the 8. Epigraphia Indica, Yadava kingdom hints at a local Archaeological survey of India, scarcity of silver and consequent high . price. The major gold resources of 9. Hyderabad Archaeological India were scattered throughout the Series, Dept. of Archaeology, peninsula, and they provided the Hyderabad. metal for gold currencies in most 10. Important Inscriptions from parts of the Deccan in the early Baroda State, Ed. Gadre A.S. medieval period which was helpful for 11. Inscriptions of the Deccan, coin minting during this period. Naik A.V., Poona. 12. Inscriptions from Northern References: Karnataka and Kolhapur 1. Annual Reports of the , Ed. Kundangar K.G., Archaeological Department, Kolhapur. Mysore, 1906 onwards. 13. Karnataka Inscriptions Vol .I 2. Archaeological Survey of and II, Ed. Panchamukhi R.S., Western India, Vol. III, Kannada Research Institute, Bombay. Dharwar.

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14. Karnataka Inscriptions Vol. IV, Ed. Annigeri A.M.

Panchamukhi R.S., Kannada Research Institute, Dharwar. 15. Karnataka Inscriptions Vol. V, Ed. Gopal, B.R. Panchamukhi R.S., Kannada Research Institute, Dharwar. 16. from Andhra Pradesh, Ed. Desai, P.B., Andhra Pradesh Archaeological Dept. Hyderabad. 17. Karnataka Historical Research Society, Dharwar.

18. Mysore Inscriptions, Ed. Rice B.L., Bangalore.

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Reflections on societal progression through royal women - status of women during Hoysala period as reflected through epigraphs of Hassan region

Abstract: This paper examines the role of women especially royal women in promotion of special progression as depicted in epigraphs. Medieval South Indian society various examples of social mobility and religious equality among women . It is considered as a persistent factor of socio religious studies which has being scrutinized minutely these days. The studies about medieval Indian women reflected that there were metamorphic redesigning of social structure during this period. There were several examples of lower ranked and high ranked women attaining higher posts and responsibilities as well as assuming roles in society. This high role of women is portrayed as the most vital aspect of medieval South Indian society in this study.

Key words: Reflections on societal progression, royal women role ,status of women , Hoysala period , epigraphs of Hassan region faiths followed by the medieval South The introduction- Indian Women Indian rulers. have always been a reflection of The contributions of women in energy, potency , astuteness , enriching this culture has been very ambition & intricate judiciousness . great. A large number of epigraphs Women have always shown high provide an insight into the role of interest in all socio cultural activities. women in society. Epigraphs have They have been a good support in eulogized the royal women which Administration ,they have been goes to show that they commanded portrayed as a pillar of strength in high respect . Women played conflicting situations whether different roles as mothers sisters political or religious . The debates on daughters wives concubines queens women during Hoysalas period, their administrators etc. We find from zeal in the process of progression epigraphs sources that the women which have been reflected in had ample opportunities to cultivate countless number of epigraphs the religious urge and give concrete strewn all round the Hoysala empire expressions to it in their own way. It is reflective of the contemporary is interesting to know that not only progressive thoughts.. Karnataka has women belonging to upper strata but been a repository of very good and also even ladies with humble origins gracious culture. Religion always took an active part in constructing played a pivotal role and represented the temples for various gods and the policy of toleration and equality of various religious monuments such as

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International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] basadis and homes for ascetics, mentions of nada gaavundisis mutts. remarkable. women from all sections of life There are contemporary sources offered liberal grants to such as lands about some of the women looked and money for various varieties of after the internal administration of worship festivals for maintenance of their husbands while their partners gods chariots building lamp lighting were far away or on for priests etc for feeding the ascetics expeditions.Women as sisters were of & others. This exhibits the equality of great help to princesses as Akkadevi women in society. This also depicts Suggaladevi Bachhabee Shammavve the democratic spirit that prevailed in and others shared the responsibility the society in religious matters. All of administration with their brothers. these works were considered as Epigraphs also mention Jakkaladevi meritorious in society. It was a who ruled independently. Some tradition of good faith that kept them epigraphs also mention women as to bestow such huge endowments. governors of provinces. There are instances to show that There are instances of women of women could follow any religion. royal court ordering public utility sometimes husband and wife could be works and temple services to be done following two different religions. The at their instance. Ketaladevi ordered example of Hoysala queen Shantala for lighting a perpetual lamp in a showed that even women could temple for the service of god. achieve greatest spiritual bliss Makanavve mother of Kshetrapalaka through self efforts. They kept alive who is called as heggadithi excavated the spirit of healthy religious the tank and named it makasamudra tradition & helped it continue .Honnavve got the temple of Dudda through their own selfless renovated Chattavve got a stone contributions. The Epigraphical erected for her son who died in a evidences show that women enjoyed fight .An instance of two wives living great religious equality & commanded together with their husband is high respect in society . mentioned in an epigraph which Women also enjoyed political reflects existence of polygamy .An equality. Some of them joined hands inscription records the construction with their husbands in administering of at Heragu and the vast empire. Some of them consecration of a deity of Chenna independently discharged the duties Parshwa natha by Jakkavve The of governors and rulers. Some of the inscriptions refers to a grant of the women acted as regents and some of Vilalge Hiruvanahalli and others them served as trustees and attached to the village Shanthi grama managers of temples. The special of Seegeandu by Hoysala Vishnuvardhana made over to

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Shanthala devi the queen , for Their immediate readiness to distribution of 220 Brahmans An dispense away with social restrictions inscription deals with the efforts to a was the outcome of their willingness lady named tange pennakka who to do away with the male superiority paying money got back the lands which always came adjoined with pledged by Nambis of the temple male superseding. . This naturally Another record says Tange Pennakka lead to reformation of their position. daughter of Akkalayakka made a Thus the impact of bhakti lead to grant of one balla of rice for offerings sexual flexibility. daily in the temple of Vasudeva of They have been a good support in goraru agrahara and got released the Administration ,they have been temple land which was pledged. A portrayed as a pillar of strength in lady be name avve Mayakka is conflicting situations whether mentioned purchased a site from the political or religious . The debates on mahajanas of Byadarahalali hamlet of women during Hoysalas period, their Goruru agrahara and got the tank zeal in the process of progression excavated named Machasamudra in which have been reflected in memory of her son at an expense of countless number of epigraphs 3500 gadyanas..Another record refers strewn all round the Hoysala empire to Senior queen of Veera Ballala II as is reflective of the contemporary ruling from Mahavajeya . progressive thoughts Padmala mahadevi is mentioned in some epigraphs as a great donor. ( conclusion- Our study thus has EC Vol VIII 206 Goruru attempted to probe in detail about (V Hn 164 8) p 7-428 211 EC role of women in initiating societal Malligevalu ( 1936 _2 ) p 430 112 Hiri changes which became incumbent kadaluru ( V Hn 84 )P 320 refelct on during the rule of Hoysalas. The the donations. inculcation of Bhakti movement and its application had far reaching The impact of bhakti movement on impact on society which showed signs women Women also came under the of universal acceptance to the preview of Bhakti.. Owing to this doctrines proposed by this movement. Movement they had the liberality of Women had their share also in this offering devotions. , Women were religious movement .So far a considered as equal to man in conservative society the Hoysala spiritual and social order , Brahman society witnessed an overdose of new men domination over women was set activities by women which portrayed aside as a taboo .The system simple living and high thinking which elevated women to high through a unique approach called ranking in society through donations. Their immediate readiness renunciation gained momentum. to dispense away with social

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International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] restrictions was the outcome of their willingness to do away with the male superiority which always came adjoined with male superseding..

Women were considered as equal to man in spiritual and social order ,

Brahman men domination over women was set aside as a taboo. The

Epigraphical evidences show that women enjoyed great religious equality & commanded high respect in society . Women also enjoyed political equality. Some of them joined hands with their husbands in administering the vast empire.

References :

1. Epigraphia Carnatica Vol. VIII 2. Mullatti L.-Social Development and the Status of Women New Delhi Shanti malik 1989

3. Dimensions of Bhakti

Movement in India (Ed) Dr H. M. Marulasiddaih Akhila Bharata Sharana Sahitya Parishad Mysore Karnataka 1998

4. Irfan Habib -Historical

Setting of Medieval Popular Monotheism in History and Society (Ed) Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya K.P.Bagchi Calcutta 1976

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New light on epigraphs from Pandavapura on Hoysala lineage

Abstract: This paper attempts to clarify some contrasting issues relating to dates of the accession of the Hoysala kings from epigraphs of Pandavapura region. There are several inscriptions in Pandavapura region belonging to the Hoysala dynasty which bear various historical anecdotes. There have been very significant historic facts hidden in these records. Dissimilar views’ regarding the ascendency of several kings of this dynasty has been a debated issue since times. Several contrasting issues relating to dates of the accession & other political points.

Key words; Epigraphs of Pandavapura, New light on Hoysala lineage, Ascendency factors, epigraphic evidences

Introduction : Pandavapura is a Hoysala valadeva is, in all likelihood, small taluk in Mandya district now. It Hoysala King Vinayaditya. was a part of the Hoysala kingdom. There are numerous epigraphs found Inscription from Sunkatondanur in this region. The Places like states that mahamandaleshwara Tonachi , Pandavapura, Hiri Kalale , Hoysaladeva was ruling the kingdom Chikka Kalale , Krishnaraja pete , from Dorasamudra. Hoysala King Nagaraghatta , Somanahalli , Vinayaditya himself had borne the Shambhu halli in this region hold titles Dwaravathipuravadheeshwara” several epigraphs which are found in meaning Lord of the Excellent City of temples precincts, Jain temples , open Dwaravati, by 1095-96 A. D. yards, etc In the Tonachi record also he is A record from Tonachi mentions referred to only as Tribhuvanamalla poysaladeva as the Mahamandaleshwara king. The date of the record is saka Tribhuvanamalla Poysaladeva. 954 A.D. Hoysala king Vinayaditya Historians have assigned that record was ruling in this year. Hence the to the reign of Hoysala King king mentioned in the record is Vinayaditya. Since the king is identified as Hoysala King referred to only has Vinayaditya. In another inscription Mahamandaleswara Poysaladeva in it is stated that Hoysaladeva who was the Tonachi record belonging to the ruling Ganga- mandala had titles like beginning of his reign- period, this mahamandalesvara, lord of the record may also be attributed to excellent city of Dvaravathi and a sun Hoysala King Vinayaditya. but the of the famous Yadava race . As primary question is , whether Vinayaditya was still ruling at Dorasamudra had already become the Hoysala capital by then, cannot www.ijar.org.in 62

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] be satisfactorily answered. It is not this record belongs to the reign – known on what grounds this period of Vishnuvardhana, it may be identification is made. One of the surmised that the former record also reasons to consider this Hoysaladeva was issued at the same time . if so, to be Vishnuvardhana seems to be this record would be the earliest that there is no reference to record of the Hoysala King Dorasamudra in the inscriptions of Vishnuvardhana in the present Vinayaditya. In another inscription volume. from KR pete. dated 1114-15 A,D., 1. Another record from the Hoysala king is referred to in this Pandavapura records the as Mahamandaleshwara Bitti Hoysala construction of a basadi and deva. registers the grant of the villages Manikadodalur and It is known from an inscription from for the same by the Hoysala Krishn raja Pete that Mahasamanta Mahapradhana. Punisamayya.. Machaya –nayaka was administering 2. Another inscription is engraved Maligeyuru during 1140 A.D. on a pillar in the Navaranga- However, in 1117 A.D. Balleya- mantapa of the of the Nayaka was administering probably goddess in the Lakshminarayana the same Maligyuru .If this meaning temple at Tonnuru. It refers to is applied, Balleya-nayaka would then refers to Hoysala king become a brother of Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana- pratapa- Vishnuvardhana. But Hoysala King Hoysaladeva and states that a, Vishnuvardhana had no brother by tantradhishtayaka, mahapasayita, that name. The term has also another heggade surigeya nagayya got meaning i. e., sister ’s husband. if this constructed navaranga- mantapa term is thus interpreted, Balleya- 3. A record from the same village, nayaka would be the husband of the dated 1175 A.D. from the period younger sister of Hoysala queen of Ballala II, refers to the Shantale . An officer named Chinna is remission of Pannaya a tax by said to be administering a small Nayaka- heggade of probably division. referring to the Surigeya nagayya. A recorded from Hirikalale, so un 4. Another record which is undated, published. The lower portion of the records Mahapradhana, stone bearing this record is the Srikaranada Heggade Naganna damaged.. In this record it is stated got constructed the Mantapa. The therein that Chinna was first record belongs to the reign- administering mankike -12. On the periods is identical, it may be southern face of the same stone there surmised that he probably is another record of 1113 A.D. since assumed office during the last

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years of Hoysala king Vishunuvardhana the conqueror Vishnuvardhana’s rule and of Nangali. continued in office even during 9. The Nagaraghatta record states the reign- period of Hoysala king that Hoysala king Ballala II Vishunuvardhana was residing at 5. Another record from Hosakote is . a worn out record registering a 10. . However, it is known that grant to Shivayogi Vishnuvardhana conquered Bhatta by Hoysala king Bankapura in c 1136 A.D. Even Vishnuvardhana Poysaladeva, his there after he used to reside at mother Tuluvaladevi and his elder Bankapura now and then. brother Nripa – bhupa . 11. The record also refers to his 6. A record from Soma bhuvanahalli capturing Viratapura since this also belongs to the reign –period conquest took place in of Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana 1141A.D.The record might have Hoysaladeva. Though there is a come in to existence after 1141 reference to the grant of a village A.D to god Tuvvaleshwara god 12. Another inscription refers to a consecrated by his mother grant made to Veera Kongalva (Thammavve )Madala –mahadevi deva by Chanvaladevi, the in that record, it is clear has to piriyarasi Hoysala king whom the term Tammavve Vishunuvardhna along with her applies. The record is slightly younger brother Dudda worm out in the middle . Malladeva. Yadavapura his mentioned in this 13. The gift village Kavanahalli was record. situated within the Mandagere- 7. However . in the Hosakote record srite. an administrative unit Tuluvaladevi his described has under Hoysalas. It is stated that the mother of Hoysala king the queen had received Vishunuvardhana. As is well Mandagere as a dowry (baluvali) known Hoysala king from her father Prithviya- Vishunuvardhna and his brothers Kongalvadeva. Parbhacarbar- were the sons of Echaladevi. Then siddhantadeva. the recipient of .what was the relation between the gift was the disciple of Tuluvaladevi and Hoysala king Meghachandra Traividyadeva Vishunuvardhana ?could it be belonging to Mula-sangha. Desiga- that she was another wife of gana and Pustaka –gachchha Ereyanga? 14. In the transliterated portion of 8. One record registers a grant of the text there in the name of the land to god Karideva of Tolanche queen which has been read as by Hoysala king Chantaladevi. The preceptor of

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this queen .was also the preceptor perumal at the sarvanamasyad- of Shantaladevi probably this is Agrahara. the reason for Dr. Shamashastri Conclusion: Thus There are several to indentify Chandaladevi as inscriptions in Pandavapura region Hoysala Queen Shantaladevi. belonging to the Hoysala dynasty 15. Another epigraph is engraved on which bear various historical the basement stone of the anecdotes. There have been very Janardhana temple at belagola. significant historic facts hidden in 16. Dr M. H. Krishna has discussed in these records. Dissimilar views’ detail the importance of this regarding the ascendency of several record published in the Annual kings of this dynasty has been a report for the year 1944. He has debated issue since times which find equated the cyclic year and other supportive evidence in these details of date given there in with epigraphs . Several contrasting issues 1098 A.D, November 22 relating to dates of the accession & 17. The record does not mention the other political affairs are dealt in saka year. There are find these records. variations in readings of texts published by us and the given by References : Dr Krishna. Dr. Krishna says that 1. Annual Report of the the record registers a grant of Archaeological department 2009 land by the Mahajanas including 2. Epigraphia Carnatica Vol. VI Laviyanna. tirunarayanap – 3. Epigraphia Carnatica Vol. VIII puramal.chrulaviymma and Hassan district pommiyanna,of kongu konda – 4. Mullatti L.-Social Development shri vishnuvardhana – posaladeva and the Status of Women New chaturvebimangala to gods Rama Delhi Shanti malik 1989 and got consecrated by Udubhava – sarvvajnadevap- 5. Dr H. M. Marulasiddaih (ed) perumal at the sarvalamamasyad Dimensions of Bhakti Movement – agrahara nasi. in India (Ed) Akhila Bharata 18. According to the text, the aseha- Sharana Sahitya Parishad Mysore mahajanas. including valai-annan Karnataka 1998 Thirunarayanpa perumal. siruvalai-annan and pommionna. 6. Irfan Habib -Historical Setting of valaikulam alias kongungukonda- Medieval Popular Monotheism in Vishnuvardhana –posaladeva – History and Society (Ed) chturvedimangala to gods Rama Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya and lkshmana got consecrated by K.P.Bagchi Calcutta 1976 ududhava-sarvvajnadevat –

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The archeological importance of Hosaholalu during Hoysala Period Abstract: The Hosaholalu is a tiny place in Krishnarajapete taluk which is famous for Temples & Jain basadis. There are several epigraphs found in this region which points to the promotion of this place as a sacred region. The epigraphs of this region are significant as they betray the status of women , progression of Jain religion in this region, the educational importance of the region as an Agrahara. The epigraphs of the place refer to the rule of Poysaladeva over Gangavadi 96000 , spread to Jainism , construction of a Trikuta Jinalaya , disciples of Jain pontiff Vijayakeertideva , beautiful Jain sculptures consecrated , Consecration of Vaishanva Idols , etc.

Key words: Epigraphs found, Reference to Hoysala kings, Jain religion , Agrahara

Introduction: An Inscription on the Southern part of Parshwanatha Basadi. An The epigraphs of this region are Inscription on the peetham of significant as they betray the status Padmavathi image of same Basadi. of women, progression of Jain religion An Inscription on the wall of same in this region, the educational Basadi. A Hero stone in a nearby importance of the region as an coconut garden. A Hero stone on the Agrahara reference to rule of door way in same garden. A Hero Poysaladeva over Gangavadi 96000 stone near Basavanna image near the reference to the construction of a tank. An Inscription on the staircase Trikuta Jinalaya at Kattarighatta of Sri Lakshmi Narayana temple reference to disciples of Jain pontiff Vijayakeertideva reference to Eight records are reported from this beautiful sculptures consecrated place which has two Jain records of reference to Vaishanva temple built the Hoysala Vishnuvardhana regime reference to spread to Jainism is at the neighbouring village Kattrighatta. These records refer to Donations by Demikabbe: Inscription the construction of a Trikuta Jinalaya on the staircase of Sri Lakshmi at Kattarighatta caused by Narayana temple epigraph refers to Demambika Setti kavve, the wife of the rule of Poysaladeva over Nambi Setty. Moreover, the temple Gangavadi 96000 and records the was handed over to a teacher construction of a Trikuta jinalaya in Shubhachandra Siddhantadeva with Kattarighatta by Demikabbe wife of some grants. Nolambisetti or chavundadi the Pattanaswami of Dorasamudra.

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The Parshwanatha temple at the deity in the southern Hosaholalu - The Parshwanatha of the navaranga of this temple. He temple at Hosaholalu is a recent says that the Venugopala sculpture structure. A record of about 13th originally installed here was shifted century, on the pedestal of a and installed in the Kannambadi Padmavathi sculpture, states that the temple during the reign of Narasaraja sculpture was installed by the disciple Odeya. Now it is submerged in of a Vijayakeertideva. Kannambadi river waters. Old pillars have been used to construct a The Lakshminarayana temple spacious sabhamantapa and a The Lakshminarayana temple is a mukhamantapa in front of the fine example for the artistic beauty of navaranga in about 16thcentury. A . The temple is record dated 1532 A.D. on a pillar in proportionate in measurement and the Gopalakrishna temple. The outstanding in its exemplary present sculpture of the deity combination of decorated sculptures Gopalakrishna in the southern with minute carving and gives the garbhagriha was installed in 1953 onlooker a memorable pleasure. The A.D. The main garbhagriha has an temple stands facing east on a six feet attractive Dravidian and a high platform with six pattikas and Sukhanasi. The shikhara is attractive poly angled ground plan. It has three with minutely carved sculptures. and the main There are beautiful sculptures of garbhagriha only has antarala. A Ganapati and Mahishamardini in the common navaranga at the centre has devakosthas of the navaranga. The unified these garbhagrihas. The mammoth lathe turned pillars doorframe of the main garbhagriha holding the navaranga, glitter with has attractive five band decorations. some beautiful small madanika The garbhagriha houses some festive sculptures on the bodiges. sculptures as well as a grand sculpture of Nambi-Narayana holding The ceiling has lotus decorations as Padma, Gada, Shankha and Chakra well as enchanting carvings of in his arms flanked by Sridevi Krishna, killing the Kalinga. Bhudevi. The garbhagriha in the On one of the bodiges of a pillar, a northern side houses a tall sculpture of a monkey sitting in a Lakshminarayana sculpture. majestic posture drinking tender coconut is referred as ‘Hebbettu Epigraphia Carnatica Volume VII Anjaneya’. This seems to be a krishnaraja Pete mentions these narration opposite to the meaning of epigraphs as well as Hayavadanarao a prevailing proverb that says, “Does in his Mysore Gazetteer has given a monkey know the value of a tender some important information about coconut”. There are some indications

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International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] of kakshasanas in the Navaranga. has to prostrate even before donkey”. Some Vahanas or vehicles used Similarly behind the kakshasana to during festivals are housed in this the left of the temple are beautiful mantapa. The exterior artistic dashavatara sculptures of Vishnu and sculptural wealth of the temple some couples. surpasses the interior decorative The temple resembles the carvings of the temple. The beauty of architectural beauty of Belur- sculptures on the Platform, Walls, Halebeedu temples. The restructured and sukhanasis create a Parshwanatha temple on the road to new world of marvel to the tourist. the fort’s main entrance is to the left The Platform of the temple is of the Lakshminaraya temple. It has decorated with Pattikas of Elephants, a garbhagriha, an open antarala, a Horses, Creepers, Puranic tales, navaranga and an open Crocodiles and Swans. mukhamantapa. The temple is facing east and the garbhagriha houses To increase the height of the temple, sculptures of Parshwanatha, the walls are constructed in two Ananthanatha and Padmavathi phases. The lower phase has Yakshi as well as Dharanendra- sculptures of Chaluvanarayana, Padmavathi sculptures in the Brahma, Vishnu, Lakshminarayana, navaranga, said to have been brought Keshava, Chaturvimshati Vishnu, from the Bellibetta. Near to this is a Paravasudeva, Yoga Narasimha, damaged tall beautiful sculpture of Lakshminarasimha, , Rama- Lakshmana, Harihara, , The three hero stone in front of Bhairavi, , Adishakti, the Lingabasaveshwara temple in the Govardhanadhari Krishna, Kalinga outskirts of the village has makara mardana, Lakshmi, Natya torana decorations. The arms of the Saraswathi, and other carvings of soldier are decorated with significant many more deities. The panel above armband ornaments. The scene of a this has small but decorated single- hero attaining the abode of is double Pillars, shikharas and small excellently carved. The Pontiff devakoshtas as well as some small Vadiraja is considered to have sculptures. installed the six feet tall Hanumantha sculpture in the local Here there are carvings on Pattikas Anjaneya temple. There is a 30 feet depicting the tales from tall Garuda pillar in front of it. There Mahabharatha, and is a village called Hariharapura Bhagavatha. The scene of ‘Vasudeva nearing to this Hosaholalu. standing in front of a donkey with Originally, it was located two km folded hands’ probably refers to the away from the present location and proverb “ To get one’s work done, one was an Agrahara during the Hoysala

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International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] period. A record refers to it as Chattopadhyaya K.P.Bagchi Calcutta ‘Sarvanamasyada Srimad 1976 Dharmabhoja Vishnuvardhana Hariharapura. Based on this the Chopra P.N., Ravindran T.K., antiquity of the place can be assigned Subrahmanian N. (2003), History of to Vishnuvardhanas’ reign. South India (Ancient, Medieval and Modern), Part 1, Chand publications, Conclusion: Thus The epigraphs New Delhi found in the temple are very important as they depict the status of Shakuntala Prakash Chavan, women the temple architectural ‘Jainism in Southern Karnataka up designs the carvings & the to AD 1565 -2005, D.K. Print world consecration of the idols. The place Nilakanta Sastri K.A. (2002) A gained importance as it was an History of South India from Agrahara during the Hoysala period. prehistoric times to the fall of Even though there are several Vijayanagar. New Delhi: Indian theories of the main deity being Branch, Oxford University Press shifted the temple has several special exquisiteness about it. Efforts to Kalghatgi, Dr.T.G. Gommateshvara make this place a tourist attraction Commemoration Volume: Ed. can be more fruitful. The Temple & (S.D.J.M.I. Managing Committee the Basadi hold historical value as Sravanabelagula, 1981 any other temples precinct of Hoysala Singh Ram Bhushan Prasad, - regime. ‘Jainism in Early Medieval References: Karnataka, A.D. 500-1200’ -1975, Mullatti L.-Social Development and Motilal Banarsidas. Delhi the Status of Women New Delhi Kamath Suryanath U, -A Concise Shanti malik 1989 history of Karnataka from pre- Dimensions of Bhakti Movement in historic times to the present, Jupiter India (Ed) Dr H. M. Marulasiddaih books, 2001, MCC, Bangalore Akhila Bharata Sharana Sahitya Parishad Mysore Karnataka 1998 Natubhai Shah, (1998). Jainism: The World of Conquerors. Volume I and Irfan Habib -Historical Setting of II. Sussex: Sussex Academy 2002 Medieval Popular Monotheism in History and Society (Ed) Debiprasad

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Role of forts in 18th century warfare-Reflections on the new archaeological Discoveries in Dindigul fort Abstract: This paper focuses on the new archeological discoveries in Dindigul fort which was one of the key forts in the 18th century. The fort of Dindigul played an important role in 18th century warfare. It is a welcome sign that such a key monument is being renovated by the Archeological survey of India (ASI) and the new researches have thrown light on the techniques of warfare and the engineering skills followed by then. The fort was always an important to modus operand of medieval warfare. The structural designs, the cellar, the big thick walls, the canopies, the inclines, the interior drawers, the ventilations, etc all had superior engineering technology which boosted the warfare skills.

Abstract: , Mysore, kingdoms Discovered artifacts-There is an Introduction abandoned temple on its peak apart The Dindigul Fort is a 17th-century from few cannons. Today the fort is hill fort situated in the town maintained by the Archaeological of Dindigul in the state of present Survey of India . Approaching in India. The fort was from Madurai the huge rock emerges built by the Madurai Nayakkings in on the horizon like a "Dhindu" hence 1605A.D. and was later passed on to the city's name, Dindigul. Wodeyars in the Amidst paddy fields and early 18th century. Later it became coconut groves, it stands out like a an important fort during Hyder welcome symbol, one kilometer short Ali and reign of Mysore. of the city centre. Under the Mysore In 1799A.D. it came to the reign in the 18th century, this fort supervision of the British East India marked the border between the Company . The British army stayed Madurai and Mysore kingdoms. at Dindigul fort from 1798 to 1859. Today the fort is an important After that Madurai was made head landmark of Dindigul town and a quarters of the British army and tourist center. Dindigul was attached to it as a taluk, The historicity of the region The in 1866, 11th November Dindigul history of the fort has The Madurai became a Municipality. The city got Nayaka king Muthu Krishnappa its railway station in 1875 when rail Naicker started building the rock fort line for Trichy to Tuticorin was in 1605, and completed it in 1655 constructed. Dindigul given to British during the reign of Thirumalai in 1792 was under the rule of the Nayaka. A temple was later built on British. Until we got our the tip of the rock. Rani Mangammal, Independence on 15th August 1947. during her regime, carved out 600 steps in the rock fort to reach a www.ijar.org.in 70

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected] hill temple. During stationed here. The construction the Muslim invasions the Idol was highlights the ingenuity of Indian relocated to the present kings in their military Abiramiamman temple in architecture. Dindigul Bazaar. , after 8. The fort also has its own taking over the Mysore throne in rainwater reservoirs constructed 1755, made several additions and by taking advantage of the steep repairs. The fort played an important gradient & incline. This is a role in their campaigns. unique feature of this fort. The construction details 9. The fort took 54 years to build. It was strategically important in several military operations from 1. The rock fort is 900 feet high and the Nayak dynasty till Tipu its circumference is around Sultan. The fort is known to have 2.75 km. played a prominent role during 2. Cannon and gunfire artillery mad the battles between the Madurai e its entry during the 17th Nayaks and century; hence the fort has double Mysore, Marathas armies, later walls to withstand heavy artillery. between Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan 3. Cannons were installed at vantage and British armies. There were points around the fort (still there) many strategies planned to take with an arms and hold of this strategic fort. ammunition godown built with 10. Hyder Ali's family lived here in modern safety measures. 1755 along with his wife and then 4. The double-walled room was fully five-year-old son Tipu. This was a protected against external threat breeding ground for Tipu as he and was well ventilated. learnt many skills of warfare here. 5. A thin brick wall in one corner of Later Haider Ali became the the godown helped guards escape Maharaja of Mysore. In 1765 in case of emergency. Haider Ali went back to Mysore. 6. The sloping ceiling of the godown In 1777 he appointed Purshana prevented seepage of rainwater. It Mirsaheb as governor of Dindigul. has 48 rooms that were once used He strengthened the fort and as cells to lodge war prisoners and made few changes. One among slaves, a spacious kitchen, a horse them is the construction of stable and a meeting hall of the present gate and he ordered to army commanders of Hyder Ali close the East Gate. Hyder Ali had and Tipu Sultan. also constructed a mosque 7. All the vital decisions regarding beneath the fort for his soldiers. warfare were taken here. There This was an additional were long deliberations regarding construction by Hyder ali .His security of arms &ammunitions www.ijar.org.in 71

International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected]

wife Ameer-um-Nisha-Begam died below the surface for quick discharge during delivery. and collection of sewage at the 11. From 1784 to 1790, the fort was bottom of the fort. under the rule of Tipu Sultan. His 3. Officials of the ASI reported chief Commandant, Syed Ibrahim, that the iron balls were meant for under whose care the fort was canons installed at vantage points entrusted, constructed several around the fort. They were very additional rooms, fortified the heavy which display the engineering walls and repaired many parts. He techniques of that period. ordered to brought docon the 4. Another finding was an arms statues of padmagirinathar & and ammunition godown built with Abiramiambigai from the hill all modern safety measures. It was temples to the Kalahastheeswara built to secure 100%safety for all Swamy temple. kinds of things stored here. 12. In 1783 British army, lead by 5. The double-walled room was captain long Dindigul. In 1784 fully protected against external after an agreement between the threat and well ventilated. This was Mysore province and British because this was a strategic point in army. Dindigul was restored by this fort. Mysore province. In 1788 6. A thin brick wall in one corner Thippusultan, Son of Haider Ali of the godown helped guards escape was crowned as King of Dindigul. in case of emergency. This was a 13. After Tipu Sultan was defeated in make shift door for emergency exits. the II Mysore War in 1790, the 7. The sloping ceiling of the British took control of the fort. It godown prevented seepage of became the central point of all rainwater. This was a very their company activities hence farsighted construction technique after because the fort always housed arms &ammunitions. To prevent them Recent researches in Dindigul fort from being becoming wet was conceived as a major design of this 1. The Archaeological Survey of fort. India has unearthed in the Rock Fort here 33 iron balls used for Renovating a heritage- the work of cannons and a 200-kg iron ball used ASI: for tying the legs of war prisoners and slaves. 1. A strong workforce a 150- 2. The ASI in Pudukottai member workforce was engaged districtfound the iron balls, during in the excavation work renovation, in one of the seven 2. The team was renovating 48 canals, which were formed 14 feet rooms used as cells to lodge war

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International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-7(2), July, 2016 Impact Factor: 3.656; Email: [email protected]

prisoners and slaves, a spacious modus operand of medieval warfare. kitchen, a horse stable and a The structural designs, the cellar, the meeting hall of the army big thick walls, the canopies, the commanders of Hyder Ali and inclines, the interior drawers, the Tipu Sultan. ventilations, etc all had superior 3. Desalting of five tanks in the fort engineering technology which boosted was also taken up. Damaged the warfare skills. ceilings and inner and outer walls of the buildings were being References renovated with a paste made of 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D limestone, cement and sand to indigul_Fort maintain traditional appearance. 2. http://www.dindigul.tn.nic.in/t 4. A grill gate was fixed in each ourism/tourism_dindigul.html room. 3. http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd 5. Electric wiring was undertaken _tn_dindigul.asp to give a facelift to the rock fort. 4. http://www.goroadtrip.com/ex 6. Barbed wire fence was being plore/destinations/dindigul- provided around the rock fort fort-1001 campus. 5. https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/ 7. The ASI appealed to the Dindigul Collector to remove 6. http://wikitravel.org/en/Dindig encroachments around the fort ul_district to keep the surroundings clean. 7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D 8. The height of the Rock Fort is indigul_Fort 900 feet and the circumference of 8. http://www.dindigul.tn.nic.in/t the rock is around 2.75 km with ourism/tourism_dindigul.html fine steps for ascending. Rani 9. http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd Mangammal, during her regime, _tn_dindigul.asp carved out 600 steps in the rock 10. http://www.goroadtrip.com/ex fort to reach a hill temple plore/destinations/dindigul- fort-1001 Conclusion 11. https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/ Thus the fort of Dindigul played an Dindigul important role in 18th century 12. http://wikitravel.org/en/Dindig warfare. It is a welcome sign that ul_district such a key monument is being renovated by the ASI and the new researches have thrown light on the techniques of warfare and the engineering skills followed by then. The fort was always an important to

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Dr.T.V.Ramana, Andhra University Campus, Kakinada, 533005, Andhra Pradesh, India, 46-8-10/4 Opp. Aditya School, Jagannaikpur, Kakinada-2, AP, India 1. Manuscript must be on a standard A4 size paper setting and less than 12 pages prepared on 1.5 spaces and typed in 12 point Times New Roman Font. 2. Author Name(S) & Affiliations: The author (s) full name, designation, affiliation (s), address, mobile/landline numbers, and email/ address should be underneath the title. 3. Abstract: Abstract should be in fully italicized text, not exceeding 300 words. The abstract must be informative and present overall idea (explain background, aims, methods, results and conclusion) of the paper. 4. Keywords: Abstract must be followed by list of keywords, subject to the maximum of five. These should be arranged in alphabetic order 5. Introduction : A short introduction of the research problem followed by a brief review of literature and objectives of the research 6. Objectives and Methodology: Describe the materials used in the experiments and methods used for data collection, statistical tools used in data collection 7. Results/findings and discussion: This segment should focus on the fulfillment of stated objectives as given in the introduction. It should be contain the findings presented in the form of tables, figures and photographs. 8. Conclusion: Analysis conclude with suitable and effective suggestions (if any)

9. Style of Referencing: The list of all references should be alphabetically arranged. It must be at the end of the manuscript. The author (s) should mention only the actually utilized references in the preparation of manuscript and they are supposed to follow Harvard Style of Referencing. The author (s) is supposed to follow the references as per following: Books: Sundara Rao M., (1996), "Tribal Development." Tata McGraw, Hill, New Delhi, page. 250 Contributions to books: Ramana T.V (2008) ,” Education- A multi-Dimensional weapon for all-round Development: Edited by D.Pulla Rao, Development of Education-Emerging Dimensions in 21st Century, Chapter 13, pp.190-202. Journal and other articles: Schemenner, R.W., Huber, J.C. and Cook, R.L. (1987), "Geographic Differences and the Location of New Manufacturing Facilities," Journal of Urban Economics, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 83- 104. Conference papers: Chandel K.S. (2009): "Ethics in Commerce Education." Paper presented at the Annual International Conference for the All India Management Association, New Delhi, India, 19–22 June. Unpublished dissertations and theses: Kumar S. (2006): "Customer Value: A Comparative Study of Rural and Urban Customers," Thesis, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra. Online sources: Always indicate the date that the source was accessed, as online resources are frequently updated or removed. Website: Kelkar V. (2009): Towards a New Natural Gas Policy, Economic and Political Weekly,refered on February 17, 2011 http://epw.in/epw/user/viewabstract.jsp

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