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Stable Carbon Isotopic Assessment of Prehistoric Diets in the South-Western Cape, South Africa

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Stable Carbon Isotopic Assessment of Prehistoric Diets in the South-Western Cape, South Africa STABLE CARBON ISOTOPIC ASSESSMENT OF PREHISTORIC DIETS IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN CAPE, SOUTH AFRICA Thesis presented to the Department of Archaeology University of Cape Town in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science University of Cape Town by J.C. Sealy March 1984 The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgement of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Published by the University of Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University of Cape Town ( i) ABSTRACT This thesis consists of a stable carbon isotopic assessment of the diets of the Holocene human inhabitants of the south­ western Cape, South Africa. Samples of the foods these people ate were collected from each of the four major physiographic zones in the area, and their 13 C/ 12C ratios measured. A total of more than 200 such analyses enabled the estimation of the average 613 C values of prehistoric human diets in each zone. This information is used to interpret o13 C measurements on a series of archaeological human skeletons. The results are consistent with a model of prehistoric subsistence behaviour in which people living at the coast made intensive use of marine food resources throughout the Holocene, consuming such a large proportion of these foods that they must have spent much, if not all of their time at the coast. Inland skeletons reflect an almost entirely terrestrial diet. These results contradict hypotheses about seasonal population movements between the coast and the interior generated from excavated archaeological material. Considerable changes in many of our current views of the Late Stone Age of the south-western Cape will have to be made in order to accommodate these data. (ii) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A large number of people have contributed to this project. It would have been impossible to complete without the help of all the farmers who kindly allowed me access to their farms, people who donated samples, botanists and zoologists who helped me identify them and interpret the results of the analyses. Mr van Zyl of Boontjieskloof, Mr Lubbe of De Hangen, Mr Ferreira of Andriesgrond, the Nieuwoudt brothers of Fairview and Langkuil, near Doringbos, Mr du Plessis of De Tuin and Dekker Staedtler of Droegrond allowed me to collect samples on their farms, and went to some trouble to point out plants that they knew to be edible. These were identified by the staff of the Bolus Herbariurn at the University of Cape Town, where I am especially grateful to Anne Bean and Mary Fenton, and the Compton Herbariurn at Kirstenbosch. Bruce Bayer and Pauline Ferry of the Karoo Botanic Gardens, Worcester, identified many of the Karoo plants which were pointed out in the field by Klaas Mouton. The Director of the Kirstenbosch Botanic Gardens generously gave permission for me to collect plant samples there, and the Education Officer, Christien Malan, gave me a great deal of useful information about the edible plants of the south-western Cape. Fiona Archer donated a number of samples of plants she had collected in Namaqualand. Much of the fieldwork was done with Wendy Metelerkamp, who also identified a number of plants and did a lot of the hard work involved in digging them up. Her company on field trips did a great deal to make this part of the project as enjoyable as it was. Animal samples came from the South African Museum, where (iii) Louis Swartz and Anne Solomon collected them for me with the kind permission of Brett Hendey. A number of samples were donated by Mr Botha of the Oude Pos Nature Reserve at Churchhaven, while others came from Nature Conservation at Vredenburg and De Hoop Nature Reserve. Fiona Kotze provided all the animals from Hopefield, going to considerable trouble to get them to me in Cape Town. One of the seal samples came from Jeremy David of Sea Fisheries, while most of the marine birds were collected on beach surveys organised by Graham Avery of the South African Museum. Some were obtained from the Percy FitzPatrick Institute for African Ornithology by Richard Brooke. The staff of the nature conservation station at Jonkershoek were unfailingly friendly and helpful : Richard Boycott and Atherton de Villiers gave me several tortoises, as well as a great deal of information about their diet and habits. Dr Hamman donated fresh- water fish from the Hex River. The staff and students of the U.C.T. Archaeology Department collected a number of specimens for me in the course of various field trips. Royden Yates, Jim Jobling and, particularly, Nigel Jarman collected marine algae and other organisms. Samples of human skeletons were obtained from John Parkington, the Anatomy Department at U.C.T. (with the kind help of Alan Morris) and the South African Museum. John Parkington, Tim Robey, Tony Manhire, Bill Buchanan, Julie Lee Thorp and Cedric Poggenpoel of the Department of Archaeology, U.C.T., have allowed me to use their unpublished research results. George Branch, Charlie Griffiths and Jenny Jarvis of the Department of Zoology, U.C.T. and John Grindley of the School of Environmental Studies answered a number of zoological questions as did John Greig of African Wildlife and Dr Bill Branch of the Port Elizabeth Museum. Professors Dowdle and Gevers of the Departments of Clinical (iv) Science and Medical Biochemistry at U.C.T. provided much of the information on protein metabolism. Financial support was received from the Oppenheimer Institute for African Studies at U.C.T., the H.S.R.C.-funded Spatial Archaeology Research Unit and the C.S.I.R. The actual laboratory analyses were greatly facilitated by John Lanham. His technical expertise made the isotopic analyses far less tedious than they would otherwise have been. I am grateful to Cedric Poggenpoel for drawing all the maps, and Figure 2, while Jan Seemann drew Figure 1. Drafts of this thesis, or parts thereof, have been read and commented on by John Parkington, Martin Hall, Christien Malan and Nick van der Merwe. Nick van der Merwe has supervised this thesis, participated in the fieldwork and helped and advised me during difficult patches. I am grateful to him for his unfailing encouragement and support. J.C. SEALY March 1984 (v) TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No. Abstract ( i) Acknowledgements (ii) Table of Contents (v) List of Tables (vii) List of Maps and Figures (ix) CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 2 : THE SOUTH-WESTERN CAPE 7 CHAPTER 3 ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH INTO THE LATER STONE AGE OF THE SOUTH-WESTERN CAPE 19 CHAPTER 4 INDIGENOUS FOODS 35 CHAPTER 5 : ISOTOPIC ECOLOGY 61 CHAPTER 6 : FIELD SAMPLING AND LABORATORY ANALYSIS OF THE PREHISTORIC HUMAN FOOD-WEB 84 l. The Field Sampling Programme 85 1.1 Plants 85 1.1.1 Field Stations 85 1.1. 2 Cultivated Watsonia Colony 86 1.1. 3 Excursions with Ethnographic Informants 87 1.1. 4 Donations 87 1. 2 Animals 88 1. 3 Marine Specimens 88 2. Laboratory Procedure 89 2.1 Sample Preparation 89 2.2 Gas Production and Purification 90 2.3 Measurement on the Mass Spectrometer 93 (vi) Page No. 3. Results 93 3.1 Terrestrial Animals 93 3.2 Terrestrial Plants 111 3.2.1 Variability in the o13 C Values of Terrestrial Plants 112 3.3 The Marine Foodweb 116 3.3.1 Primary Producers - Algae 117 3.3.2 Marine Fauna 124 4. Extrapolation Back into the Past 126 5. Summary 129 CHAPTER 7 ISOTOPIC ANALYSES OF PREHISTORIC HUMAN SKELETONS 131 CHAPTER 8 : IMPLICATIONS OF SKELETAL ANALYSES FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN THE SOUTH- WESTERN CAPE 142 Conclusions 153 Tables 155 References 190 {vii) LIST OF TABLES Table No. Page No. I Manunal remains from archaeological sites in the south-western Cape 156 II Bird remains from archaeological sites in the south-western Cape 158 III Fish remains from archaeological sites in the south-western Cape 159 IV Shellfish remains from archaeological sites in the south-western Cape 160 V Edible plant remains from archaeological sites in the south-western Cape 161 VI Edible plants of the south-western Cape 162 VII Anatomical differences between plants with different sub-types of c~ photosynthesis 171 VIII o13 c values of collagen from animals in the south-western Cape 172 IX o13 C spacing between different tissues of the same animal 174 X o13 C values of meat from animals with C3 -based diets in the south-western Cape 175 XI Change in o13 C values of animal tissues with trophic level 176 XII o13C values of the edible parts of plants 177 XIII o13 C values of marine organisms {all meat) 178 XIV o13C values of marine algae 179 xv o13 C values values of marine algae from deep and shallow water at Hout Bay, Cape Peninsula 183 (viii) Table No. Page No. XVI Physiological measurements on Great Barrier Reef seaweeds 184 XVII 8 13 C values of marine organisms at different trophic levels 185 XVIII 8 13 C values of miscellaneous indigenous foods from the south­ western Cape 186 XIX 8 13 C values of archaeological animals from Eland's Bay Cave 187 xx o13 c values of dated west coast archaeological human skeletons 188 XXI Months in which juvenile dassies from De Hangen were killed 189 (ix) LIST OF MAPS Map No. I Research Area in South Africa II Research Area III Vegetation Types (after Acocks, 1953) IV Archaeological Sites V Plant & Animal Samples VI C3/C4 Zones (after Vogel et al., 1978) VII Human Skeletons LIST OF FIGURES Figure No.
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