Reconstructing and Deconstructing the Self: Cognitive Mechanisms in Meditation Practice

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Reconstructing and deconstructing the

self: cognitive mechanisms in

meditation practice

1,2 1,2,3,4 1,2,5

Cortland J. Dahl , Antoine Lutz , and Richard J. Davidson

Center for Investigating Healthy Minds, University of Wisconsin-Madison, WI 53705-2280, USA

Waisman Laboratory for Brain Imaging and Behavior, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI

53705-2280, USA

Lyon Neuroscience Research Center, INSERM U1028, CNRS UMR5292, Lyon, France

Lyon 1 University, Lyon, France

Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, WI 53705-2280, USA

Scientiﬁc research highlights the central role of speciﬁc Glossary

psychological processes, in particular those related to the

Attentional family: a class of meditation practices that strengthen the self-

self, in various forms of human suffering and ﬂourishing.

regulation of various attentional processes, especially the ability to initiate and

This view is shared by Buddhism and other contemplative sustain meta-awareness. Some forms of meditation in this family involve a

narrowing of attentional scope, while others involve releasing attentional

and humanistic traditions, which have developed medi-

control and bringing awareness to whatever enters the field of consciousness.

tation practices to regulate these processes. Building on a

Cognitive reification: the experience of thoughts, emotions, and perceptions as

previous paper in this journal, we propose a novel classi- being accurate depictions of reality and, in particular, the implicit belief that the

self and objects of consciousness are inherently enduring, unitary, and

ﬁcation system that categorizes speciﬁc styles of medita-

independent of their surrounding conditions and circumstances. In the Buddhist

tion into attentional, constructive, and deconstructive

tradition, cognitive reification is a primary target in deconstructive styles of

families based on their primary cognitive mechanisms. meditation.

Constructive family: a family of meditation practices that allow one to cultivate,

We suggest that meta-awareness, perspective taking and

nurture, or strengthen cognitive and affective patterns that foster well-being.

cognitive reappraisal, and self-inquiry may be important Practices in this family may aim to promote healthy interpersonal dynamics, to

mechanisms in speciﬁc families of meditation and that strengthen a commitment to ethical values, or to nurture habits of perception

that lead to enhanced well-being. Perspective taking and cognitive reappraisal

alterations in these processes may be used to target

are important mechanisms in this style of meditation.

states of experiential fusion, maladaptive self-schema, Deconstructive family: a family of meditation practices that uses self-inquiry to

foster insight into the processes of perception, emotion, and cognition.

and cognitive reiﬁcation.

Deconstructive meditation practices may be oriented toward the objects of

consciousness or toward consciousness itself.

Cognitive mechanisms of meditation practice

Experiential fusion: an automatic process whereby one becomes absorbed in

Well-being is a complex phenomenon that is related to a the contents of consciousness, leading to a diminished capacity to monitor

and/or regulate psychological processes. In attentional styles of meditation,

variety of factors, including cultural differences, socioeco-

this process is systematically undermined through the cultivation of meta-

nomic status, health, the quality of interpersonal relations, awareness and the regulation of attention. Experiential fusion is also indirectly

and speciﬁc psychological processes [1,2]. While mindful- undermined in the constructive and deconstructive families.

Insight: a shift in consciousness that is often sudden and involves a feeling of

ness (see Glossary), compassion, and other forms of medi-

knowing, understanding, or perceiving something that had previously eluded

tation are increasingly being studied as interventions to one’s grasp. In deconstructive meditation practices, insight is often elicited

through self-inquiry and pertains to specific self-related psychological processes

alleviate suffering and promote well-being [3–10], it is not

that inform well-being.

yet clear how different styles of meditation affect speciﬁc

Meta-awareness: heightened awareness of the processes of consciousness,

cognitive processes, or how alterations in these processes including the processes of thinking, feeling, and perceiving. Along with the

regulation of the scope and stability of attention, the cultivation of meta-

might impact levels of well-being. Here, we address this

awareness is an important objective in attentional styles of meditation practice. It

question from the perspective of psychology and cognitive

is also strengthened indirectly in the constructive and deconstructive families.

neuroscience to better understand how changes in well- Mindfulness: a term that is defined differently in Buddhist and contemporary

contexts, but which often refers to a self-regulated attentional stance oriented

being are mediated by alterations in distinct cognitive

toward present-moment experience that is characterized by curiosity, openness,

processes and in the structure and functioning of corre-

and acceptance. In some traditional Buddhist contexts, mindfulness is equivalent

sponding brain networks. to the psychological process that we refer to here as meta-awareness.

Perspective taking: the process of considering how one or another would think

In a previous article in this journal, we proposed a

or feel in a particular situation.

preliminary framework to discuss commonly practiced

Reappraisal: the process of changing how one thinks or feels about situations

and events in such a way that one’s response to them is altered.

Self-inquiry: the investigation of the dynamics and nature of conscious

Corresponding author: Davidson, R.J. ([email protected]). experience, particularly in relation to thoughts, feelings, and perceptions that

Keywords: meditation; mindfulness; meta-awareness; experiential fusion; insight; pertain to one’s sense of self. Self-inquiry may be an important mechanism in

self-inquiry. deconstructive meditations due to its role in facilitating insight.

Self-schema: mental representations of the self that synthesize information

1364-6613/

from sensory, affective and/or cognitive domains. Constructive styles of

meditation often involve developing and/or strengthening adaptive self-schema.

Trends in Cognitive Sciences, September 2015, Vol. 19, No. 9 515

Opinion Trends in Cognitive Sciences September 2015, Vol. 19, No. 9

forms of mindfulness meditation [11]. Recent theoretical Box 1. Forms of attentional meditation

models have advanced our understanding further by

In both traditional and clinical contexts, the capacity to sustain a

attempting to identify potential cognitive and neural

heightened awareness of thoughts, behaviors, emotions, and per-

mechanisms in different forms of meditation and to classify ceptions is thought to be a central feature of mindfulness meditation

different forms of contemplative practice [12–17]. While [18,20,28,96–98]. Although there is considerable discussion concern-

ing the exact nature of mindfulness practice and its relation to the

some models have proposed speciﬁc cognitive and biologi-

construct of mindfulness in traditional Buddhist frameworks [28,99–

cal processes that inform the practice of mindfulness med-

102], there is general agreement that the cognitive process that we

itation [18–20], theoretical accounts of other families of

refer to here as meta-awareness has a central role across a broad

meditation are lacking, especially models that identify spectrum of meditation practices. Following our prior categorization

[11], here we propose two main categories of attentional meditation,

important mechanisms in other styles of practice. Thus,

along with two new subcategories that allow for a more nuanced

while these pioneering efforts provide crucial insights for

discussion of different styles of practice in this family.

the scientiﬁc study of meditation, rigorous efforts to exam-

Focused-attention practices involve a narrowing of attentional

ine the psychological processes involved in different fami- scope and the cultivation of one-pointed concentration on a single

lies of meditation are needed to understand the precise object [11,48]. The presence of meta-awareness distinguishes the

attentional stability achieved through this form of meditation from

manner in which they might impact various aspects of

well-being. other forms of absorption, such as the stable attentiveness that

occurs when one is engaged in an engrossing conversation or

In this article, we expand our original framework to

playing an interesting game. Open-monitoring (OM) practices simi-

accommodate a broader range of traditional and contem- larly involve the cultivation of meta-awareness, but they do not

porary meditation practices, grouping them into attention- involve selecting a specific object to orient one’s attention. Rather,

attentional scope is expanded to incorporate the flow of perceptions,

al, constructive, and deconstructive families. According to

thoughts, emotional content, and/or subjective awareness. OM med-

this model, the primary cognitive mechanisms in these

itation can be further divided into ‘object-oriented OM’, which in-

three families are: (i) attention regulation and meta-

volves directing one’s attention to whatever thoughts, percepts, and

awareness; (ii) perspective taking and reappraisal; and sensations enter the field of awareness, and ‘awareness-oriented

(iii) self-inquiry, respectively. To illustrate the role of these OM’, referring to the sustained recognition of the knowing quality of

awareness itself. Both forms of OM meditation are similar in many

processes in different forms of meditation, we discuss how

ways to practices discussed below in the context of the deconstruc-

experiential fusion, maladaptive self-schema, and cogni-

tive family. What distinguishes them from deconstructive forms of

tive reiﬁcation are differentially targeted by these process-

meditation is that their primary objective is the stabilization of meta-

es in the context of Buddhist meditation, integrating the awareness in relation to a particular attentional configuration. As we

see below, in the deconstructive family, a similar configuration of

perspectives of other contemplative, philosophical, and

attention may be used, but for different purposes (such as the

clinical perspectives when relevant. The mechanisms

cultivation of insight into the nature of sensory experience).

and targets we propose are drawn from cognitive science

and clinical psychology. Although these psychological pro-

cesses are theoretically complex, as are the meditation To illustrate the difference between meta-awareness

practices that target them, we propose this novel frame- and experiential fusion, let us consider an example. Imag-

work as a ﬁrst step in identifying speciﬁc cognitive mecha- ine that you are watching an enthralling movie. In one

nisms to aid in the scientiﬁc study of different families of moment, you might be experientially fused with the movie,

meditation and the impact of these practices on well-being. to the point when you are no longer consciously aware that

you are sitting in a movie theater. In the next moment, you

The attentional family: meta-awareness and might suddenly become aware of your surroundings and

experiential fusion the fact that you are viewing images on a screen. In both

The group of meditative practices that we refer to here as moments, you may be attentive to the movie, but only in

the ‘attentional family’ trains a variety of processes related the second moment are you also aware of the process of

to the regulation of attention. These include the capacities watching the movie.

to manipulate the orientation and aperture of attention, to In this example, paying attention to the images and

monitor, detect, and disengage from distractors, and to sounds that constitute the movie is a form of awareness. If

reorient attention toward a chosen object [20–23]. We someone tapped you on the shoulder and asked you what

propose that a shared characteristic of all meditation just happened in the movie, you could answer. However, if

practices in this family is the systematic training of the you were asked whether you were conscious of sitting in a

capacity to intentionally initiate, direct, and/or sustain movie theater in the moment before being asked, you

these attentional processes while strengthening the capac- would probably answer no. The awareness that you were

ity to be aware of the processes of thinking, feeling, and watching a movie, in this case, would only be retrospective.

perceiving (Box 1 and Table 1). Across a range of traditional and contemporary contem-

In scientiﬁc literature, the term ‘meta-awareness’ has plative traditions, the absence of meta-awareness is

been used to describe the cognitive function of being aware viewed as an impediment to various forms of self-monitor-

of the processes of consciousness [24]. In the absence of ing, self-regulation, and self-inquiry [27–29].

meta-awareness, we become experientially ‘fused’ with

what we experience. We may be aware of the objects of Experiential fusion and the training of attention

attention, yet unaware of the processes of thinking, feeling, The inability to regulate attentional processes has been

and perceiving. This state of experiential fusion has been linked to attention-deﬁcit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

referred to using a variety terms in the study of metacog- [30], addiction [31], and other forms of psychopathology

nition, including ‘cognitive fusion’ and ‘object mode’ [25,26]. [32,33], as well as to abnormalities in brain structure and

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Table 1. Typology of meditation practices and related clinical interventions

Attentional family Constructive family Deconstructive family

FA: Jhana practice (Theravada); breath Relation orientation: loving-kindness and Object-oriented insight: mindfulness-based

counting (Zen); body awareness practices compassion (Theravada, Tibetan); Bodhichitta/ cognitive therapy – cognitive component

(Zen/Tibetan); Shamatha/calm abiding with Bodhisattva Vow (Tibetan/Zen); centering prayer (clinical); First and Second Foundations of

support (Tibetan); mantra recitation (various (Christian); CCARE compassion cultivation Mindfulness (Theravada, Tibetan); Vipassana/

traditions) training (clinical); cognitively-based compassion insight (Theravada); analytical meditation

training-compassion component (clinical) (Tibetan); Koan practice (Zen)

OM (object-orientation): cultivation of Values orientation: The Six Recollections Subject-oriented insight: cognitive behavior

attention (Greco-Roman philosophy); (Theravada); The Four Thoughts (Tibetan); therapy (Clinical); Third and Fourth

choiceless awareness (Tibetan); mindfulness- contemplations of mortality (Theravada, Tibetan, Foundations of Mindfulness (Theravada,

based stress reduction (clinical); dialectical Zen, Greco-Roman philosophy); well-being Tibetan); Mahamudra Analytical Meditation

behavior therapy-mindfulness component therapy (Clinical) (Tibetan); Dzogchen Analytical Meditation

(clinical); mindfulness-based cognitive (Tibetan); Koan practice (Zen)

therapy-mindfulness component (clinical);

acceptance and commitment therapy-

mindfulness component (clinical)

OM (subject-orientation): Shamatha/calm Perception orientation: development stage Non-dual-oriented Insight: Muraqaba (Suﬁ);

abiding without support (Tibetan) (Tibetan); meditation on foulness (Theravada) Mahamudra (Tibetan); Dzogchen (Tibetan);

Shikantaza (Zen); Self-inquiry (Advaita Vedanta)

This typology groups commonly practiced forms of meditation and meditation-based clinical interventions into subcategories of each of the three families. Please note that

while many practices contain elements of all three families, categorizations in this framework are based on the primary mechanisms of individual practices. Given the

complexity of each practice listed here, we present this system as an initial step in the long process of studying the diversity of meditation practices. See the supplementary

material online for descriptions of individual practices and relevant citations.

function [34]. Experiential fusion in particular has re- in attentional blink in relation to open-monitoring (OM)

ceived a great deal of attention in several contemporary meditation relative to focused-attention (FA) practices [47]

therapeutic interventions. Although associated with over- (Box 1). Reducing experiential fusion with emotional

lapping constructs, including ‘cognitive distancing’, ‘cogni- experiences should facilitate the regulation of emotions

tive defusion’, and ‘decentering’, reversing states of by decreasing their perseveration. This prediction is in line

experiential fusion through the cultivation of meta-aware- with ﬁndings that expert meditators exhibited less amyg-

ness is considered to be especially important in the culti- dala activity in response to negative emotional stimuli

vation of mental health [26,35–38]. relative to controls [48]. A similar effect was found when

Clinical studies have shown that a diminished ability to patients with anxiety disorders underwent training in

step back and observe one’s internal processes of thinking mindfulness meditation [49].

and feeling has an important role in a variety of psychiatric One avenue through which meta-awareness might im-

conditions, including depression [39] and anxiety [40]. In pact well-being lies in its relation to mind wandering. Mind

one recent study, authors found that decreases in psycho- wandering has been found to consume as much as 50% of

logical processes related to experiential fusion were found our waking life and is tied to our sense of well-being [50]. If

in patients undergoing treatment for depression who re- training in attentional forms of meditation does strengthen

ceived training in mindfulness-based cognitive therapy but meta-awareness, we might expect this to impact both the

not in control groups, and that these changes were associ- incidence and impact of mind wandering. Recent studies

ated with positive changes in depressive symptomology have found that meditation training alters patterns of

[41]. Similar ﬁndings have been found in relation to the task-unrelated thought, showing that even brief trainings

treatment of addiction [42]. A study on smoking cessation, in mindfulness meditation decrease the behavioral indica-

for example, demonstrated that mindfulness practice at- tors of mind wandering [51,52]. Although meta-awareness

tenuated cigarette smoking, in particular by altering the and self-referential processes are difﬁcult to operationa-

relation between addictive craving and the behavior of lize, a few recent studies seem to indicate that brain

smoking [43]. regions associated with self-referential processing [53–

As recently reviewed, mindfulness-related practices 55], such as the medial prefrontal cortex and the posterior

have been shown to train many of the attentional processes cingulate cortex, may be downregulated by mindfulness-

described above and to induce functional and structural related practices [56,57]. In one of these studies, this

changes in attention-related networks in the brain pattern was linked to enhanced coupling between these

[9,44]. For instance, there is growing evidence that atten- midline regions and attentional brain networks associated

tional stability increases with mindfulness training, as with executive function, such as the dorsolateral prefrontal

measured by reduced response time variability and electro- cortex and the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex [57]. In the

encephalogram (EEG) brain response variability during other, this pattern was linked to a decreased coupling

continuous performance tasks [7,45]. Similarly, intensive between the medial prefrontal cortex and an interoceptive

meditation training has been shown to reduce both behav- region, the insular cortex [56]. It was speculated that these

ioral and EEG markers of attentional blink, a phenomenon patterns reﬂected decreased self-referential thought and

that reﬂects the propensity for attention to become fused enhanced present-centered awareness [56,57]. These inter-

with a perceptual target [46]. This effect is also modulated pretations require further investigation, particularly be-

by different forms of meditation, with enhanced reductions cause mind wandering recruits multiple brain regions,

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some of which may also have roles in attention and inter- Box 2. Ethics and forms of constructive meditation

oception [54]. It is also unclear how meta-awareness affects

The cultivation of virtuous qualities is a common pursuit in many

one’s ability to use the constructive aspects of mind wan-

contemplative and philosophical traditions [27,79,103]. The construc-

dering more effectively, and how activation patterns in tive family of meditation is one important method that allows for this

brain regions associated with self-referential thought cultivation. While practices in this family necessitate the presence of

meta-awareness, and also serve to strengthen and sustain meta-

change when periods of mind wandering coincide with

awareness, the approach taken in this family is markedly different

meta-awareness.

from practices in the attentional family, insofar as this style of

practice involves actively changing cognitive and affective content,

The constructive family: reappraisal, perspective taking, as opposed to simply observing or noting the presence of thoughts,

emotions, and perceptions.

and self-schema

Although there are many different styles of constructive meditation,

The style of practice that we refer to as the ‘constructive

we have identified three important subgroups, which we refer to as the

family’ includes a variety of meditation practices that

‘relation orientation’, ‘values orientation’, and ‘perception orientation’.

strengthen psychological patterns that foster well-being. The relation orientation emphasizes nurturing harmonious relations

We propose that one avenue through which these practices with others. In Buddhist meditation, this style of practice often involves

the extension of kindness and compassion first to specific individuals,

may affect well-being is by targeting maladaptive self-

and eventually to all beings [104]. This subgroup of meditation may

schema and replacing them with more adaptive concep-

impact specific psychological factors, by decreasing in-group bias, for

tions of self. In cognitive psychology, latent beliefs and

example [105], and thereby enhance important dimensions of well-

conceptions about the self, referred to as ‘self-schema’, are being, such as positive relations and meaning in life [2].

thought to underlie and inform thoughts and emotions Practices in the values orientation subgroup involve the integration

of ethical frameworks or values into one’s ongoing perspective. One

[58], and to impact patterns of brain function [59]. In

common practice in this subgroup is the contemplation of one’s own

contrast to attentional practices, which often focus on

mortality, which is found in Buddhist practice as well as in Greco-

simply monitoring cognitive and affective patterns, con-

Roman philosophy. In Platonic philosophy, for example, contempla-

structive meditations involve systematically altering the tions of death functioned to bring the individual into contact with a

content of thoughts and emotions. Some constructive prac- sense of self that transcends the boundaries and needs of the

physical body [27], while in Buddhism contemplating the fragility

tices are designed to cultivate qualities, such as patience

and fleeting nature of life is often intended to reorient the mind

and equanimity, that safeguard the mind from the stress-

toward what is truly meaningful in life [106].

ors of daily life. Others aim to bring about a restructuring

Practices that involve a perception orientation aim to alter percep-

of priorities and values and a reorienting of the mind tual habits as a way to induce shifts in implicit self-schema. A

common practice in Tibetan Buddhism, for example, is the so-called

toward what is truly meaningful in life. Still more address

‘development stage’ [107], a form of meditation that aims to alter

interpersonal relations by nurturing prosocial qualities,

both the perception of sensory objects as well as the subjective

such as kindness and compassion (Box 2 and Table 1).

perspective itself. This perceptual shift may instantiated by imagin-

The variety of practices in this family, as well as their ing oneself to be the embodiment of compassion, for instance, and

individual complexity, makes identifying core cognitive viewing other individuals and one’s environment from that perspec-

tive. Preliminary data suggest that this practice enhances one’s

mechanisms challenging. Nevertheless, several processes

ability to access heightened visuospatial processing resources [15].

appear to be central to a broad spectrum of constructive

meditations. Two mechanisms that appear to be especially

important in this family are cognitive reappraisal and perspective taking, but rather that differences in perspec-

perspective taking. Cognitive reappraisal refers to the tive (imagining oneself experiencing pain versus another

process of changing how we think about situations and experiencing pain, for example) recruit different brain

events in such a way that our response to them is altered networks [65].

[60]. Reappraisal is an important strategy in the regulation In constructive meditation practices, cognitive reap-

of emotion [61] and recruits brain regions related to cogni- praisal and perspective taking are hypothesized to be

tive control, including the dorsomedial, dorsolateral, and important mechanisms used to target maladaptive or neu-

ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, as well as the posterior tral psychological processes and replace them with more

parietal cortex [62]. In a study of reappraisal in those with adaptive patterns. One common example is the transfor-

social anxiety disorder (SAD), for example, results showed mation of empathy into compassion (Box 3). Hearing a

that the use of reappraisal reduced negative affect in both crying baby on an airplane, for example, might ﬁrst elicit a

patients with SAD and healthy controls, but that, in feeling of distress followed by aversion. This experience can

healthy controls, different patterns of activity in regulatory be transformed by taking the perspective of the baby’s

brain regions were associated with reduced amygdala mother, thereby triggering a sense of warmth and compas-

activity compared with patients with SAD [63]. sion, and also by reinterpreting the sound of the baby’s

The second core process that we propose to be central in cries, viewing the experience as an opportunity to cultivate

many constructive meditations is that of perspective tak- kindness and concern rather than an impediment to one’s

ing, the act of considering how oneself or another would feel own well-being. By systematically cultivating compassion

in a particular situation [64]. Perspective taking is espe- in this manner, responding to aversive stimuli with altru-

cially important as a contributor to the experience of social istic concern may eventually become automatic. Thus, such

emotions [65]. As a critical component of healthy interper- changes may be studied within the framework of habit

sonal relations, for instance, it is found to be diminished in formation, which is associated with various facets of phys-

psychopaths [66] and also to be a central mediator in ical and psychological well-being [68].

reducing intergroup prejudice [67]. Imaging studies indi- To date, constructive meditation practices have received

cate that there is no single neural mechanism related to less attention than other forms of meditation in scientiﬁc

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Box 3. Empathy, compassion, and the brain Box 4. Cognitive reification and forms of deconstructive

meditation

One of the most widely studied practices in the constructive family is

the cultivation of compassion. Compassion training is held to alter

The deconstructive family represents a range of meditation practices

core self-related processes, initiating a shift from self-oriented cog-

that use self-inquiry to elicit insight into in the nature and dynamics of

nitive, affective, and behavioral patterns to patterns that are oriented

conscious experience. We have identified three subgroups of the

toward the well-being of others [108]. In the field of psychology,

deconstructive family: ‘object-oriented insight’, ‘subject-oriented in-

empathy is characterized as the ability to understand or resonate with

sight’, and ‘non-dual-oriented insight’. Object-oriented insight prac-

another’s emotional state [109–112] and compassion as a concern for

tices use self-inquiry to investigate the objects of consciousness. This

the suffering of another accompanied by the motivation to help

may involve, for example, investigating physical sensations and not-

[109,113]. In the absence of compassion, empathic distress can lead

ing how they are constantly changing [102]. Subject-oriented insight

to negative affect [64,114], while compassion is associated with well-

practices involve inquiries into the nature of thought, perception, and

being and positive emotions [114,115].

other cognitive and affective processes. In this style of practice one

Research into the neural correlates of empathy has found that

may, for instance, dissect thoughts and emotions into their component

similar regions, including the insula, the anterior and mid-cingulate

parts [72]. Non-dual-oriented practices are designed to elicit an ex-

cortices, and the supplementary motor area, are activated across

periential shift into a mode of experiencing in which the cognitive

various forms of empathy [111,116,117]. By way of contrast, compas-

structures of self/other and subject/object are no longer the dominant

sion is linked to regions associated with reward, positive affect, and

mode of experience. These practices often emphasize the importance

feelings of affection, such as the ventral striatum and medial orbito-

of releasing attempts to control, direct, or alter the mind in any way and

frontal cortex [70,114]. Studies of compassion training have also found

also serve to undo the reification of a witnessing ‘observer’ that is

increased activation in regions associated with executive function,

separate from the objects of awareness [14,100]. The goal of all three

including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex [118] and the anterior

styles of practice in the deconstructive family is not simply to maintain

cingulate cortex [70,119]. Although further research is required to

awareness of different aspects of experience, as we find with the

determine the unique roles of each of these regions in the development

attentional family, but rather to gain direct, experiential insight into

of compassion, these preliminary findings suggest that cultivating

the nature and dynamics of experience.

compassion strengthens multiple networks, each of which may affect

Although deconstructive meditations are used to inquire into many

distinct psychological processes and thereby contribute to well-being

facets of conscious experience, the nature of the self is a topic of inquiry

in different ways.

in a broad range of contemplative and philosophical practices. To give

Empathy and compassion also affect the peripheral biology of the

two important examples, examining the self is linked to the highest

human body. Perceiving stress in another individual has been linked

good in ancient Greek philosophy [27] and as the key to undoing the

to elevated cortisol levels, a relation that is more robust in those with

cycle of suffering in Buddhism [78]. In Buddhist meditation, the pri-

high trait empathy [120], whereas compassion has been linked to lower

mary target of many self-inquiry practices is cognitive reification, the

levels of cortisol reactivity [121]. Preliminary studies of compassion

implicit belief that thoughts, emotions, and perceptions are accurate

training have found associations between the amount of time spent

depictions of reality [124]. Deconstructive practices in this tradition are

engaging in compassion training and inflammatory biomarkers, with

especially concerned with the view that the self is enduring and unitary,

more compassion training leading to decreased levels of both C-reactive

since a reified sense of self is believed to be the primary cause of

protein and interleukin 6 [122,123]. These findings suggest that the

suffering and states of discontent [78]. Therefore, Buddhist decon-

mind can be trained to orient itself toward the well-being of others

structive practices often involve exploring the experience of subjec-

and that this shift from self- to other-orientation impacts both the

tivity by inquiring into the various components that comprise the self,

brain and the peripheral biology of the body and, in particular, the

for example [125], or by examining the relation between the self as

way the body responds to environmental stressors. Further re-

agent or observer and the objects it interacts with [126].

search is required to elucidate the precise mechanisms through

which these states affect the body, and also to investigate how

changes in peripheral biology reciprocally impact psychological

processes and the relationship between these processes and patterns by exploring the dynamics of perception, emotion,

well-being. and cognition and generating insights into one’s internal

models of the self, others, and the world. We propose that a

central mechanism in the deconstructive family is ‘self-

research, although a few studies have begun to explore inquiry’, which we deﬁne as the process of investigating the

practices related to this family, including the cultivation dynamics and nature of conscious experience. Although

of compassion [69,70] and imagination-based meditations self-inquiry has received little attention as a subject of

[15]. Therefore, the precise role that reappraisal and per- scientiﬁc research, various forms of inquiry are used across

spective taking have in constructive styles of meditation is a range of contemplative traditions [71–73]. Self-inquiry

not yet known; neither is it clear how these processes relate may involve discursive analysis or a direct examination of

to the recruitment of speciﬁc brain networks. Nevertheless, conscious experience, and often involves explorations of

investigations of the cultivation of compassion, a widely self-related processes (Box 4 and Table 1). Discursive

practiced style of meditation in this family, provide useful analysis might entail identifying the assumptions that

information regarding the cognitive and neural mechanisms underlie the reiﬁcation of a particular object or experience

of constructive meditations. Preliminary ﬁndings indicate and subsequently thinking about and questioning the

that this practice may affect the regulation of emotion and logical consistency of these assumptions. If you are anx-

corresponding brain networks (Box 3). Although further ious, for example, you might identify the fearful assump-

work is needed to clarify the role of reappraisal and per- tions that underlie the emotion and then inquire into the

spective taking in other forms of constructive meditation, rational basis for your beliefs. Another approach would be

these data suggest one possible mechanism through which to directly examine your experience, for example by dis-

speciﬁc forms of meditation may impact well-being. secting the feeling of anxiety into its component parts and

noticing how the thoughts, feelings, and physical sensa-

Deconstructive family: self-inquiry and insight tions that comprise the emotion are constantly changing.

The group of meditations that we refer to as the ‘de- In the context of Buddhist meditation, this process of

constructive family’ aims to undo maladaptive cognitive inquiry is often applied to beliefs about the self, although

519

Opinion Trends in Cognitive Sciences September 2015, Vol. 19, No. 9

it can similarly be applied to the nature and dynamics of training increased creative problem solving relative to

perception, to the unfolding of thoughts and emotions, or to training in progressive muscle relaxation [80]. Moreover,

the nature of awareness. this difference was linked to heightened activation in a

In the deconstructive family, self-inquiry is practiced to variety of brain regions, including the right cingulate

elicit insight. Insight has been framed as a shift in con- gyrus, insula, putamen, and inferior frontal gyrus, and

sciousness, often sudden, that involves a feeling of know- the bilateral middle frontal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule,

ing, understanding, or perceiving something that had and superior temporal gyrus [80]. Further study is needed

previously eluded one’s grasp [74]. Scientiﬁc studies of this to determine whether speciﬁc forms of meditation, and

phenomenon have focused on the burst of understanding deconstructive meditations in particular, enhance the ca-

that can occur in relation to solving simple mathematic or pacity to arouse and sustain insight, and also to investigate

semantic problems [75]. Research has found that this form the psychological and biological correlates of insight

of insight is linked to hemispheric differences in the brain, experiences. Thus, studying the relation between different

with recent studies demonstrating that facilitatory direct forms of meditation and well-being calls for a more com-

current stimulation of the right frontal-temporal cortex prehensive account of the varieties of insight, their neural

along with inhibitory stimulation of the corresponding correlates, and the conditions and interventions that may

region in the left hemisphere greatly enhanced insight- facilitate their occurrence.

based problem-solving capacity [76,77]. To date, the scien-

tiﬁc study of insight has not investigated forms of insight Self-related processing and the brain

that may arise through self-inquiry; neither has there been As noted above, inquiring into the nature of the self is an

a systematic investigation of the relation between insight important practice in a variety of contemplative tradi-

and well-being. This is an area that calls for future re- tions, including both Buddhist meditation and Greco-

search, especially since a variety of meditative traditions Roman contemplative exercises [27,78]. One of the most

hold that speciﬁc forms of insight, such as insight into the compelling aspects of our sense of self is the ongoing

nature of the self, are of particular importance when it personal narrative that weaves together the various

comes to the cultivation of well-being [27,71,78]. aspects of our lives into a coherent, uniﬁed experience.

In Buddhist meditation practice, insights that would This inner interpreter has been linked to activity in the

ordinarily be fragile and ﬂeeting are systematically stabi- left cerebral hemisphere in patients with a split brain

lized and integrated with one’s experience, ﬁrst in formal [81] and to activity in the medial prefrontal cortex and

meditation and subsequently in daily life. Thus, the posterior cingulate cortex in brain-imaging research [82–

heightened awareness of present-moment experience cul- 84]. The narrative self can be contrasted with the ﬁrst-

tivated through attentional meditations and the self-inqui- person subjective experience that is not extended in

ry carried out in deconstructive meditations are considered time. This aspect of selfhood has been referred to as

important, although distinct, processes [79]. To give an the ‘minimal self’ [85] and ‘minimal phenomenal self’ [86]

example of the relation between these two processes, con- and has been hypothesized to be instantiated in cortical

sider the feeling of being overcome by anger. When your activity in regions related to interoception, such as the

sense of self is fused with the presence of anger (i.e., the anterior insula [87–89], the temporoparietal junction

feeling ‘I am angry’), the arising of anger is not seen clearly, [90], as well as in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and

but instead forms the lens through which you view experi- other subcortical regions associated with homeostatic

ence. Attentional family practices train the capacity to functioning [91].

recognize the occurrence of anger and other states of mind, Given that there is still a paucity of empirical evidence

enabling one to notice the presence of angry thoughts, relating to deconstructive meditation practices and their

physiological changes, and shifts in affective tone. This impact on neural processes, this is an area that calls for

process of sustained recognition allows for the investiga- more intensive study in the future. Some data highlight the

tion of the experience of anger, an approach taken with possibility of using meditation to willfully manipulate core

deconstructive meditations. With this added element, one aspects of identity [57,92,93], although it is not clear

is not only sustaining awareness of the experience of anger, whether insight into the nature of experience disrupts

but also investigating its various components, inquiring rigid and/or maladaptive self-related processes; neither

into its relation with one’s sense of self, and/or uncovering is it clear how alterations of these processes might be

the implicit beliefs that inform the arising of anger and instantiated in the brain. Nevertheless, there does appear

then questioning the validity of these beliefs in light of to be some overlap between the insights that are said to

present-moment experience (Box 4). This investigation of arise in forms of meditation that explore the nature of the

conscious experience is said to elicit an experience of self and recent research in the arena of cognitive neurosci-

insight, a ﬂash of intuitive understanding that can be ence, which suggests that self-processing in the brain is not

stabilized when linked with meta-awareness. Thus, instantiated in a particular region or network, but rather

meta-awareness sets the stage for self-inquiry and allows extends to a broad range of ﬂuctuating neural processes

for the stabilization of the insight it generates while nev- that do not appear to be self speciﬁc [94,95]. Future studies

ertheless being a distinct process. may explore this convergence by using contemplative prac-

To date, only one study has investigated the relation tices, speciﬁcally those from the deconstructive family, to

between meditation training and insight. Although the probe the malleability of self-related processes, their in-

form of meditation used in the study was not deconstruc- stantiation in the brain, and their relation to both suffering

tive in nature, results showed that short-term meditation and well-being.

520

Opinion Trends in Cognitive Sciences September 2015, Vol. 19, No. 9

Concluding remarks and future directions spur further discussion about the nature of contemplative

Scientiﬁc research on the effects of meditation is in the practice and how scientiﬁc study of meditation may help us

early stages. Although preliminary ﬁndings suggest that better understand the causes and conditions of human

meditation and other forms of mental training produce ﬂourishing (Box 5).

demonstrable changes in subjective experience, behavior,

patterns of neural activity, and peripheral biology, rigor- Acknowledgments

ous studies are still needed to uncover the precise mecha- Support for our research described here was provided by NCCIH NIH

P01AT004952, ERC Consolidator Grant (BRAINandMINDFULNESS,

nisms that underlie these changes. In particular,

617739), and several gifts to the Center for Investigating Healthy Minds

randomized trials, active control groups, and longitudinal

at the University of Wisconsin-Madison (CIHM_UW). R.J.D. is Founder

studies that examine within- and across-subject changes

and President of the Center for Investigating for Investigating Healthy

over time, as well as across-practice comparisons, will be Minds, Inc., (CIHM, Inc) a nonproﬁt corporation associated with CIHM-

especially important in determining the efﬁcacy of medi- UW. C.J.D. is Chairman of Tergar International, a nonproﬁt organization

that coordinates a global network of meditation centers.

tation training paradigms [127]. In addition, subjective,

behavioral, and clinical correlates of meditation-related

Appendix A. Supplementary data

neural changes are needed to assess the impact of different

Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in the online

styles of meditation.

version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2015.07.001.

The framework presented here highlights the need to

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