PNL-3195 WERA-10 UC-60

Wind Energy Resource Atlas: Volume 10- Alaska

-...... P

Prepared for Pacific Northwest Laboratory Under Agreement B-87917-A-L

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WIND ENERGY RESOURCE ATLAS THE ALASKA REGION

Wise, James L. ( D. L. Ell iott~~l Wentink, Tunis, Jr. a) W. R. Barchet Becker, Richard, Jr. R. L. George\b) Comiskey, Albert L.

Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center University of Alaska 707 A Street Anchorage, Alaska 99501

December 1980 Prepared for Pacific Northwest Laboratory Under Agreement No. B-87917-A-L

Pacific Northwest Laboratory Richland, Washington 99352

(a) Geophysical Institute University of Alaska Fairbanks, Alaska 99701 (b) Pacific Northwest Laboratory

PREFACE

For the purpose of assessing the national wind resource, the United States and its pos­ sessions have been divided into twelve regions. For each region, wind resource assessments are presented in the form of an atlas. The atlases depict in graphic, tabular and narrative form the wind resource on a regional and subregional level. The information presented in the atlases will help guide homeowners, utilities and industry in decisions concerning the use of the wind as a source of energy. This atlas of the wind energy resource is composed of introductory and background infor­ mation, a regional summary of the wind resource, and assessments of the wind resource in each subregion of Alaska. Chapter 1 provides background on how the wind resource is assessed and on how the results of the assessment should be interpreted. A description of the wind re­ source on a state scale is then given in Chapter 2. The results of the wind energy assess­ ments for each subregion are assembled in this chapter into an overview and summary of the various features of the Alaska wind energy resource. Chapter 3 provides an introduction and outline to the descriptions of the wind resource given for each subregion. Assessments for individual subregions are presented as separate chapters beginning with Chapter 4. The sub­ region wind energy resources are described in greater detail than is the Alaska wind energy resource, and features of selected stations are discussed. This preface outlines the use and interpretation of the information found in the subregion chapters. Much of the infornlation in the subregion chapters is given in graphic or tabular form. As is discussed in Section 3.1, the sequence of maps, tables, and graphs is the same in each subregion chapter. References to these figures and tables are made here with an asterisk (*) in place of the chapter number (e.g., Figure *.1, Table *.2). Similar maps and tables are found in Chapter 2 on the Alaskan wind resource. References to the Alaskan maps and tables are made in brackets, [ ]. Figure *.1 shows the major geographical (mountains, rivers) and cultural (cities, towns) features in the subregion [Figure 2.1]. This map can be used to orient the reader to the subregion. Figure *.2 portrays the topography of the subregion in shaded relief [Figure 2.2]. The shaded relief allows the reader to visualize the character of the terrain surrounding locations of special interest. Superimposed on these subregion maps (but not the Alaska maps) is a grid of dashed lines one degree longitude by one-half degree (3D') latitude. This grid is repeated on nearly all subsequent maps to give the reader an adequate frame of reference for locating the same feature on different maps. Figure *.3 is a map of the land-surface form [Figure 2.3]. The information presented in Sections 1.6 and 1.8 indicates how the land-surface fornl is used to designate the terrain features considered to have a typical good exposure to the wind. Awareness of what consti­ tutes well-exposed terrain features is crucial to the proper interpretation of the maps of wind power density. Figures *.4 and *.5 identify and locate wind data sites relevant to the assessment. All locations in each subregion for which the National Climatic Center (NCC) has wind data in its archives are shown and named in Figure *.4. However, this assessment is based on a subset of NCC data augmented by data from other sources (see Sections 1.1 and 1.2). Figure *.5 shows the location of all wind data sites used in the assessment. Sections 1.3 through 1.5 briefly describe the methods used to analyze the wind data and evaluate the wind power. The wind energy resource for a subregion is illustrated using several maps. The wind power maps represent a careful synthesis of quantitative wind data guided by state-of-the-art concepts on air flow near the earth's surface. Section 1.6 describes how the analysis of the wind data is transformed into the map of annual average wind power density found in Figure *;6 [Figure 2.4]. This map gives the annual average wind power density at typically exposed sites. A discussion of the classes of wind PQwer density in Section 1.7 gives the relation­ ship between mean wind power density (watts/m2) and mean wind speed (m/s or mph). A certainty rating is used to provide a measure of the ability to objectively evaluate the wind resource in a grid cell. The certainty ratings are given in the maps of Figure *.7. The degree of certainty with which the wind power can be estimated depends on the quality and quantity of wind data, the complexity of the terrain and concern over the variability of the wind resource over short distances. How these factors are combined to assign a certainty rating is discussed in Section 1.9. The terrain feature with typical good exposure to the wind in a particular land-surface form provides a convenient and essential reference point on which to base the analyses of the wind resource shown in Figure *.6. However, a substantial portion of the terrain may have

iii poorer than typi ca 1 exposu re to the wi nd and wi 11 have a lower wi nd resou rce than shown on the wind power maps. The maps of Figure *.8 provide an estimate of the percentage of area in each grid cell that may experience at least each of four different wind power classes. Sec­ tion 1.10 discusses the assumptions underlying the evaluation of the areal distribution of the wind resource. The area of the subregion estimated to experience a particular wind power class is given in Table *.1 [Table 2.2J. This table summarizes the contribution made by each grid cell to the areal distribution of wind power for the subregion. The annual average wind power density compresses into a single statistic time-varying trend on several time scales, e.g., annual, seasonal, monthly, and daily. In this atlas, the seasonal evolution of the geographical distribution of wind power is shown at the subregion level. The maps of Figure *.9 give the average wind power density for winter, sprin9, sum­ mer, and autumn. The interpretation of the seasonal average wind power maps is identical to that for the annual average wind power map. [For Alaska, Figure 2.5 shows only the season of maximum power.J Additional information on the time variation and other characteristics of the wind re­ source in each subregion is presented for selected locations for which the National Climatic Center placed l-hourly or 3-hourly time-series data on magnetic tape. Descriptions of the characteristics of the wind resource presented for these stations are given in Section 3.2. The urge to consider information pertaining to one of these sites as representative of some other location must be t~pered with the realization that wind characteristics are extremely site-deDendent. The degree of correspondence between the wind characteristics at one site and those at another site depends on the similarity between the topographical setting of the sites, the weather patterns that affect the sites and the obstructions to the wind in the vicinity of the sites. Table *.2 identifies the stations, and gives their location (see also Figures *.4 and *.5) and annual average wind speed and power density. Figure *.10 shows how the yearly mean speed and power varied during the period of record. The monthly mean wind speed and power over the course of a year are shown in Figure *.11. The hourly mean wind speed over the course of a day is shown in Figure *.12 with a separate curve for each season. Figures *.11 and *.12 indicate the time of year and time of day, respectively, the wind resource is avail­ able. Figure *.10, on the other hand, indicates the year-to-year variability that might be expected in the yearly mean resource. The frequency of occurrence of winds from a particular direction and of winds with a particular speed is shown in Figures *.13 and *.14, respectively. The information on wind direction may be important in assessing the availability of the wind resource relative to surrounding terrain or nearby obstructions. However, it is also important to realize that the wind direction statistics are highly dependent on the location of the instrument site relative to obstructions and major terrain features, e.g., valleys, ridges, and mountain ranges. Figures *.15 and *.16 portray speed and power frequency statistics in the form of speed and power exceedance curves, respectively. The fraction of the total period of record the speed equals or exceeds a given value is shown in Figure *.15. The power exceedance curve in Figure *.16 gives the fraction of the period of record for which the power exceeds a given value. As has been shown in the preceding discussion, the order of presentation of the wind resource in this atlas proceeds from an Alaskan perspective in Chapter 2, to a subregion per­ spective in the first part of each subregion chapter, to individual station descriptions in the last part of the subregion chapters. Attention given to Chapter 1 and Chapter 3 will make it possible for the reader to properly interpret the wind resource presentations.

iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A number of people and organizations contributed in various ways to this program, ranging from weather observers recording the winds at individual sites to the processing and analysis of wind data. The National Climatic Center furnished most of the station summaries, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S. Forest Service provided other important data. The program benefited from the close and sustained cooperation between the staff of AEIDC and the staff of the Geophysical Institute. The efforts of Coert Imstead and Celia Rohwer in the Geophysical Institute's Data Processing Section and the graphics personnel at AEIDC and PNL were especially helpful. Special appreciation goes to Deborah Topp and Lynda McAllister at AEIDC and Shelia Finch at the Geophysical Institute who patiently typed the text from initial draft through the several revisions to the finished product. Also, many thanks to Judy Brogan Murphy of AEIDC and Betsy Owzarski of PNL who edited the atlas. Finally, special acknowledgment is due to L. Divone and G. Tennyson of DOE, for their support and encouragement as well as their understanding of the many technical aspects and associated difficulties in producing this atlas.

v

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL WIND ENERGY RESOURCE ASSESSMENT 1 1.1 IDENTIFICATION OF WIND DATA SOURCES 2 1.2 WIND DATA SCREENING . 2 1.3 TIME SCALES IN REGIONAL ASSESSMENTS 3 1.4 EVALUATION OF WIND DATA. 3 1.4.1 Vertical Adjustment. . 4 1.4.2 Estimates for Mountainous Areas 4 1.5 QUALITATIVE WIND INDICATORS 4 1.6 WIND POWER MAPS .... 5 1.7 WIND POWER DENSITY CLASSES. 6 1.8 CLASSES OF LAND-SURFACE FORM 6 1.9 CERTAINTY RATING ...... 7 1.10 AREAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE WIND RESOURCE 8

CHAPTER 2: STATE FEATURES. 9

2.1 GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY 9 2.2 CLIMATE . .. . 9 2.3 WIND POWER IN ALASKA. 10 2.3.1 Certainty Rating of Wind Resource. 10 2.3.2 Areal Distribution of the Wind Resource. 11 2.4 SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN THE WIND RESOURCE 11 2.5 MAJOR WIND RESOURCE AREAS . . . . 12 2.5.1 Beaufort and Chukchi Sea Coasts 12 2.5.2 Bering Sea Islands and Coast. 12 2.5.3 Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands 12 2.5.4 Lower Cook Inlet. 12 2.5.5 Gulf of Alaska Coast 12 2.5.6 Exposed Mountain Ridges and Summits 12

CHAPTER 3: SUBREGIONAL FEATURES. 21

3. 1 ~1APS OF STATE FEATURES . 21 3.2 FEATURES OF SELECTED STATIONS. . . 22 3.2.1 Interannual Wind Power and Speed . 22 3.2.2 Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed 23 3.2.3 D"iurnal Wind Speed by Season. 23 3.2.4 Directional Frequency and Average Speed 23 3.2.5 Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency 23 3.2.6 Annual Average Wind Speed and Power Duration 23 CHAPTER 4: NORTHERN ALASKA 25 4.1 ANNUAL AVERAGE WIND POWER IN NORTHERN ALASKA 25 4.1.1 Certainty Rating of the Wind Resource 26 4.1.2 Areal Distribution of the Wind Resource 26 4.2 SEASONAL WIND POWER 26 4.2.1 Winter 27 4.2.2 Spring . 27 4.2.3 Summer . 27 4.2.4 Autumn 27 4.3 FEATURES OF SELECTED STATIONS. • • 27 4.3.1 Interannual Wind Power and Speed . 29 4.3.2 Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed 29 4.3.3 Diurnal Wind Speed by Season. 29 4.3.4 Directional Frequency and Average Speed 30 4.3.5 Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency 30 4.3.6 Annual Average Wind Speed and Power Duration 30

vii CONTENTS (Continued)

CHAPTER 5: SOUTHCENTRAL ALASKA . 65 5.1 ANNUAL AVERAGE WIND POWER IN SOUTHCENTRAL ALASKA 65 5.1.1 Certainty Rating of the Wind Resource. 66 5.1.2 Areal Distribution of the Wind Resource 66 5.2 SEASONAL WIND POWER 6;7 5.2.1 Wi nter . 67 5.2.2 Spring . 67 5. 2. 3 Su mOle r . 67 5. 2.4 Au tumn . . . • • 68 5.3 FEATURES OF SELECTED STATIONS. . . 68 5.3.1 Interannual Wind Power and Speed . 70 5.3.2 Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed 71 5.3.3 Diurnal Wind Speed by Season. . 71 5.3.4 Directional Frequency and Average Speed 71 5.3.5 Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency 72 5.3.6 Annual Average Wind Speed and Power Duration 72

CHAPTER 6: SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA . 107 6.1 ANNUAL AVERAGE WI NO P014ER IN SOUTHEAST ALASKA 107 6.1.1 Certainty Rating of the Wind Resource. 108 6.1.2 Areal Distribution of the Wind Resource 108 6.2 SEASONAL WIND POWER 108 6.2.1 Winter 108 6.2.2 Spring . 108 6.2.3 Summer . 109 6.2.4 Autumn ...••. 109 6.3 FEATURES OF SELECTED STATIONS. 109 6.3.1 Interannual Wind Power and Speed 109 6.3.2 Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed 110 6.3.3 Diurnal Wind Speed by Season. 110 6.3.4 Directional Frequency and Average Speed 110 6.3.5 Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency 110 6.3.6 Annual Average Wind Speed and Power Duration 110

CHAPTER 7: SOUTHWESTERN ALASKA . 137 7.1 ANNUAL AVERAGE WIND POWER IN SOUTHWEST ALASKA 137 7.1.1 Certainty Rating of the Wind Resource. 137 7.1.2 Areal Distribution of the Wind Resource 138 7.2 SEASONAL WIND POWER 138 7.2.1 Winter 138 7.2.2 Spri ng • 138 7.2.3 Summer . 138 7.2.4 Autumn . . 139 7.3 FEATURES OF SELECTED STATIONS. • . 139 7.3.1 Interannual Wind Power and Speed . 140 7.3.2 Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed 140 7.3.3 Diurnal Wind Speed by Season. . • • 141 7.3.4 Directional Frequency and Average Speed 141 7.3.5 Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency . . 141 7.3.6 Annual Average Wind Speed and Power Duration 141

REFERENCES 165 • INDEX . 167

viii LIST OF FIGURES Page

1.1 Geographic Divisions for Regional Wind Energy Assessments 1 2.1 Geographic Map of Alaska 14 2.2 Topographic Map of Alaska 15 2.3 Classes of Land-Surface Form in Alaska 16 2.4 Annual Average Wind Power in Alaska . 18 2.5 Seasonal Maximum Wind Power in Alaska 20 4.1 Geographic r1ap of Northern Alaska 32 4.2 Topographic Map of Northern Alaska 33 4.3 Land-Surface Form Map for Northern Alaska 34 4.4 Nee Station Locations in Northern Alaska 36 4.5 Location of Stations Used in Northern Alaska Resource Assessment 37 4.6 Northern Alaska Annual Average Wind Power. 38 4.7 Certainty Rating of Northern Alaska Hind Resource 40 4.8 Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Northern Alaska 42 4.9 Seasonal Average Wind Power in Northern Alaska 44 4.10 Interannual Hind Power and Speed for Northern Alaska 48 4.11 Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Northern Alaska 50 4.12 Diurnal Hind Speed by Season for Northern Alaska 52 4.13 Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Northern Alaska 54 4.14 Annual Average Hind Speed Frequency for Northern Alaska 56 4.15 Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Northern Alaska 58 4.16 Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Northern Alaska 60 5.1 Geographic r1ap of Southcentral Alaska 74 5.2 Topographic Map of Southcentral Alaska. 75 5.3 Land-Surface Form Map for Southcentral Alaska 76 5.4 NCC Station Locations in Southcentral Alaska. 78 5.5 Location of Stations Used in Southcentral Alaska Resource Assessment 79 5.6 Southcentral Alaska Annual Average Wind Power 80 5.7 Certainty Rating of Southcentral Alaska Wind Resource. 82 5.8 Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Southcentral Alaska 84 5.9 Seasonal Average Wind Power in Southcentral Alaska. -. 86 5.10 Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Southcentral Alaska. 90 5.11 Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Southcentral Alaska 92 5.12 Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Southcentral Alaska 94 5.13 Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Southcentral Alaska 96 5.14 Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Southcentral Alaska 98 5.15 Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Southcentral Alaska 100 5.16 Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Southcentral Alaska 102 6.1 Geographic Map of Southeastern Alaska 112 6.2 Topographic Map of Southeastern Alaska. 113 6.3 Land-Surface Form Map for Southeastern Alaska 114 .~ 6.4 Nee Station Locations in Southeastern Alaska . 116 6.5 Location of Stations Used in Southeastern Alaska Resource Assessment 117

ix LIST OF FIGURES

6.6 Southeastern Alaska Annual Average Wind Power 118 6.7 Certainty Rating of Southeastern Alaska Wind Resource 120 6.8 Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Southeastern Alaska 122 6.9 Seasonal Average Wind Power in Southeastern Alaska . 124 6.10 Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Southeastern Alaska . 127 6.11 Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Southeastern Alaska 128 6.12 Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Southeastern Alaska 129 6.13 Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Southeastern Alaska 130 6.14 Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Southeastern Alaska 131 6.15 Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Southeastern Alaska 132 6.16 Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Southeastern Alaska 133 7.1 Geographic Map of Southwestern Alaska 142 7.2 Topographic Map of Southwestern Alaska 143 7.3 Land-Surface Form Map for Southwestern Alaska 144 7.4 NCC Station Locations in Southwestern Alaska. 146 7.5 Location of Stations Used in Southwestern Alaska Resource Assessment 147 7.6 Southwestern Alaska Annual Average Wind Power 148 7.7 Certainty Rating of Southwestern Alaska Wind Resource 150 7.8 Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Southwestern Alaska 152 7.9 Seasonal Average Wind Power in Southwestern Alaska. 154 7.10 Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Southwestern Alaska 157 7.11 Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Southwestern Alaska 158 7.12 Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Southwestern Alaska 159 7.13 Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Southwestern Alaska 160 7.14 Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Southwestern Alaska 161 7.15 Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Southwestern Alaska 162 7.16 Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Southwestern Alaska 163

x LIST OF TABLES

1.1 Stations With Wind Data in Alaska and Peripheral Area Screened in Assessment 2 1.2 Land-Surface Form Terrain Features Representative of Exposed Locations 5 1.3 Classes of Wind Power Density at 10 m and 50 m 7 1.4 Scheme of Classification 7 2.1 Land Area and Population of Alaska 9 2.2 Areal Distribution of Wind Power Classes in Alaska 19 3.1 Maps, Tables, and Graphs Used to Depict the Wind Resource. ~ 21 4.1 Areal Distribution (km2) of Wind Power Classes in Northern Alaska 39 4.2 Northern Alaska Stations With Graphs of the Wind Characteristics 46 5.1 Areal Distribution (km2) of Wind Power Classes in Southcentral Alaska 81 5.2 Southcentral Alaska Stations With Graphs of the Wind Characteristics. 88 6.1 Areal Distribution (km2) of Wind Power Classes in Southeastern Alaska 119 6.2 Southeastern Alaska Stations With Graphs of the Wind Characteristics. 126 7.1 Areal Distribution (km 2) of Wind Power Classes in Southwestern Alaska 149 7.2 Southwestern Alaska Stations With Graphs of the Wind Characteristics. 156

xi

CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL WIND ENERGY RESOURCE ASSESSMENT

Rapid development of wind as a source were used. The other atlases will use of commercial electric power is the prin­ comparable data sets, analysis techniques, cipal goal of the Federal Wind Energy Pro­ and presentations to ensure the compara­ gram. Utility planning, wind turbine man­ bility of the wind resource assessments. ufacturing, and marketing of wind energy conversion systems all depend on detailed The Alaska atlas assimilates five wind resource assessments. This atlas of collections of wind resource data: one for Alaska's wind resource, a product of the the state and one for each of the four sub­ Wind Characteristics Program Element of regions that compose the state (northern, the Federal Wind Energy Program, repre­ southcentral, southeast and southwest). At sents a major source of information for the subregional level, features of the meeting these various needs. climate, topography, and wind resource are discussed in greater detail than is provid­ This atlas is one of 12 being assem­ ed in the state discussion, and the data bled to describe potential wind resources locations on which the assessment is based throughout the United States (see Fig­ are mapped. Variations, over several time ure 1.1). The spatial and temporal reso­ scales, in the wind resource at selected lution of the wind resource in these stations in each subregion are shown on regional assessments will be depicted in graphs of monthly average and interannual considerably greater detail than that in wind speed and power and hourly average existing national assessments (Reed 1975, wind speed for each season. Other griphs Coty 1976, Garate 1977, Elliott 1977). present speed, direction, and duration To produce the Alaska atlas in a timely frequencies of the wind at these locations. fashion, only existing relevant data

~-;-?------• J --... ----~--"'i..-., .....-.. ~ No:thwest \ _· .... · ... · ... ·-1 " ~ 1 I \ , .~ ~ .~ \ ..... __ ._._._-- -'-'-'-'-'': !! North C~.'2.:r~ __ ! _._._._-...... \

~ \

FIGURE 1.1. Geographic Divisions for Regional Wind Energy Assessments.

1 The methods used to identify, screen, In contrast to the NCC data, which are evaluate, and analyze the various types of primarily from inhabited areas, U.S. Forest data and to produce the wind energy resource Service data in the National Fire Weather maps and graphs will only be described brief­ Data Library (Furman and Brink 1975) are ly. [For more detail see Wentink and Wise from remote sites in mountainous and (1980)J. However, this discussion will forested areas under the jurisdiction of provide the reader with useful background the Federal government (i.e., national information for interpreting the wind forests, national parks, Indian reser­ energy resource maps for Alaska. vations, or Bureau of Land Management areas). Nearly 74 stations with wind data' 1.1 IDENTIFICATION OF WIND DATA SOURCES are reported in the National Fire Weather Data Library for Alaska. However, only one The surface wind data on which this afternoon observation, at 2 p.m., is digi­ atlas has been based were obtained from tized per day during the local fire weather several sources: the National Climatic season. Center (NCC), the U.S. Forest Service, university research projects, fossil-fuel Wind data from one fossil-fuel power power plants and their proposed sites, U.S. plant and one potential plant site Department of Energy (DOE) candidate wind (Verholek 1977) were examined. Many other turbine sites, the Atmospheric Environment wind data sets collected by university Service of Canada, and other government and research projects, state and local air private organizations. NCC has the largest pollution control agencies, or in support collection of wind data. Surveys and indi­ of environmental impact statements have ces of wind data archived there (Changery also been identified. 1975, 1978; Changery et al. 1977) are ex­ tremely helpful in locating available wind 1.2 WIND DATA SC~EENING data. The Index of Original Surface Weather Records, published for Alaska by the NCC, Table 1.1 indicates the quantity of provides additional information about wind data available in Alaska. However, stations at which wind data have been taken. not all of these data need to, or should, be used in a wind resource assessment. The wind data available from the NCC Screening procedures were developed to may be in one or more of three formats: identify stations with the most useful data summarized, digitized, and unsummarized. and to eliminate stations that would not Initially, all wind data are in the un­ significantly contribute information on the summarized format consisting of the distribution of the wind resource. original station weather records. For many stations, the collection of individual observations has been condensed into wind summaries. Changery et al. (1977) present examples of the various summary formats used and indices of the stations for which wind summaries are available. For still fewer stations (primarily airport stations) TABLE 1.1. Stations with Wind Data in Alaska the NCC has put the original one- or three­ and Peripheral Area Screened in Assessment hourly weather observations on magnetic tape to create a digitized time series of weather (and wind) observations. [TDF-14 Source and Type Screened Retained (NCC 1975) describes the data on these tapes.J Table 1.1 indicates the number of National Climatic Center stations with wind data in these various Digitized 107 107 formats in Alaska. Summarized 165 152 Unsummarized 160 19 Conventional NCC surface weather data in coastal areas were supplemented by National Fire Weather monthly mean wind speeds summarized over Data Library 74 24 coastal marine areas in the Climatic Atlas of the Outer Continental Shelf Waters and Nuclear & Fossil-Fuel Coastal Regions of Alaska (NCC and AEIDC Power Plants 2 2 1977). Wind summaries at the l50-m and 300-m levels above the surface (Winds Aloft University Research 6 2 Summaries, NCC 1970) for 16 sites in Alaska Other 5 4 supplemented the upper-air wind climatology compiled by Crutcher (1961) for the northern Canadian and Russian 16 16 hemi sphere.

2 Wind data in summarized or digitized Monthly mean values are based on as format were chosen over unsummarized data. many hours of data as are available for If stations had both summarized and digi­ that month in each year of the period of tized data, the digitized data were used record. for selected stations to prepare a more extensive characterization of the wind The daily or diurnal cycles of resource. Unsummarized data were used variation in the hourly mean wind power or only when no summarized or digitized speed are referenced to local standard time data were available. on a 24-hour clock. Midnight is both 00 and 24. In areas with a high density of sta­ tions with wind summaries, those stations 1.4 EVALUATION OF WIND DATA appearing to have the best exposure to the wind, greatest number of daily observa­ For the purpose of mapping the tions, longest period of record, and long­ geographical variation of the wind est period of unchanged anemometer height resource, wind power density was chosen and location were usually selected over over wind speed since the power density other nearby stations. When more than one incorporates in a single number the com­ type of summary (see Changery et al. 1977) bined effect of the distribution of wind was available for a given station, the sum­ speeds and the dependence of the power mary covering the longest period of record density on air density and on the cube of with constant anemometer height and loca­ the wind speed. Quantitative wind data in tion, with the greatest number of wind three formats were evaluated for mean wind speed and direction classes, and with the power density: digitized, summarized, and highest frequency of daily observations unsummarized. The2average wind power was chosen. density P (watts/m ) in a vertical plane perpendicular to the wind direction for The screening of the National Fire stations with one- or three-hourly digi­ Weather Data Library identified those tized data was calculated from: stations where NCC data were not dup­ n licated. This significantly reduced the - 1 ~ P. v. 3 (1) number of U.S. Forest Service sites to be p=2'nL... 1 1 considered in the assessment. Table 1.1 n i=1 shows the effect of screening on the where number of sites analyzed. Only sites for which there was quality information per­ n = the number of observations in the taining to the wind resource were re­ averaging period tained for the final analysis.

1.3 TIME SCALES IN REGIONAL ASSESSMENTS p = the density (in kg/m3) computed i Several time scales are encountered from the station pressure and in the following discussions of the wind temperatu re resource: annual, seasonal, monthly, and diurnal. Annual mean values are generally based on an average of the one- or three­ the wind speed (in m/s) at the hourly observations of wind speed or power in the period of record; however, a com­ ith observation time. plete calendar year's data (covering January 1 to December 31) is used for calculating individual yearly means. At For stations with wind summaries, P stations with less than 24 hourly obser­ was calculated from: vations or eight three-hourly observations per day, the values are only representative c 1 - of the times of day for which the data were P = p fj V~ (2) taken. 2" L J j =1 The four seasons are defined as: where • winter - December, January, and February p = the mean air density • spring - March, April, and May c = the number of wind speed classes • summer - June, July, and August • autumn - September, October, and fj = frequency of occurrence of winds November. in the /h class V. = the median wind speed of the jth The phrase "seasonal trends" refers J to the change in monthly mean values over class. the course of the four seasons.

3 In those cases for which unsummarized wind application of a Rayleigh speed distribu­ data were assess~d, the seasonal and annual tion gave the mean free-air wind power. average speeds, V, were estimated from a The mean wind power at the 10-m and 50-m visual examination of one year's original reference heights was taken to be one-third ~eather records. The wind power density, and two-thirds of the free-air value, re­ P, was then estimated by assuming the speed spectively, to account for the frictional frequency di stribution follOl'led a ~Jeibull slowing of the wind near the surface. distribution: These estirnates are considered lower 1.07 P y3 limits for exposed ridge crests and moun­ (3) tain summits. Local terrain features in 1.4.1 Vertical Adjustment these mountainous regions can enhance the wind power considerably. However, a major The anemometer height above the uncertainty in mountainous terrain is the surface rarely was at either the 10-m or representativeness of some of the data upon 50-m reference levels chosen for the which the free-air estimates are based presentation of the wind resource. A power (e.g., sheltering by nearby mountains can law was used to adjust the lono-term mean bias rawinsonde winds). wind speed or power density to-the refer­ ence level: Wherever possible, these estimates were compared with surface data from ridge crests and mountain summits. Over some of the mountainous areas, the estimates were adjusted based on the location of the upper­ air recording station and/or the surface where data from ridge crests. Va,r and Pa,r = the mean wind speed or 1.5 QUALITATIVE WIND INDICATORS wind power density at Although more than 230 stations heights Z (the ane- provided the wind resource assessment in a,r Alaska with quantitative data, these mometer and reference stations were not uniformly distributed. level, respectively) The station location figures for each sub­ region show that most NCC stations are a = the power law exponent. located in populated areas and along transportation corridors. Large areas in An examination of long-term mean wind Alaska are devoid of any form of quanti­ speeds at airport locations at which the tative wind data suitable for this assess­ anemometer height was changed and at tower ment, such as the western Arctic area and the Brooks Range, the eastern mainland, and ~it~s with multiple levels of anemometry all mountainous areas. Furthermore in lndlcates an a ~ 1/7 to be widely appli­ cable to low surface roughness and well areas of complex terrain, most observation exposed sites from which conventional NCC sites (except for some U.S. Forest Service data are available (Elliott 1979b). fire lookout sites) are confined to valley locations. To evaluate the distribution of 1.4.2 Estimates for Mountainous Areas the wind resource in data-sparse areas, three qualitative indicators of the wind The quantitative estimation of wind speed or power were developed for, and em­ power over mountains made use of the ployed in, the assessment. northern hemisphere upper-air wind clima­ tologies for the 10 degree longitude The most widely used technique depend­ meridians by Crutcher (1961). Since ed on certain combinations of topographical earlier studies had shown a strong cor­ and meteorological features (Elliott 1979a) relation between mountaintop and free-air that were associated with high or low wind wind speeds (Wahl 1966), the free-air wind speeds. Those features indicative of high speed at mountain summit or ridge crest mean wind speeds are: height was extrapolated (or interpolated) from the mean scalar speeds on the merid­ • gaps, passes, and gorges in areas of ional cross sections. Estimates of the frequent strong pressure gradients mountaintop wind speeds were made on a grid • long valleys extending down from o~e-half degree latitude by one degree lon­ gltude: In each such cell of the grid over mountain ranges mountalnous areas, the mean ridge crest or • high elevation plains and plateaus mounta~n summit elevation and appropriate mean wlnd speeds were estimated. Linear extrapolation provided the mean free-air • plains and valleys with persistent wind speed at the terrain elevation and the strong downslope winds associated with strong pressure gradients

4 • exposed ridges and mountain summits 1.6 WIND POWER MAPS in areas of strong upper-air winds The production of mean wind power • exposed coastal sites in areas of density maps, such as those presented for each subregion, depended on the coherent 1) strong upper-air winds, or synthesis of several pieces of information. 2) strong thennal/pressure The goal of the synthesis process was to gradients. present wind power density values repre­ sentative of sites well exposed to the Features that signal rather low mean wind prevailing strong winds. Hilltops, ridge speeds are: crests, mountain summits, large clearings, and other locations free of local obstruc­ • valleys perpendicular to the prevail­ tions to the wind are expected to have good ing winds aloft exposure to the wind (see Table 1.2). In contrast, locations in narrow valleys and • sheltered basins canyons, downwind of hills and obstructions, or in forested or urban areas are likely to • short and/or narrow valleys and have poor exposure. The wind power density canyons shown on the maps in this atlas will not be representative of poorly exposed locations. • areas of high surface roughness, e.g., Estimates for ridge crests and summits (the forested hilly terrain. shaded areas on the maps) are lower limits to the wind power expected at exposed sites. Areas in which the appropriate features In such areas, local terrain features can occur were determined by examining topo­ enhance the wind power considerably (e.g., graphic contour and shaded relief maps and by a factor of 2 or 3). By specifying the synoptic and climatological maps of sea­ type of wind exposure to which the map level pressure patterns and air flow. values of wind power pertain, we avoid the ambiguity that typical-location or average­ Evidence of persistent strong winds for-the-terrain values might introduce. In can also be found in wind-deformed vege­ this atlas, the terms wind energy, wind tation. Mean wind speeds deduced from the power, and wind power density are used syn­ extent and morphology of tree deformation onymously. by Hewson et al. (1979) provided useful qualitative indicators of wind speed in To represent the wind resource at well­ many data-sparse areas. This was used in exposed sites, it was necessary to become the Portage Pass area at the east end of extremely familiar with the land-surface Turnagain Arm. form and topography in the vicinity of every

TABLE 1.2. Land-Surface Form Terrain Features Representative of Exposed Locations

Land-Surface Form Exposed Feature (Map Value) Percentage Area(a) -----'----. Plains: f\ 1; B1,2 Plains 93

Plains With Hills: A; B3a,b Open Plains 79

Plains With Mountains: B4-6a,b Plains (not shaded)(b) 67 Ridge Crests and Mountain Summits (shaded) 10

Tablelands: B3-6c,d Tablelands, Uplands 80

Open Hills: C2-4 Hi Iitops and Uplands 27

Open Mountains: CS-6 Broad Valleys (not shaded) 80 Ridge Crests and Mountain Summits (shaded) 12

Hills: D3-4 Hilltops and Uplands 9

Mountains: DS-6 Ridge Crests and Mountain Summits (shaded) 3

(a)Percentage represents an average over the land-surfacE' forms found in the Alaska region.

(b)Shaded areas on the wind maps emphasize that map value~ are estinldtes for ridge crests and mountdin ~ummit locations.

5 data site. Maps were prepared showing the wind; whereas in mountainous terrain only location of stations, the mean wind speed the ridge crests and passes, which may be and mean wind power at the reference level, only a small percentage «5%) of the land the character of anemometer exposure, and area, may represent exposed sites. The map the land-surface form for each subregion. of classes of land-surface form by Hammond On these maps, areas with the appropriate (1964) provided information on the distri­ combinations of topographical and meteoro­ bution of plains, tablelands, hills, and logical features were identified, areas mountains in Alaska. Several character­ with eolian landforms were outlined, and istics are coded on this map: areas with wind-deformed vegetation were denoted. A great deal of attention was • percentage of land area occupied by given to the orientation of topographic surfaces of gentle inclination (less features with the prevailing wind direc­ than 8% slope) tions. Only after all this information was assembled were the maps analyzed. The • local relief, the maximum difference annual maps for each subregion were merged in elevation within a unit square into a regional mosaic. 11 km across 1.7 WIND POWER DENSITY CLASSES • percentage of gently inclined surfaces that lie in the lower half of the local The analysis of wind power maps rel i ef departs from conventional isopleth analyses by showing the boundaries of wind power • land area covered by sand, ice, and density classes. Each wind power class standing water represents the range of wind power densi­ ties likely to be encountered at exposed • pattern of major crests, peaks, and sites within an area designated as having esca rpments. that I'lind power class. Table 1.3 gives the power density limits for the wind power The first three characteristics are used in classes used in the atlas for the 10-m and the classification scheme (see Table 1.4); 50-m reference levels. The definitions of the latter two have been omitted from the the wind power density classes are repeated maps presented here. A three-character with the annual wind power map for the code, for example 83a, designates each reqion and for each state as a convenience class of land-surface form. In this for the reader. example the "8" indicates that 50% to 80% of the area is occupied by gentle slopes; Wind power density is proportional to the "3" that the maximum local difference the third moment of the wind speed distri­ in elevation is 100 to 150 m; and the "a" bution and to air density; therefore, a that more than 75% of the gently sloping unique correspondence between power density land is in the lowland. In areas of very and mean wind speed (the first moment of little gentle slope (D) or very low relief the speed distribution) does not exist. and great smoothness (Al), the third desig­ However, by specifying a Rayleigh wind nator is omitted. speed distribution and 3a standard sea level air density (1.22 kg/m ) a mean wind speed For each land-surface form, the per­ can be determined for each wind power class centage of land area that is representative limit. The decrease of air density with of well-exposed, moderately exposed, and elevation requires the mean Rayleigh speed poorly exposed sites has been estimated. to increase by about 3%/1,000 m elevation These percentages were determined subjec­ to maintain the same power density. If the tively as a function of the slope, local wind speed distribution is more sharply relief, and profile type. Table 1.2 gives peaked than the Rayleigh distribution, the the average percentage of land area that is equivalent mean speed will be slightly designated as exposed terrain for the dif­ higher than the value in Table 1.3. Con­ ferent classes of land-surface form. For versely, a broader distribution of wind simplicity, the percentages shown for each speeds will slightly reduce the equivalent class of land-surface form have been aver­ mean speed. aged over the range of categories in local relief and profile type found in Alaska. 1.8 CLASSES OF LAND-SURFACE FORM For example, the 27% for open hills is an average for C2 through C4. The average The physical characteristics of the percentage of land area that is designated land-surface form affect the number of wind as exposed terrain ranges from 93% in turbines that can be sited in exposed places. smooth plains to 3% in mountainous areas For example, over 90% of the land area ln a where the exposed areas are usually the flat plain may be favorably exposed to the ridge crests and mountain summits.

6 TABLE 1.3. Classes of Wind Power Density at been made for each cell of a one-half degree 10m and 50 m(a) latitude by one degree longitude grid on a subregion-by-subregion basis by considering the influence of the above three factors on 10 m (33 ft) 50 m (164 ft) the certainty of the estimate of the wind Wind Wind Power Wind Power power class for each cell. The definitions Power Density, Speed,(b) Density, Speed/b) for the certainty ratings are adopted from Class watts/m2 m/s (mph) watts/m2 m/s (mph) those used by Voelker et al. (1979) in a ------0 0 0 0--- resource assessment of U.S. Forest Service I -----100- 4.4 ( 9.8)--200--- 5.6 (12.5) tracts. The certainty ratings for the wind 2 -----150- 5.1 (11.5)--- 300--- 6.4 (14.3) resource assessment are defined as follows: 3 ___ 200- 5.6 (12.5)---400---7.0 (15.7) 4 ____ 250- 6.0 (13.4)---500--7.5 (16.8) Definition 5 --300- 6.4 (14.3)--600---8.0 (17.9) 1 The lowest degree of certainty. 6 __ 400- 7.0 (15.7)---800--8.8 (19.7) A combination of the following 7 --1000- 9.4 (21.1)--2000-11.9 (26.6) conditions exists: (a) Vertical extrapolation of wind speed hased on the 1/7 power law. 1) No data exist in the vicinity (b}Mean wind speed is based on Rayleigh speed disHibution of equiva­ of the cell. lent mean wind power density. Wind speed is for standard sea-level conditions. To maintain the same power densitv, speed increases 5~;'!5000 tt (3%/1000 m) ot elevation. 2) The terrain is highly complex. 3) Various meteorological and TABLE 1.4. Scheme of topographical indicators Classification suggest a high level of variability of the resource Slope (1st item) within the cell. A >80% of area gently sloping B 50 to 80% of area gently sloping 2 A low-intermediate degree of cer­ C 20 to 50% of area gently sloping tainty. One of the following D <20% of area gently sloping conditions exists: Local Relief (2nd item) 1) Little or no data exist in 1 0 to 30 m (1 to 100 ft) or near the cell, but the 2 30 to 90 m (100 to 300 ft) small variability of the 3 90 to 150 m (300 to 500 ft) resource and the low com­ 4 150 to 300 m (500 to 1000 ft) plexity of the terrain 5 300 to 900 m (1000 to 3000 ft) suggest that the wind 6 900 to 1500 m (3000 to 5000 ft) resource will not differ substantially from the Profile Type (3rd item) resource in nearby areas a :>0 75% of gentle slope is in lowland with data. b 50 to 75% of gentle slope is in lowland c 50 to 75% of gentle slope is on upland 2) Limited data exist in the d :>0 75% of gentle slope is on upland vicinity of the cell, but the terrain is highly com­ 1.9 CERTAINTY RATING plex or the mesoscale vari­ ability of the resource is The analyses of wind power density at large. exposed sites shown on the wind power maps depend on the subjective integration of 3 A high-intennediate degree of several factors: quantitative wind data, certainty. One of the following qualitative indicators of wind speed or conditions exists: power, the characteristics of exposed sites in various terrain and familiarity with the 1) There are limited wind data meteorology, climatology, and topography of in the vicinity of the cell, the region. As a result, the degree of but the low complexity of certainty with which the wind power class terrain and the small meso­ can be specified depends on scale variability of the resource indicate little • the abundance and quality of wind data departure from the wind resource in nearby areas • the complexity of the terrain with data. • the geographical variability of 2) Considerable wind data exist the resource. but in moderately complex terrain and/or in areas where A certainty rating from 1 (low) to 4 (high), moderate variability of the of the wind energy resource estimate has resource is likely to occur.

7 4 The highest degree of certainty. relief given by the middle character of the Quantitative data exist at ex­ land-surface form code. (The minimum power posed sites in the vicinity of density allowed for a category was the me­ the cell and can be confidently dian value of wind power density class 1). applied to exposed areas in the The scaling factors for the wind power den­ cell because of the low complex­ sity were based on a conservative applica­ ity of terrain and low spatial tion of a power-law type vertical adjustment variability of the resource. with the height change specified by the terrain relief code. The assignment of a certainty rating requires subjective evaluation of the inter­ In each cell of a grid one degree longi­ action of the factors involved. tude by one-half degree latitude, the land­ surface form was specified and the wind 1.10 AREAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE WIND RESOURCE power class associated with a typically exposed site in that land-surface form was As noted above, the wind power density determined. By partitioning the area of class values shown on the maps apply only the cell into the four exposure categories, to sites well exposed to the wind. There­ and by scaling the wind power class to each fore, the map area designated as having a category, the contribution of that cell to particular wind power class does not indi­ the areal distribution was determined. cate the true land area experiencing this wind power. Instead, there is a complicat­ A cell-by-cel1 representation of the ed and difficult-to-quantify relationship areal distribution is given in a map that among the class of land-surface form, the indicates the percentage land area in a land-surface area and the map value of wind cell over which the wind power class equals power density. For each land-surface fom, or exceeds a threshold value. Four maps the fraction of land area that would be are shown in the chapters on the subregion favorably exposed to the winds, i.e., have wind resources for threshold values of the wind power density indicated on the classes 2, 3, 4 and 5. map, was estimated (see Table 1.2 for averages in various land-surface forms). A summary table of the areal dis­ Furthermore, to be able to establish a wind tribution that combines the contributions power density for the remaining area, it by each cell is provided for the state and was also necessary to specify a factor by for each subregion. For each power class, which the wind power shown on the map is the sum of the area contributed by each reduced in the less-exposed areas. As an exposure category is determined for each additional complication, some land-surface subregion and the state. Summing the area forms, isolated hills, and ridges that rise associated with each power class in each above a nearly flat landscape may even cell gives the area of the state or region experience a higher power density than the over which the power class exceeds a given map indicates. value. 2he table gives the estimated land area (km ) and the percentage of land area To accommodate these various situa­ associated with each power class. tions, the land area represented by a given land-surface form was divided into Both of these presentations of the four exposure categories: 1) better areal distribution of the wind resource are exposure than typical for the terrain, highly dependent on the estimates used to 2) exposure typical for that land-surface partition the land area into the four form, 3) partially sheltered exposure, exposure categories and on the scaling of and 4) very sheltered exposure. The the power density for each category of partitioning of the land-surface forms exposure. Therefore, the areal distri­ into the four categories was based on the bution derived from the wind power' and parameters used to classify the land-surface land-surface form maps must be considered forms and on the experience of the authors only an approximation. The quantity and and their co-workers with the terrain repre­ quality of wind data and topographic in­ sented by the land-surface forms. fonllation required to make a highly accu­ rate cell-by-cell appraisal of the wind In order to adjust the wind power den­ resource are far beyond the scope of this sity from the map value to the various expo­ regional wind resource assessment. How­ sure categories, the power density was scaled ever, as wind information becomes available to be 1) greater than, 2) equal to, 3) slight­ through new measurement programs or through ly less than, and 4) much less than the map the discovery and processing of existing value power density. The factor by which data sets, the evaluation of the areal dis­ the map value was adjusted to represent the tribution of the wind resource can be wind power density in each category was improved on a cell-by-cell basis. determined by the magnitude of elevation

8 CHAPTER 2: STATE FEATURES

In this chapter, the geography, cli­ The lay of the land does affect the mate, annual average wind power and sea­ number of wind turbines that can be erected sonal variations in the wind power are in an exposed area. For example, more than described for the state of Alaska. As­ 90 percent of the land area in a flat plain sessments of the wind resource for each may be favorably exposed to the wind, where­ subregion of the state were performed using as in mountainous terrain only the ridge the methods described in Chapter 1. These crest and passes, or less than six percent assessments were then combined to depict of the land area, may represent exposed the wind energy potential for the state. sites (see Section 1.8). To determine what Major areas of Alaska that are estimated to percentage of a given land area in Alaska have the greatest wind resource are also is plains, tablelands, hills, or mountains, described in this chapter. a land-surface map of the state was used. 2.1 GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY 2.2 CLH1ATE For this analysis, Alaska has been The climate of Alaska can be divided divided into four subregions; northern, roughly into five zones. Mountain barriers southeastern, southcentral, and south­ form the boundaries between some of the western (Figure 2.1). Alaska covers an zones, while in others such as the transi­ area of 1,518,776 kr:l 2 (586,400 mi 2) and had tion zones, there is a gradual shift from an estimated population of 428,703 in 1979 one zone to another. The climate zones (Table 2.1). More than a third of these are: (I) a maritime zone, which includes people (about 185,000) live in the metro­ southeastern Alaska, the south coast, and politan area of Anchorage. The major Aleutian Islands; (2) a maritime-continen­ cities, towns, villages, rivers, mountain tal zone, which includes the north shore of ranges, and national parks and monuments the Alaska Peninsula, the Bering Sea coast are shown in Figure 2.1. inland to the Nulato Hills, the southwest Kuskokwim ~1ountains, Seward Peninsula, and the coastal areas of Kotzebue Sound north­ TABLE 2.1. Land Area and Population of Alaska ward to Point Hope and Cape Lisburne, (3) a transition zone between the maritime zone Area Population Population and the continental zone in southcentral Subregion km2 miles2 in 1979 per km2(mi2) Alaska, (4) an arctic zone from the Brooks Range to the Beaufort and Chukchi Sea Northern 732,310 282,672 84,627 .12 ( .30) coasts, and (5) a continental zone over the greater portion of the mainland . Southcentral 574,980 221,942 265,745 .46 (1.20) In the maritime zone, coastal mountains Southeastern 92,706 35,785 60,967 .66 (1.70) and the plentiful moisture from the North Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Alaska produce Southwestern 118,780 45,849 17,364 .15 ( .38) annual precipitation of up to 500 cm (200 in.) in the southeastern panhandle, and up to Alaska 1,518,776 586,248 428,703 .28 ( .73) 380 cm (150 in.) along the northern coast of the Gulf of Alaska. Amounts decrease to near 150 cm (60 in.) on the southern side of the Alaska Range in the Alaska Peninsula The topography of Alaska varies from and Aleutian Islands sections. Precipita­ subregion to subregion (see Figures 2.2 and tion decreases rapidly to the north, with 2.3). A large portion of the land is moun­ an average of 30 cm (12 inches) in the con­ tainous; the Brooks Range is in the northern tinental zone and less than 15 cm (6 in.) subregion, the Alaska Range is in the south­ in the arctic zone. Snowfall makes up a central and southwestern subregions, and large portion of the total annual precipi­ the Coast and St. Elias Mountains are in tation. The heaviest snowfall is in the the southeastern subregion. Flat coastal higher elevations of the mountains that rim plains, such as those along the Arctic the Gulf of Alaska coast where many large coast and Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta (in the glaciers and ice fields are located. There northern and southcentral subregions, are an estimated 54,000 km 2 (29,000 mi2), respectively) are also prominent features. or 5% of the state's area, composed of Flat alluvial plains are found in the river glaciers and ice fields. Maximum average valleys, such as the Yukon River valley in seasonal snowfall and maximum in a single the southeast portion of the northern sub­ season both occurred at Thompson Pass, a region. Upland plains are found throughout highway maintenance camp on the Richardson the state. Highway north of Valdez. The mean annual

9 snowfall there is 1,340 cm (547 in.), and to particular topographic features such as the record for a single season is 2,474 cm Isabel Pass in the Alaska Range or Chicka­ (974 in.). loon Pass between the Talkeetna and Chugach mountains. It is convenient to refer to Mean annual temperatures in Alaska the latter areas as wind corridors. range from 5°C (41°F) in the ~aritime zone to a chilly -12°C (10°F) in the arctic zone A wind corridor is a passageway of north of the Brooks Range. The greatest lower elevation than the surrounding seasonal contrast in temperatures is in the terrain through which the winds are continental zone. In this area average channeled and sometimes enhanced. However, SUITIr:ler maxi~um temperatures are in the 25 only those gaps, passes, valleys, gorges, to 27°C (77 to 80°F) ranee and temperatures or canyons in which the meteorological con­ around 30°C (90°F) are not unconmon. The ditions cause high wind speeds are referred highest recorded tenperature in the state, to as corridors. A corridor may vary in 38°C (100°F), occurred at Fort Yukon in width from just a few km (e.g., the Isabel June 1915. Average winter minimum temper­ Pass along the Delta River) to over 100 km atures in this area are -35°C (-30°F); (e.g., Lower Cook Inlet from Iliamna Lake temperatures in the -45°C (-50°F) range are to the Barren Islands). not uncommon. The record low temperature is -62°C (-80°F). Elsewhere in the state A brief description of the major temperatures are much more ~oderate. In (class 4 and higher) wind resource areas the mariti~e zone, high te10eratures follows in Section 2.5. For more complete average near 15°C (60°F) in the summer and discussion of these wind resource areas, low temperatures average near _7°C (20°F) refer to the chapter on the subregion con­ in wi nter. In the trans iti on zone, temper­ taining these areas. atures range from 15°C (60°F) to near -18°C (O°F); in the maritime-continental zone the 2.3.1 Certainty Rating of Wind Resource range is fro~ 15°C (60°F) in summer to -24°C (-10°F) in winter. These ranges re­ Certainty ratings of the wind power flect the summer ~arine influence and the resource were assigned to each grid cell as winter continental influence (in winter the described in Section 1.9. Maps of the cer­ Bering Sea is ice covered). The arctic tainty rating in each subregion accompany zone has a range extending from 9 to 10°C the descriptions of that subregion's wind (48 to 50°F) in summer to -30°C (-20°F) in resource. wi nter. The geographical distribution of the 2.3 IHND POHER IN ALASKA certainty ratings range from low (1) to high (4); only a few areas in Alaska were The annual average wi nd power dens i ty assigned a high certainty rating. Areas in Alaska is shown in Figure 2.4. The anal­ with high certainty ratings are in the yses of mean wind power apply to terrain northern subregion along portions of the features that are favorably exposed to the coast of the Beaufort Sea and at Cape wind, such as mountain summits, ridge Lisburne, Wales, and Nome. Other high crests, hilltops and uplands. However, certainty rating areas are the islands in nearby terrain features may interact with the Bering Sea, Cape Romanzof, Cape New­ the windfield to cause the wind power at enham, Middleton Island in the Gulf of some exposed sites to vary as much as 50 Alaska, and the southern portion of Kodiak to 100% from the assessment value. (See Island. r., high certainty rating is assign­ Wegley et al. 1980 for information on ter­ ed to these areas because of the availabil­ rain features that may increase or reduce ity of existing data, low complexity of wind energy.) In forested or wooded areas terrain, and low spatial variability of the the assessment values are representative of resource. All the above-mentioned areas large clearings with good exposure to the also have the distinction of being both prevailing strong winds, such as airports. high in certainty and areas of high wind In mountainous regions, the analyses also resource (power class 4 or higher'). Most reflect major valleys. The percentage of areas with no mountainous terrain in Alaska land area that is favorably exposed to the are given certainty ratings of 2 and 3. wind strongly depends on the land-surface However, a large area of Alaska has a low form (Section 1.8). certainty rating, either because of sparsity of data, such as the Kuskokwim-Yukon River The high wind resource areas (class 4 Delta area, or because of high complexity or higher) of Alaska can be dispersed over of terrain, such as the Aleutian Island large areas, such as on the mountain sum­ chain and all of the southeast subregion. mits and ridge crests of the Alaska Range, Brooks Range, Chugach Mountains, Wrangell Year-round data are available from Mountains, St. Elias Mountains, and the only a few exposed sites in mountainous Coast Mountains. They can also be confined

10 terrain. Nevertheless, the mountain summit maximum wind power in the west, but in the and ridgecrest estimates were given a cer­ east and interior, the strongest winds tainty rating of 2 because upper air wind occur in winter. At exposed mountain sum­ data were used to approximate the power in mits and ridge crests, winter is the season these areas. of maximum wind power because mean upper air wind speeds (more than 1,500 m above 2.3.2 Areal Distribution of the Wind ground level) are strongest during the Resource winter. However, mean wind speeds are generally low in sheltered basins and Through the superposition of a grid valleys. Cold air often fills the basins one degree longitude by one-half degree and valleys. resulting in a temperature latitude over the region, the areal distri­ profile that may remain stable throughout bution of wind power can be computed as the day because of low solar insolation. described in Section 1.10. Of the 717 grid This is most common in broad areas of south­ cells in Alaska, 240 have exposed areas central and northern Alaska where strong with class 4 or higher wind power. These temperature inversions form at the surface power classes are predominantly along the and persist for days or weeks at a time. coast and on mountain summits and ridge Under these stable atmospheric conditions. crests (shaded areas on the maps) with high the vertical mixing is restricted, and topographic relief. As a result, the esti­ winds may be very light in a basin or mate of the actual fraction of the land valley even if winds are strong on nearby area that experiences class 4 and higher ridge crests. Winds aloft generally wind power (about 8%) is significantly less decrease fror:1 50° to 65°N latitude and than the 33% of the grid boxes showing increase north of 65°N. Therefore. strong­ class 4 and higher wind power. Many grid est winds and wind powers occur in the boxes along the coast and in island areas Aleutians. southeastern Alaska, and along have only a small fraction of their areas the Beaufort and Chukchi Sea coasts. as land (see Figure 2.4). The land area estimated to have low power densities of In spring. the upper air flow de­ class 1 and 2 (about 80% of the state) is creases markedly over most of Alaska, and larger than the wind power maps suggest wind power at mountain summits and ridge (50%) because of the highly complex terrain. crests also decreases. However, solar radia­ tion increases markedly as the days become Table 2.2 summarizes the results of longer. The persistent arctic inversions the computation of the areal distribution are less frequent, and so the surface air for Alaska and its subregions. The subjec­ is less stable; therefore, spring is the tivity underlying the assignment of expo­ season of strongest winds in river valleys sure partitioning and power scaling warrants of interior Alaska, except in certain moun­ reporting the areas and percentages to only tain passes where the wintertime flow is two significant digits (see Section 1.10). channeled and intensified by the terrain Thus, individual areas and percentages may and pressure gradients. not sum to their stated totals. In summer, mean upper air wind speeds Of the upper four wind power classes, are low in all areas except the Aleutians the largest area contributions are along and southeastern Alaska where average wind the coasts in class 5 to 7. The major speeds at the 1.500-m level are seven to 11 exception is the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta area m/s (15 to 25 mph). However. lowest wind where class 4 or higher is estimated to speeds occur in summer. Some isolated loca­ extend in 150 km from the coast. The only tions in interior Alaska. such as McGrath areas away from the coast estimated to have and Tanana, show maximum summer wind powers class 4 or higher wind powers are passes and speeds. but spring and summer wind speeds at the east end of Turnagain Prm in the are close to the same at these locations. Cook Inlet, Isabel Pass in the Alaska Range south from Big Delta, and the wind corridor In autumn. upper-air wind speeds increase from the east end of Bristol Bay to southern from September to November. Autumn is the Cook Inlet. season of second highest wind power at most mountain summits and ridge crests. Along 2.4 SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN THE WIND the Chukchi and western Beaufort Sea coasts. RESOURCE autumn is the season of strongest winds and wind powers. During this season there are Throughout most of Alaska, winter is more frequent migratory storms. and there the season of maximum wind power (see Fig­ is often open water early in the season. ure 2.5). Areas with winter maxima include Some of the most severe storm surges on the all of the southeast and southwest sub­ Beaufort coast have occurred in September regions, all mountain areas, and the west and October. By the middle of November, coast of southcentral Alaska. Along the the sea ice generally has completely cover- Beaufort coast, autumn is the season of ed both the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas re-

11 ducing the temperature contrasts (and hence 2.5.3 Alaska Peninsula and the storm intensities) along the coasts. Autumn Aleutian Islands is also the season of maximum wind powers at a few locations along the Yukon and Tanana The Alaska Peninsula west of 162°W Rivers from Manley Hot Springs to Galena. shows annual wind power class 7 at all However, the difference from one season to locations except those shielded somewhat another at these locations is small, and by local terrain. The whole peninsula has all wind powers are of class 1. class 5 or higher power. This area is along a major storm track from eastern Asia Seasonal variations in atrlospheric to North America. Storms generally move stability affect the variation of wind from west to east. Some storms also move speed with height in Alaska. For example, northward through the Bering Sea, especial­ at McGrath and Fairbanks the season with ly during the summer months. Amchitka and highest winds above 900 ~b (900 to 1,100 m) Asi Tanaga in the western Aleutians show is winter, but surface and 950-~b (500 to mean annual wind power of over class 7 600-~) winds are lowest in winter and high­ (1,000 W/m2). Winter is the season of est in spring and autumn. This seasonal maximum wind power throughout the area. trend in the profiles is typical of many of the valleys and plains in interior Alaska. 2.5.4 Lower Cook Inlet 2.5 MAJOR WIND RESOURCE AREAS The area from 11 i amna Lake to Kami shak Bay across Cook Inlet to the Barren Islands Descriotions of major areas in Alaska is a corridor for strono winds. This is with hi~h annual average wind power (class 4 reflected at Bruin Bay,~which shows an 2 and above) are briefly su~marized in this average annual wind power of over 1,300 W/m section. For additional details on these Subjective comments from mariners indicate areas, refer to subreqional assessments. that this lower Cook Inlet area can be very For the locations of place names mentioned windy. Bruin Bay data and an examination in this section, refer to the individual of weather records from two drilling rigs subregional ~aps (such as Figures 4.1 and operating in the area confirm this impres­ 4.4 for northern Alaska). sion. There are no other permanent sta­ tions besides Bruin Bay that show this wind 2.5.1 Beaufort and Chukchi Sea Coasts resource. The annual average wind power for ex­ 2.5.5 Gulf of Alaska Coast posed coastal and offshore areas is esti­ mated to be at least class 5. Coastal areas Exposed areas of the entire Gulf of near Barter Island, Point Lay, and Cape Alaska coast should experience'mean annual Lisburne show class 7. Even through much wind power of class 4 or higher. Offshore of the area north of the Brooks Range is of data from Middleton Island and Brower et low relief, wind power drops off rapidly al. (1977) indicate class 7 wind power. with distance from the coast as shown by Shore data such as Cape Spencer, Cape data from Sagwon and Umiat. On the eastern Decision, Cape Hinchinbrook, and North Beaufort coast, an area with wind power of Dutch Island reflect class 5 or higher class 4 or higher appears to extend from power. Data from more sheltered loca­ the coast southward to the crests of the tions, such as Cordova, Sitka and Yakutat Brooks Range. Along the Chukchi Sea coast, do not reflect these wind power classes. wind power of class 5 to 7 is probably con­ Most of this coastline is rugged and heavi­ fined to near the coast, although there are ly wooded, so wind powers are very site­ no data available inland to corroborate specific. this assumption. 2.5.6 Exposed Mountain Ridges and Summits 2.5.2 Bering Sea Islands and Coast At least class 4 or higher wind power Islands in the Bering Sea, such as the is estimated for mountain summits and ridge Pribilofs, St. Lawrence, St. Matthew, and crests in portions of the Alaska Range on Nunivak, all show annual wind powers of the west side of the Susitna River, the class 7 except Savoonga, which has class 6. Coast Mountains along the Canadian border Along the coast from the Alaska Peninsula in southeast Alaska, and portions of the northward, wind power of class 5 or higher eastern Brooks Range. The map analyses (with class 7 in exposed areas like the represent the lower limits of the wind west end of the Seward Peninsula and the power resource for exposed areas. Wind Cape Romanzof area) is shown. Wind power speeds can vary significantly from one of class 5 or more extends eastward for ridge crest to another as a result of the 150 km (100 miles) in the Yukon-Kuskokwim orientation to the prevailing slope of the Delta area, as shown by Bethel data. ridge and its closeness to other ridge­ lines. Winter is the season for highest wind speed and power at mountain summits and ridge crests.

12

BfA UFORT SEA

BROOKS RANCE NORTHERN

\ EAGLE l,G40 \ R1VE-r \

\ ... 0 50 100 150 MILLS ~b! o 50 100 150 KILOMUfRS PNt -3195 WEAA 10

~ Pk/fJI1 1ill,.\'11""QS

FIGURE 2.1. Geograp h·Ie M a p of Alaska ~ TOPograph;c Map of Alaska '40 '35

60

55~

FIGURE 2.3. Classes of l.and-Surface Form in Alaska LAND-SURFACE FORM LEGEND

PLAINS TABLELANDS 1 FLAT PLAINS B3c,d TABLELANDS, MODERATE RELIEF A2 SMOOTH PLAINS B4c,d TABLELANDS, CONSIDERABLE RELIEF ~Bl IRREGULAR PLAINS, SLIGHT RELIEF B5c,d TABLELANDS, HIGH RELIEF B2 IRREGULAR PLAINS B6c,d TABLELANDS, VERY HIGH RELIEF

PLAINS WITH HILLS OR MOUNTAINS SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION A,B3a,b PLAINS WITH HILLS SLOPE (1 st LETTER) B4,a,b PLAINS WITH HIGH HILLS A >80% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING B5a,b PLAINS WITH LOW MOUNTAINS B 50-80% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING B6a,b PLAINS WITH HIGH MOUNTAINS C 20-50% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING o <20% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING OPEN HILLS AND MOUNTAINS C2 OPEN LOW HILLS LOCAL RELIEF (2nd LETTER) 1-----1 C3 OPEN HILLS o TO 30m (1 TO 100 tt) 1----1 C4 OPEN HIGH HILLS 2 30 TO 90m (100 TO 300 It) ~-----l C5 OPEN LOW MOUNTAINS 3 90 TO 150m (300 TO 500 tt) 1-----1 C6 OPEN HIGH MOUNTAINS 4 150 TO 300m 1500 TO 1000 tt) '------' 5 300 TO 900m 11000 TO 3000 tt)

HILLS AND MOUNTAINS 6 900 TO 1500m 13000 TO 5000 tt) 3 HILLS 04 HIGH HILLS PROFILE TYPE (3rd LETTER) ~05 LOW MOUNTAINS a >75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS IN LOWLAND 06 HIGH MOUNTAINS b 50-75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS IN LOWLAND

C 50-75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS ON UPLAND d >75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS ON UPLAND D RIDGE CREST ESTIMATES

o 50 100 150 MILES o 50 100 150 KILOMETERS PNL-3195 WERA·' 0

a

520 ~e ~~~~\ ~ ~t. 4------I------~\------\ - l/IiO 18()U ',760

FIGURE 2.4. Annual Average Wind Power in Alaska Classes of Wind Power Density at 10m and 50 m (a)

10 m (33 tt) 50 m (164 ft) Wind Wind Power Wind Power Power Density, Speed,(b) Density, Speed,(b) Class watts/m2 m/s (mph) watts/m2 m/s (mph) ----0 ° ° 0-- 1 100-4.4 ( 9,8)--200--5,6 (12,5) 2 ---150--5,1 (11.5)--300--6.4 (14.3) 3 ---200--5,6 (12,5)--400--7,0 (15,7) 4_--250--6.0 (13.4)--500--7.5 (16.8) 5 ---300--6.4 (14,3)-- 600 --8,0 (17.9) 6_--400--7.0 (15.7)--800--8.8 (19.7) 7 --1000--9.4 (21.1 )--2000--1 1 ,9 (26.6)

(a)Vertical extrapolation of wind speed based on the 1/7 power law.

(b)Mean wind speed is based on Rayleigh speed distribution of equiva· lent mean wind power density. Wind speed is for standard sea-level conditions. To maintain the same power density, speed increases 5%/5000 ft (3%/1000 m) of elevation,

TABLE 2.2. Areal Distribution of Wind Power Classes in Alaska I-'

Land Area (km2) Equal or Exceeding Power Class

Power Northern South central Southeast Southwest Class Alaska Alaska Alaska Alaska Alaska 1,500,000 710,000 580,000 88,000 110,000 2 260,000 130,000 100,000 3,000 30,000 3 180,000 70,000 78,000 2,000 27,000 4 120,000 36,000 56,000 1,000 23,000 5 91,000 23,000 51,000 300 17,000 6 60,000 13,000 36,000 12 12,000 7 26,000 1,000 17,000 0 7,800

Percentage Land Area Equal or Exceeding Power Class Power Northern Southcentral Southeast Southwest ~ Alaska Alaska Alaska Alaska Alaska laO 100 laO 100 100 2 18 18 18 3.5 27 3 12 9.8 13 2.2 25 4 7,8 5,1 9,6 1.1 21 5 6.1 3.3 8.7 0.34 16 6 4.1 1.8 6.1 0.01 11 7 1,8 0,14 3,0 0.00 7.2 fl ] WINTER (W) B'ZEZI SPRING (SP) ~SUMMER(S) Ill][[] AUTUMN (AU)

D RIDGE CREST ESTIMATES

N o 50 100 150 MILES co o 50 100 150 KILOMc HRS

PNL·3195 WERA·l0

172U 1760

FIGURE 2.5. Seasonal Maximum Wind Power in Alaska CHAPTER 3: SUBREGIONAL FEATURES

The wind resource for the subregions United States). The use of the land-sur­ of Alaska is described in Chapters 4 face form map was described in Section 1.8. through 7. The subregion descriptions are presented in a consistent format. The text Two maps are used to show the loca­ of each description is followed by maps, tions of stations with wind data. The graphs, and tables that identify features first map gives the locations and names of of the geography and the wind energy re­ the NCC stations with wind data in any source and summarize the data collected form. The other map shows the locations of from the observation stations. The NeC, fire weather, and other data stations sequence of maps, tables, and graphs used that were utilized in this assessment of to depict these features is presented below the wind resource. in Table 3.1. In two of the subregional descriptions, southeast and southwest, the The map of annual average wind power illustrations are presented so that related is accompanied by maps of the certainty information is on facing pages and can be rating of the estimated annual average wind viewed simultaneously; however, the other power by grid cell, and of the areal dis­ two subregions have numerous graphs and tribution of the wind resource by grid cell. appear on several pages. The certainty rating, which ranges from 1 (low) to 4 (high), indicates the level of To avoid repetition in the following confidence in the estimates of the wind chapters, the general format and content of resource in each cell of the grid. The the various maps, tables, and graphs used rating is based on the availability of wind to describe the wind resource for each sub­ data, the complexity of the terrain, and region are summarized here. the inherent geographical variability of the wind resource (see Section 1.9). The 3.1 MAPS OF STATE FEATURES maps of areal distribution give the percen­ tage of land area in each cell estimated to The maps of cultural geography show experience an annual average wind power the locations of major cities, rivers, and class equal to or exceeding power classes 2, terrain features for each subregion. The 3, 4, and 5 (see Section 1.10). maps of shaded topographic relief are re­ productions of the 1:2,500,000 scale of Maps of the average wind power are U.S. Geological Survey maps. The land­ presented for each season: winter surface form maps are reconstructions of (December, January, and February); spring portions of the map of classes of land­ (March, April, and May); summer (June, surface form by Hammond (1964; this is also July, and August); and autumn (September, available at a scale of 1:7,500,000 on October, and November). The legend for Plate 62 in the National Atlas of the t:,e power classes is found with the annual average wind power map.

TABLE 3.1. Maps, Tables and Graphs Used to Depict the Wind Resource

Maps

Left Hand Right Hand

Cultural Geography Topographic Shaded Relief Land·Surface Form Legend to Land Surface Form NCC Station Locations Location of Stations Used in Wind Assessment Annual Average Wind Power Legend to Wind Power Classes and Table on Areal Distribution Certainty Rating Legend for Certainty Rating Areal Distribution (Classes 2 & 3) Areal Distribution (Classes 4 &5) Seasonal Average Wind Power (winter, summer) Seasonal Average Wind Power (spring, fall)

Graphs

Summary Table of Selected Stations Interannual Speed and Power Monthly Speed and Power Diurnal Speed Directional Frequency Speed Frequency Speed Duration Power Duration

21 3.2 FEATURES OF SELECTED STATIONS monthly average wind power and speed and are at anemometer height, Z, for all other graphs. The analysis of the wind resource on a state and subregional basis depends on in­ The coded information listed with the formation from individual stations. For anemometer height is one of the following those stations with one- or three-hourly (Changery 1978): data on NCC magnetic tapes, a very detailed presentation of the temporal variation and R - indicates the anemometer was located character of the wind resource can be ob­ on the roof of a control tower, tained. Graphs portraying various features operations building, hangar, or of the wind resource have been prepared for other similar structure. Normal selected stations in each subregion and are mast heights were 2 to 4 m above presented in the subregion chapters. For roof line; however, many inner each station presented, a brief description city locations used considerably of the station's topographical setting and taller masts. The listed height unique features is given in the text pre­ is elevation above ground level, ceding the maps and graphs. The geograph­ not roof level; the "R" indicates ical area represented by a station varies, an-exposure type. depending on the complexity of the local terrain and variability of the wind G - indicates the anemometer was resource. located on a mast attached directly to the ground. Most A table listing the stations for which anemometers at airport loca­ graphs and summaries of the features of the tions changed from a roof to wind resource are presented precedes the ground exposure by the early series of graphs. Height adjustments were 1960s. made only to obtain estimates of the aver­ age wind speed and power at 10 m and 50 m B - indicates a beacon tower exposure. given in this table. No attempt was made For these locations, neither R to adjust to a reference height any of the nor G was considered satisfactory. other wind characteristics (e.g., diurnal wind speeds, frequency distributions of UNK - indicates that documentation wind speed, wind direction, speed and power on instrument heights was not duration, etc.) presented in the graphs for available. selected stations. Caution should there­ fore be used in comparing and interpreting If information on exposure was unavailable, station plots. no exposure code is given. In the plots of interannual wind power On a few station plots, an E follows and speed, the first line of each graph the annual average wind power. If a pres­ contains the station name and state. The sure or temperature observation is missing, second line contains the WBAN number. In the wind power for that observation is com­ all other plots, the first line on each puted using an air density based on station station graph contains the station identi­ elevation. If the number of missing obser­ fication that corresponds to the name and vations exceeds 25% of the total, then an E location listed in the table and the month is used to designate that the wind power is and year of the selected period of record. an estimated value. Only one period of record with constant anemometer height was plotted for most Up to 12 graphs of the same type may stations, even though some stations had appear on one page to allow for station­ several periods of record. However, if to-station comparison. The scale of each there was uncertainty as to which period set of plots was determined by the maximum had better anemometer exposu re or if two range of values found for all stations in periods with similar exposure indicated the region. substantially different wind character­ istics, two periods of record were plotted. 3.2.1 Interannual Wind Power and Speed Usually, periods when the anemometer was located on a mast directly on the ground The plots of interannual wind speed were preferred to periods when the anemo­ and power portray the variations of the meter was located on the roof of a building. yearly average over the period of record. The beginning and ending of each period of The second line of each station graph record with constant anemometer height contains the WBAN number, anemometer height and location are designated by a "plus" (Z) in m and its location, and the annual symbol on the wind power curve and by a average wind sgeed (V) in m/s and wind power "diamond" symbol on the wind speed curve. (P) in watts/m2 at Z. V and P are adjusted If the anemometer height was unknown, a to 10 m for the graphs of interannual and height of 10 m was assumed. Only yearly

22 mean wind speeds based on 12 months' data each of 16-point compass sectors and the (January through December) were plotted. average wind speed of all observations in each sector. Some stations show a definite Year-to-year deviations from the bias toward eight-point compass observations. long-ternl annual average may not be a The coincidence of peaks in the two curves reliable indicator of the deviations at indicates that the highest wind speeds occur nearby sites or areas (Elliott 1979b). from the prevailing directions. Caution should be used in applying these data to 3.2.2 Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed other sites, because nearby terrain and obstructions strongly influence the wind Graphs of the monthly average wind directions. Some of the directional data power and speed portray the monthly and presented may not be reliable or represent­ seasonal trends of the wind. Stations with ative because of the anemometer location. less than five years of observations may not show reliable seasonal trends. Also, 3.2.5 Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency stations in complex terrain may not repre­ sent the seasonal trends in nearby areas Graphs of the annual average frequency because of the influence of nearby terrain. of observed wind speeds are shown in 1-m/s Most of the station curves are within the intervals. Along with the observed distri­ range of 0 to 800 watts/m2. bution, a Rayleigh wind speed distribution based on the annual mean speed is shown. 3.2.3 Diurnal Wind Speed by Season Some of the stations show pronounced peaks in the observed distribution; these peaks The diurnal variation in wind speed reflect observer bias toward certain wind according to season is plotted on graphs speeds, such as 2, 5, and 8 m/s (5, 10, and containing four curves, one for each 15 knots). This bias occurs more frequent­ season. Local standard time (LST) is used ly in records prior to 1960. Because many with hour 24 as midnight and hour 1 as the of the wind instruments used had a thres­ beginning hour. For National Weather Serv­ hold velocity of about 1.5 m/s (3 knots), ice and Federal Aviation Administration the frequency of observations in the l-m/s stations the diurnal curves are based on 24 class is often lower than the frequency of observations daily for periods ending be­ the calm and 2-m/s classes. fore 1965 and on eight observations daily for periods ending after 1964. For Air 3.2.6 Annual Average Wind Speed and Power Force stations the diurnal curves are Duration usually based on 24 observations daily regardless of the period. The diurnal The percentage of time that a given curves for Navy stations are based on 24 wind speed or power is exceeded is shown in observations daily for periods ending two sets of graphs. Abrupt changes in the before March 1972 and on eight observations slope of the duration curves for speed and for periods ending after February 1972. power usually correspond to peaks in the speed frequency distribution caused by 3.2.4 Directional Frequency and Average observer bias and instrument threshold Speed velocity. Points are plotted at l-m/s intervals for the speed duration curves. Graphs of the annual average frequency Points are plotted every 50 watts/m2 up to of occurrence show the percentage of time 500 watts/m2 and every 100 watts/m2 up to that the observed wind direction was from 1,000 watts/m 2 in the power duration curves.

23

NORTHERN ALASKA CHAPTER 4: NORTHERN ALASKA

The northern subregion has an approxi­ warped areas along the seacoast formed mate population of 84,627 (1979 estimate). large collecting basins; glacial lakes Most of the people in this subregion live scattered throughout the mountains and along the coast or one of the major rivers. foothills; tundra lakes of all shapes Major population centers and respective and sizes that occupy the bench and flat populations are: Fairbanks North Star valley lands; and lakes formed by volcanic Borough, (60,227), Nome (2,982), and Kotze­ action on the central Seward Peninsula. bue (2,526), and Barrow (2,715). The great The major lakes of the Yukon interior and majority of the other communities in the northwest environments of the northern sub­ subregion have populations under 500. This region are Imuruk Lake, 69 km 2 (28 mi 2); subregion comprises approximately one half Walker Lake, 35 km 2(14 mi 2); and Shelby Lake, of the total land area of the state. It 20 km 2 (8 mi 2). Selawik Lake is much larger includes the total width of the state from than these but is affected by tidal action. 141°W to the west coast, including Little Diomede Island, and from 64°N to the Beau­ Permafrost is found throughout the fort Sea and Arctic Ocean (see Figure 4.1). whole northern subregion and is slightly The total surface area of the northern sub­ more prevalent in northern than in southern region is 732,310 km 2 (282,672 mi 2 ). areas. The penna frost appears to be thawed near deep lakes and major rivers. A few A major geographical feature of nor­ glaciers are found in this subregion, mostly thern Alaska is the Brooks Range, which in the northeastern portion of the Brooks runs east and west between 69°N 1410W and Range, but snowfields that last from year 68°N 163°W (see Figure 4.2), and ranges in to year can be found in pockets throughout elevation from 1,220 to 2,750 m (see Fig­ the northern subregion. ure 4.3). The Brooks Range divides the arctic slope north of the range from the The wind data available from NCC are Yukon and the northwestern portions of this mostly from stations along the coast and subregion. major rivers in the subregion (Figure 4.4). Large areas exist in the northern subregion From their origins in the Brooks Range, where no year-round data or only limited numerous rivers such as the Colville and unsummarized data were available. In the Sagavanirtok pass through the arctic foot­ absence of other reliable data, sparse fire hills on their way to the coastal plain. weather data from some of the foothill and The rolling uplands of moist tundra with forested areas of the region (Figure 4.5) thousands of shallow impermanent thaw lakes were used in the calculations. dominate the arctic coastal plain. The coastline is generally low and flat with 4.1 ANNUAL AVERAGE WIND POWER IN occasional bluffs and sea cliffs with heights NORTHERN ALASKA up to 15 meters. Deltas terminate the larger rivers and streams, especially east of Point The annual average available wind Barrow. Barrier islands and spits run in a power density in northern Alaska is shown broken line a few miles offshore, enclosing in Figure 4.6. The analyses of mean wind • long, na~row lagoons. Here and there the power apply to terrain features that are line is interrupted by stretches of coast­ favorably exposed to the wind, such as line facing the open sea. mountain summits, ridge crests, hilltops and uplands. However, nearby terrain South of the Brooks Range the subregion features may interact with the windfield to is composed of the Yukon interior and the cause the wind power at some exposed sites northwestern coast environments. Other to vary as much as 50 to 100% from the as­ mountains besides the Brooks Range in this sessment value. (See Wegley et al. 1980 for subregion are the Ray Mountains, Nulato information on terrain features that may Hills and the Yukon-Tanana uplands. increase or reduce wind energy.) In forest­ ed or wooded areas the assessment values Taiga forests are found extensively in are representative of large clearings with the highland and river valleys below 600 m. good exposure to the prevailing strong winds, The major rivers south of the Brooks Range such as airports. In mountainous regions, are the Yukon, the longest in the state at the analyses also reflect major valleys. 3,017 km; the Koyukuk; the Tanana; the The percentage of land area that is favor­ Noatak; and the Kobuk. ably exposed to the wind strongly depends on the land-surface form (Section 1.8). Lakes in this portion of the subregion fall into four groups: those resulting The annual average wind power (Fig­ from the regional defonnation where down- ure 4.6) is class 4 or higher all along the

25 Beaufort and Chukchi Sea coasts except at Complexity of terrain accounts for the Barrow where class 3 occurs. Class 4 or class 2 or 3 ratings along the north and higher wind power is estimated to be within east coast of Norton Sound, the north coast 20 miles of these coasts and occurs only in of Kotzebue Sound, the southwest Chukchi exposed locations. Near Barter Island Sea coast, and the eastern Beaufort Sea class 7 wind power prevails. Similarly, coast. Lack of data over much of the Arctic from Point Lay to Cape Lisburne class 7 north of the Brooks Range results in an wind power prevails. extensive area with a certainty rating of 1. The Kotzebue Sound area has class 4 or The highest rating given to any in­ higher wind power. Kotzebue itself has terior location is 3 in the Fairbanks area class 6 annual average wind power. and the east-central arctic plain where Umiat, Sagwan, and visually scanned data On the Seward Peninsula, class 4 or confirm a wind power class of 1. The re­ more wind power occurs at the west end near mainder of the interior has of certainty the Bering Strait and generally along the ratings 1 and 2. Mountain summits and south coast except where areas are shielded ridge crest estimates in the Brooks Range, such as at Nome. Class 7 wind power occurs Nulato Hills, and lesser mountains and in the vicinity of the Bering Strait, as hills in the interior have a certainty shown by data from Wales and Tin CitY2where rating of 2 based on upper wind estimates the annual wind power is over 700 W/m . from Crutcher (1961) and wind summaries from rawinsonde stations at Fairbanks, Mountain summit and ridge crest wind Nome, Barrow, and Barter Island. powers are estimated to be generally class 3 along the Brooks Range except at the east 4.1. 2 Areal Distribution of the end. Class 2 wind power prevails in the -,;; nd Resource interior of the Seward Peninsula; the Nulato Hills are also estimated to have class 2 Figure 4.8 illustrates areal distri­ power. bution of the wind power in northern Alaska. The numbers identify the percentage of area Class 4 and higher wind power occurs in each cell of the grid in which the wind in the vicinity of Big Delta, where the power equals or exceeds some threshold value. flow of wind through Isabel Pass affects Although class 4 or higher wind power is the area. Class 2 wind power is estimated predicted in 20% of the grid cells, only at ridge crests in the Ray Mountains, the about 5% of the land area is estimated to hills between the Yukon and Tanana Rivers, experience these power densities (see and slopes of the Alaska Range to the south Table 4.1). High wind power resource areas of the subregion. are confined to the coast, where in many of the grid boxes there is only a small percent­ Most of the remainder of the northern age of land and mountain summits and ridge subregion has class 1 wind power. The few crests of the eastern Brooks Range. In the data in the northern Brooks Range indicate high topographic relief of the Brooks Range, that valleys are generally sheltered. There the areas with high wind resource are re­ are few passes through the range and data duced to only the most exposed ridge crests; from Atigun, Anaktuvuk, and Wiseman indi­ elsewhere wind power classes 1 to 3 prevail. cate that low wind powers are the rule. The only inland areas with class 4 or higher are the wind corridors at the east end of • 4.1.1 Certainty Rating of the Wind the Seward Peninsula and in the vicinity of Resource Big Delta. Most of northern Alaska is of wind power class 1 and 2 at both lowlands Certainty ratings in northern Alaska and along the mountain summ'its and ridge vary from 1 to 4 (Figure 4.7). Only three crests. areas have class 5 or higher annual wind power and a certainty rating of 4. They 4.2 SEASONAL WIND POWER are the wind corridor at the east end of the Seward Peninsula at Moses Point and Wind power maps for each season are Koyuk, with annual class 5; the west end of shown in Figure 4.9. Winter is the season the Seward Peninsula at Wales, Tin City, of maximum wind power along the Chukchi and and Point Spencer, with annual power Bering coasts, and the east end of the Beau­ class 7; and the east-central Beaufort fort Sea coast. Mountain summits and ridge Sea coast at McIntyre and Oliktok with crests also have winter maximum wind powers. annual power classes 6 and 7. The Spring is the season of maximum wind power certainty rating for areas a short in sheltered valleys of the Yukon, Koyukuk, distance from the coast drops quickly and Tanana Rivers. However, from Barrow to 2 or 1 because of the sparsity of data eastward to the Sagavanirktok River, autumn and complexity of the terrain. is the season of maximum wind power.

26 4.2.1 Winter east of Harrison Bay, along the Chukchi Sea coast south of Point Lay, at the west end During the winter, wind powers at of the Seward Peninsula, and at the east exposed coastal locations such as Barter ends of Kotzebue Sound and Norton Sound. Island and the west end of the Seward The west end of the Seward Peninsula is the Peninsula at Wales and Tin City are only area attaining class 7 wind power exceptionally high--more than 700 and during summer; the Cape Lisburne area 1,100 W/m 2, respectively. Nearly all of attains class 6. In summer there is a the Chukchi Sea coast, the eastern half of primary storm track through the Bering the Beaufort Sea, and exposed areas of Strait. Elsewhere along the northern Kotzebue Sound have class 7 power. As Alaska coast class 3 wind power prevails. Moses Point and Koyuk data show, classes 4 to 7 wind power prevails in the relatively At mountain summits and ridge crests low relief area at the east end of the of the eastern Phillip Smith Mountains, Seward Peninsula. Elsewhere along the class 4 wind power occurs. In the Nulato coast, classes 3 to 6 wind power prevails. Hills and the western Brooks Range, class 2 prevails. Mountain summits and ridge crests in the Brooks Range generally have class 4 The wind corridor in the eastern Seward power, except in the Phillip Smith and Peninsula has decreased to class 2 to 4 DeLong Mountains, which have class 1; the power, which is lower than the values in Baird Mountains have class 2; and the winter and spring. The north end of Isabel Endicott Mountains, the Nulato Hills, and Pass also decreases to wind power class 1, smaller mountain ranges in the interior and indicating that high winds in this pass are on the Seward Peninsula have classes 2 or 3 primarily a winter phenomenon. Elsewhere power. in the subregion, class 1 wind power pre­ vails in summer. Along sheltered valleys of major rivers such as the Yukon, Koyukuk, and Tanana, 4.2.4 class 1 wind power prevails. There is also class 1 wind power over much of the area in In autumn, class 4 or higher wind the arctic coastal plain between the Brooks power prevails all along the Chukchi and Range and the Beaufort Sea coast in winter. Beaufort Sea coasts. Class 7 occurs all along the Beaufort coast except around 4.2.2 Barrow and Lonely Point, where class 4 and 6 power prevails. Along the Chukchi Sea In spring, class 4 or higher wind power coast, class 7 occurs in the Peard Bay area occurs along the Beaufort Sea coast from and from Point Lay to Cape Lisburne. Class 7 Lonely Point eastward to the Canadian border, wind power also occurs at the west end of all along the Chukchi Sea coast and along the Seward Peninsula, and class 6 occurs in the Seward Peninsula, except portions of the Kotzebue area and the east end of Norton the Norton Sound coast around Nome where Sound. class 3 prevails. Class 7 wind power occurs along the Chukchi Sea coast from Mountain summits and ridge crests of Point Lay to Cape Lisburne and in the Peard the Brooks Range generally have class 3 Bay area. Class 7 also occurs at the west power in the Phillip Smith, Endicott, and end of the Seward Peninsula, as shown by DeLong Mountains and only class 2 in the Wales and Tin City. West of Lonely Point Baird Mountains. The Nulato Hills, Ray to Barrow, classes 2 and 3 wind power Mountains, and the Yukon and Tanana uplands prevails. show class 2 power in the higher elevations but for the most part are of class 1. Mountain summits and ridge crests in the eastern Brooks Range have power of Wind corridors at the east end of the class 3 or 4, and those in the Yukon and Seward Peninsula have class 2 to 5 wind Tanana uplands and the Nulato Hills are of power as shown by Moses Point and Koyuk class 2. data. The Isabel Pass area shown by Big Delta indicates class 4 wind power. In the wind corridors at the east end of the Seward Peninsula wind power of class 3 The remainder of the northern sub­ to 5 occurs, and in the Isabel Pass area, region is generally of wind power class 1 power of class 2 and 3 occurs. In the spring, in autumn. the remainder of northern Alaska generally has class 1 wind power. 4.3 FEATURES OF SELECTED STATIONS 4.2.3 Summer Graphs of wind characteristics are shown for 21 stations in northern Alaska. In summer, class 4 or higher wind Twelve of these are along the coast and the power occurs along the Beaufort Sea coast remainder are in the interior of the sub-

27 region. The station characteristics are observations per day during the summary summarized in Table 4.2. period. The Beaufort Sea coast is represented Umiat on the Colville River is consider­ by the stations Barrow, Lonely Point, Olik­ ed very representative of the interior of tok, Flaxman Island, and Barter Island. the arctic coastal plain. Winds tend to be All stations are well exposed to winds from channeled to the east and west directions all directions. Barrow and Barter Island, by the river valley. Hills rise to more NWS stations, have the greatest reliability than 300 m within 10 km northwest of Umiat. and highest frequency of observations. The period of record is short (4.5 years), Lonely Point and Oliktok averaged three however, 24 observations per day were taken observations per day, and Flaxman Island during this summary period. averaged only one observation per day. Bettles is located on the Koyukuk River Barrow, Wainwright, Point Lay, and in the foothills of the Endicott Mountains Cape Lisburne represent conditions along of the Brooks Range. The river valley runs the Chukchi Sea coast. The most reliable northeast to southwest, perpendicular to stations are Barrow and Cape Lisburne, the prevailing winds, and is representative where observations averaged 24 and 18 per of winds in sheltered valleys. Peaks more day, respectively. Cape Lisburne has hills than 630 m occur within 9 to 19 km to the from the southeast to the west quadrants. west, north, and east. To the south, the The effects of this terrain are increased terrain is open and marshy. The station frequency and enhancement of easterly winds had a frequency of 24 observations per day and lesser wind speeds from the east during the 14-year summary. through south. Wainwright and Point Lay are well exposed to winds from all direc­ There are three stations in the Yukon tions. River valley. From west to east they are Galena, Tanana, and Fort Yukon. Kotzebue Sound is well represented by Kotzebue, a NWS station on the Baldwin Galena is located in the broad flood­ Peninsula. The station is exposed to winds plain of the Yukon just west of the Kaiyuh from all directions and had an average of Mountains. There are no hills over 300 m 21 observations per day during the summary within 20 km of the station. The most period. exposed directions are to the northeast and southwest. During the six-year summary for Tin City is representative of the Galena there were 24 observations per day. winds in the Bering Strait and the west end of the Seward Peninsula. It is most expo­ Tanana is located 7 km west of the sed to winds from the north and south be­ confluence of the Yukon and Tanana Rivers. cause of elevated terrain to the west (over Hills to the north of the station rise to 600 m) and to the east (over 300 m). more than 600 m within 15 km and to 1,500 m within 50 km. To the south the terrain is Nome and Moses Point experience repre­ flat with numerous lakes and swamps. Dur­ sentative winds found on the south coast of ing the 16-year summary for Tanana there the Seward Peninsula, along the Norton Sound. was an average of 24 observations per day. Nome is exposed to the east, south, Fort Yukon is located at the con­ and west. Foothills (heights ranging from fluence of the Yukon and Porcupine Rivers. 150 to 400 m) extend from northwest to It is located in a broad valley 150 km wide northeast at a distance of 7 to 15 km and and 370 km long and is openly exposed in rise to 1,500 m in the Kigluaik Mountains all directions. During the 12-year summary 50 km to the north. Nome is a NWS station used in the analysis there was an average with a frequency of 24 observations per of 11 observations per day. It is repre­ day. sentative of the Yukon Flats area. Moses Point in the northeastern por­ The three stations along the Tanana tion of Norton Sound is well exposed to River are Nenana, Fairbanks, and Eielson winds from all directions except west Air Force Base (AFB). through north-northwest. About 7 km to the west through north of the station, rolling Nenana is located on the floodplain at hills average 500 m in elevation. To the the confluence of the Nenana and Tanana northeast the terrain is flat and swampy Rivers. The mountains of the Alaska Range for 19 to 28 km. The Koyuk and Buckland are 50 to 75 km south of Nenana, and the Rivers form a low pass into the Kotzebue White Mountains are to the northeast. Sound area to the north, resulting in There is a range of hills with elevations strong northeasterly winds during the winter to 300 m within 5 km to the north-northeast months. Moses Point had an average of 24 of the station. The remainder of the vi-

28 cinity is generally marshy with numerous locations, but wind power and speed are lakes and swamps. During the II-year sum­ much less. Interior locations show less mary used in the analysis there were 24 variation from year to year than do the observations per day. coastal locations. Fairbanks International Airport is 4.3.2 Monthly Average Wind Power located on the floodplain of the Tanana and Speed River 9 km west of Fairbanks. There are hills as high as 300 m within 4 km to the Along the Beaufort Sea coast mean west and north of the airport. To the annual wind speeds (Figure 4.11) average southwest through southeast there is gen­ 5.4 to 5.9 m/s; however, the wind power erally open, gently rising terrain for classes average from 3 at Barrow to 7 at 55 km to the Alaska Range with peaks to Barter Island with a gradual increase from more than 5,800 m. During the 7-year west to east. The wind speed and power summary used in this analysis there were 24 vary less by season in the west, where observations per day. Barrow shows an October maximum and all other stations show a pronounced November Eielson AFB is located 28 to 37 km to February/March maximum. southeast of Fairbanks along the Tanana River. In this area the river valley is Along the Chukchi Sea coast the wind oriented southeast to northwest; hills rise speeds average 5.1 to 6.1 mIs, and wind to more than 600 m within 19 km east of the power class increases from north to air base. The area to the southeast through south--3 at Barrow to 7 at Point Lay and south to northwest is generally exposed. Cape Lisburne. All stations show a fall However, to the south the terrain rises and winter maximum and a minimum in summer. gently toward the Alaska Range. During the Farther south along the coast, Kotzebue II-year summary used in this analysis there shows a mean annual speed of 5.8 m/s and a were 24 observations per day. wind power class of 6. It also has a late fall and winter maximum and a minimum in Indian Mountain is located in a depres­ summer. Tin City, at the west end of the sion in the Indian Mountains surrounded by Seward Penninsula, shows the strongest wind peaks of higher elevation. It is sheltered speed of any station in northern Alaska at from strong winds from all directions. 8.5 m/s and wind power class 7. There is a During the nine-year summary used in the slight late-fall and winter maximum and analysis, there were an average of 21 obser­ summer minimum but little variation from vations per day. season to season. All interior locations are of wind power class 1 with mean annual 4.3.1 Interannual Wind Power and Speed wind speeds varying from 3.8 m/s at Fort Yukon to 1.6 m/s at Fairbanks/Eielson AFB. Along the Beaufort coast (Figure 4.10) With the exceptions of Umiat and Indian annual wind power at Barter Island varies Mountain, all interior stations show a by a factor of two from 300 watts/m 2 (W/m 2) slight spring maximum and a winter minimum. to more than 600 W/m2. Barrow, Lonely Point, Umiat, on the north slope of the Brooks and Oliktok also vary by a factor of two, 2 Range, has a very short period of record but their actual values are 120 to 250 W/m that shows a fall minimum. Indian Mountain at Barrow, 170 to 340 W/m2 at Lonely Point, shows a fall and winter maximum and a and 240 to 480 W/m2 at Oliktok. With few summer minimum more typical of a coastal exceptions, variations in wind power and location. The reason for winter minima in speed are synchronous from one end of the interior Alaska is the prevalent tempera­ Beaufort coast to the other. Along the ture "inversions of col d air during that Chukchi Sea coast, Cape Lisburne showed the time of year. With short periods of sun­ most interannual variability', from over light, low sun" angle, and clear, or partly 700 W/m2 in 1956 to 320 W/m2 in 1971. At cloudy skies, surface cooling occurs 24 Barrow, Point Lay, Wainwright, and Cape hours a day and strong inversions with lisburne the interannual variations coin­ dense air at the surface can persist for cide from year to year. Along the west weeks at a time. Indian Mountain, at coast of Alaska, Kotzebue showed its high­ approximately 1,000 feet elevation, is est wind power in 1951 of 580 W/m2, often above the strongest inversions; 2.9 times the lowest power of 200 W/m2 in therefore, it has more winter wind. 1953 and 1962. Nome and Moses Point are generally synchronous with Kotzebue; how­ 4.3.3 Diurnal Wind Speed by Season ever, actual values of wind power are generally less due partly to less exposure. The diurnal variation of wind speeds Though Tin City has the greatest wind power in northern Alaska (Figure 4.12) is gen­ of the west coast locations, it varied more erally that the strongest winds occur in and variations did not coincide. Umiat's the early afternoon in spring at Beaufort short record is also synchronous with coastal and Chukchi coastal locations and in spring,

29 summer, and fall at interior stations. In the interior, Bettles has its most There is no diurnal variation in winter frequent winds from northerly and southerly anywhere in the subregion. Because most of directions. There are also winds from the northern Alaska subregion is north of east-northeast and southwest along the the Arctic Circle, there are periods in Koyukuk River valley; however, the winds winter when the sun does not rise above the are not particularly strong from any direc­ horizon and periods in summer when it does tion (typical of many valleys in the southern not set. Since the driving mechanism for Brooks Range east of the Nulato Hills). diurnal variations of a meteorological param­ Fort Yukon is very representative of the eter is often radiational heating or cooling, Yukon Flats area, with northeast winds the transition periods between winter and being most frequent and southwest winds the summer have the greatest day-to-night con­ next most frequent. Wind speeds reach 4 to trast. Other influences are more important 5 m/s from both directions. Galena and than diurnal variations for most of the Tanana show strongest winds from the east year. (along the direction of the Yukon River); however, winds from the north are the most 4.3.4 Directional Frequency and frequent at Galena and winds from the east Average Speed and southeast are most frequent at Tanana. Indian Mountain has strongest and most fre­ Along the Beaufort and Chukchi Sea quent winds from east-northeast and secondary coasts (Figure 4.13) the most frequent wind maxima southwest through west. Nenana has direction is easterly with a secondary a wind regime similar to that of Tanana-­ maximum from the west. The strongest winds east-northeast winds are most frequent and are also mostly easterly except at Barter strongest; southwest through northwest winds Island, where it is westerly and strongest, shOl'/ secondary maxima. Near Fairbanks, Eiel­ probably because the station is closer to son AFB shCl'ls very 1 ittl e vari ati on 9f speed the Brooks Range in the eastern portion. and direction while the Fairbanks airport Cape Lisburne's strong south through south­ has north winds most frequently and strong west winds are enhanced by the local topo­ winds from west-southwest. graphy as a foehn wind. Umiat most frequent­ ly has westerly winds, with the strongest 4.3.5 Annual Average Wind Speed from the east-northeast along the Colville Frequency River valley. Kotzebue al so has its most frequent and strongest winds from south­ The high incidence of calm conditions southeast, with secondary maximums from in winter at interior locations (Figure 4.14) west-northwest. The strong south-southeast is a result of extremely stable air and winds are caused by the intensification of strong temperature inversions, particularly low pressure systems in the Kotzebue Sound at Eielson AFB, Galena, Fairbanks, Tanana, area and the strong west-northwest winds and Nenana. Observer bias is also evident that frequently accompany or follow frontal in the peaks of wind speeds at 2, 5 and passages from the west. Tin City's most 8 m/s (corresponding to 5, 10 and 15 mph) frequent and strongest winds are northerly at stations with data from before 1960, with a secondary maximum from south-south­ such as Umiat, Barter Island, Point Lay, east. Local terrain tends to enhance both Oliktok, Tanana, Kotzebue, Lonely Point, northerly and southerly winds and very few Moses Point, and Flaxman Island. Speeds of winds occur from east or west. 1 m/s are often not shown in recorded data before 1960 because of instrument design. Nome, on the other hand, has its most There is good correlation with the Rayleigh frequent and strongest winds from the east distribution at Tin City, Nome, Moses Point, and its lightest winds from the north as a and most coastal locations where the occur­ result of the blocking effects of mountains rence of calm conditions is low. to the north. Nome is typical of locations on the south shore of the Seward Peninsula. 4.3.6 Average Annual Wind Speed Moses Point has its most frequent and and Power Duration strongest wi nds from the north, with a secondary maximum of south-southwest. The The percentage of time that a given strong northerly winds are enhanced some­ wind speed or power is exceeded is shown in what by local effects of north-south ridges Figures 4.15 and 4.16. Abrupt changes to and valleys at the east end of the Seward the slope of the duration curves correspond Peninsula. Moses Point is very represen­ to peaks in the speed frequency distribu­ tative of the area to the east as far as tion caused by observer bias and instrument the Nulato Hills. threshold speed.

30

OCEAN ~":.~I.::~".,. ~O KILOMETERS 0 752lONflYPOINT150 0 BEAUFORT SEA

f¥Jo DELONG MOUNTAINS

W N RANCE

LITTLE DIOMEDE ISLAND I, • 76,g0 (, -L68, 0 ~\~ lfS '0'<: TIN CITY i i

I"-,S ! ~... -- -".,,'- ~()~! !.v_/(~/I,O ------1 ,

-1-66 0

SOUND 50 100 159 ?IX) MILES 60 100 169 200 !S~~~IIE:ERS

w w

FIGURE 4.2. Topographic Map of Northern Alaska 1500

700 \

C5a B4b \ / C5a 06 \ : I 06 \ w C5a .j::> / ~1 / C5a \ 65°

06

u 50

0 50 100 KILOMETER." f-'NL J19'> WFAA 10 I 1650 1600 1550 1450

FIGURE 43. Land-Surface Form Map for Northern Alaska LAND-SURFACE FORM LEGEND

PLAINS TABLELANDS 1 FLAT PLAINS B3c,d TABLELANDS, MODERATE RELIEF

; A2 SMOOTH PLAINS B4c,d TABLELANDS, CONSIDERABLE RELIEF B1 IRREGULAR PLAINS, SLIGHT RELIEF B5c,d TABLELANDS, HIGH RELIEF B2 IRREGULAR PLAINS B6c,d TABLELANDS, VERY HIGH RELIEF

PLAINS WITH HILLS OR MOUNTAINS SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION A,B3a,b PLAINS WITH HILLS SLOPE 11st LETTER) B4,a,b PLAINS WITH HIGH HILLS A >BO% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING B5a,b PLAINS WITH LOW MOUNTAINS B 50-80% OF AR EA GENTLY SLOPING

B6a,b PLAINS WITH HIGH MOUNTAINS C 20-50% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING D <20% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING w OPEN HILLS AND MOUNTAINS U1 C2 OPEN LOW HILLS LOCAL RELIEF 12nd LETTER) C3 OPEN HILLS o TO 30m 11 TO 100 It) 1----1 C4 OPEN HIGH HILLS 2 30 TO 90m 1100 TO 300 It) 1----\ C5 OPEN LOW MOUNTAINS 3 90 TO 150m 1300 TO 500 It) 1----1 C6 OPEN HIGH MOUNTAINS 4 150 TO 300m 1500 TO 1000 It) '---~ 5 300 TO 900m 11000 TO 3000 It)

HILLS AND MOUNTAINS 6 900 TO 1500m 13000 TO 5000 It) 3 HILLS D4 HIGH HILLS PROFILE TYPE 13rd LETTER) ~D5 LOW MOUNTAINS a >75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS IN LOWLAND D6 HIGH MOUNTAINS b 50-75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS IN LOWLAND

C 50-75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS ON UPLAND d >75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS ON UPLAND 1560 o 50 100 150 MILES BARROW DIGITIZED DATA 50 100 150 KILOMETERS o 0 o 154 N ~=:::;';'P-N-l--31-95=W:::E=:R~A-l0 • DIGITIZED AND 1620 CAPE SIMPSOLONELy POINT SUMMARIZED DATA ~CY 0 !:c. SUMMARIZED DATA 0 CAPE 152 1~0 1480 146° 1440 0 700 • UNSUMMARIZED OLIKTOKI MCINTYRE 'FLAXMAN \ _ T~~~SLAND DATA } POINT LAY P.fu';;HOE BAY IIS~ND ~B~UMPHREY POINT CAMDEN BAY ~ 1660 164 0 CAPE BEAUFORT r \, UMIAT SAG WON \ POINT HOPE \, 680 \ , • ATIGUN PASS \, \, • WISEMAN JACKWADE. \ , SHUNGNAK \ ~ BETTLES. , !:c. PROSPECT CREEK ALATNA \ \ fJ>0 POINT SPENCER TELLER .INDIAN MTN AFS -STEVENS VILLAGE ---\ ~ !:c.PILGRIM SPRINGS \ CENTRAL·!:c.CIRCLEHOTSPRINGS ~\ !:c.COUNCIL AKOYUK / !:c.L1VENGOOD !:c.COALCR~ \ NOME~s6LO~~N ~MOSES POINT ~TANANA , 1660 GOLOVl~L1M EAGLE~ RINES MANLEy..... EIELSONAFB~. !:c.NOGRUB \ 1~0 1620 KOK HOT FAIRBANKS IAPT \ RUBY SPRINGS - l / \ .NENANA , 640 RICHARDSON BIG ELTA

1440 1540

FIGURE 4.4. NCC Station LocatIons. .In Northern Alaska 72 ).~~ 166 64 162 144 " " ..' ....., .... , .1...[...... 160 150 '0" .... "",...... 158 156 154 152 . ••• j •••• j •••• : •••• : ,...... 'r' 0 0 OJ 0 • 0 ... 0 •• . .. -: .... •••• j •••• : .. ~~''" ....; ....; .. • 0 0t... . •

'.!"" ',; o ••• ; '. • • . ' o 50 100 MILES ...: .... ,; .... ; .....: .... ~ ~ ~ .... 71 ,...... ; . .... ~ ...... ' :,.71 '.,. :.: o 50 100 KILOMETERS , '. .... ;... /... /" .. j .... f .... / ... ',f" .. :: .... ;.. C=:::::5.. __ PNL-3195 WERA-10 ...... ;..... ; .... ;.... ; ..../ .... ;.... ; .... ; .. 70 ;..:,' ,':' ," "f"" t···f .... ; .... J. ... f t·· .. ·;.. -f ....:! .. "f .. ":,;'" '~.':""~" ":,: .. ";,, .. ;, .. ..; .... \.... ;, .... ~,' 00' ~ •••• ~,"'O t···-:"·· . ...~ .... : .....~ ...... •.. . ··t· .. ··f·· .... f·· .. ·; .. 0 \ 69 ;...... :' :' " : .. ··f .. ·· f· .. ·j .... i ... .1 .... 1... .1 .... 1.... 1... .~, ... j .... \, .... ~:"" ~v' .\ .... ::,,' ,.... ·/"····f····.;···.i, .. o T01440 DIGITIZED ...", .. ' ~ .... ~ .... ~ ... ' : •••••.

~ ~~~4:~~~!~~:~0 6. NCC·SUMMARIZED ; •••• ~ •••• :, .... ~ .. , . ~ .... ~ .... ( ., ~. • ':" •••• :, •••. ~ •••• ~ .' ... OTHER·SUMMARIZED _ _, 68 ,' " ,',' '. ~"" ~" ~ ~~~~~:HER-UNSUMMARIZED .,' ..~...... ; .... ~, .... ., ....., .. ' ,. .. -.' • ~ CANADIAN/OTHER FOREIGN .;. •.••.; -' .••~ •.•. -:, .•. • t' .: ·:· .. ··f ...... ;...... e ..." .....• + USFS FIRE; WEATHER :. : : V ~ ....; .....; .....~ ... "~.""""" ,

" ...... • • " .... ~ ...... ~ .. • I • ...... - •• I - ";- ...... ·,t ...... -:-, .. - .... -t, ...... or ...... ~, ...... : ...... ': ...... t .. - . ..; .....; .....!.....' , , ' . , .\ .... :~ .... :...... ~.... ' 67 i .... .: !! ·· ..;··· ..j"··-j·····,f··· .. ,f·· .. ·,i· .... ;..... ;..... [..... l..... l ..... \, ..... \.... li\ .. ·.. ~,·····\·····\···· ; r····;·····j.···.f. .... ;...... ':: .' ... ~ ..... ': ...... '., ;- .... ;...... f··+)·· ... :; ..... ;..... i ... .. ; ..... L.... ~. _.).... 'A' .~ ..... \ ..... \ ..... ~ ..... ~.. . '. :,+.\ ..... ,. , . ~ . , , , . ~ 'Il.' , ' , . lJ,..' ·t·· ..

6~t .. -j .•. ,...... ,+ i :... . !f ...Ti.i ••••• [·~i~. r.. \.\·\T l::·\::;:·· \~ ... '~.." .. '.: , • .,. t ••••• ,.. :,,"""':':" .t ...... ~, , "

646.~, ... ~ ~'•...• ~': ···r·····r·····! •• :F!:r:i; 1••••• jA:::: •••• \••.• J~~\::··r·'f •• :~ ••: j ...... ~.' ...... \ A65 1

168 1·6.. 6······~ ...... : ':Il.:' ":: :: ....~a .... ~· .. I··~~ ·~··T42 164 .. i·~o····:···i·~8·· .. :... i.~6 .... i ... i.§4 .... ~ ... i.S2· .. ·~···i·~o·· .. ~···i·48· .. ·· .. 146 "I "I

FIGURE 4.5. Location of Stations Used in Northern Alaska Resource Assessment c::::::J RIDGE C.EST ESTIMATES o 50 100 150 MILES ~=~-.....;.~===- o 50 100 150 KILOMETERS;' , <0 PNl-3195 WERA-10 70 0 -

o o o CX) 10 ~

FIGURE 4.6. Northern Alaska Annual Average Wind Power Classes of Wind Power Density at 10m and 50 m (a)

10m{33ft) 50 m (164 ft) Wind Wind Power Wind Power Power Density, Speed,(b) Density, Speed,(b) Class wattsLm2 mLs (mph) watts/m2 m/s (mph) ----0 ° 0 0-- 1 100-4.4 ( 9.8)--200--5.6 (12.5) 2 ---150--5.1 {11.5)--300--6.4 (14.3) 3 200--5.6 {12.5)--400--7.0 (15.7) 4 250--6.0 {13.4)--500--7.5 (16.8) 5 300--6.4 {14.3)--600--8.0 (17.9) 6_--400--7.0 (15.7)--800--8.8 (19.7) 7--1000--9.4 (21.1)--2000-11.9 (26.6)

(a)Vertical extrapolation of wind speed based on the 1/7 power law. (b)Mean wind speed is based on Rayleigh speed distribution of equiva­ lent mean wind power density. Wind speed is for standard sea-level conditions. To maintain the same power density, speed increases 5%/5000 ft (3%/1 000 m) of elevation.

TABLE 4.1. Areal Distribution (km2 ) of Wind Power Classes in Northern Alaska

% Land Cumulative % Cumulative Power Class Land Area Area Land Area Land Area 580,000 82 710,000 100 2 60,000 8.4 130,000 18 3 34,000 4.7 70,000 9.8 4 13,000 1.8 36,000 5.1 5 11,000 1.5 23,000 3.3 6 12,000 1.6 13,000 1.8 7 1,000 0.14 1,000 0.14 FIGU RE 4.7. Certainty Rating of Northern Alaska Wind Resource. CERTAINTY RATING LEGEND

Rating Definition

The I'owest degree of certainty. A combination of the following conditions exists:

1) No data exist in the vicinity of the cell.

2) The terrain is highly complex.

3) Various meteorological and topographical indicators suggest a high level of variability of the resource within the cell.

2 A low-intermediate degree of certainty. One of the following conditions exists:

1) Little or no data exist in or near the cell, but the small variability of the resource and the low complexity of the terrain suggest that the wind resource will not differ substantially from the resource in nearby areas with data.

2) limited data exist in the vicinity of the cell, but the terrain is highly complex or the mesoscale variability of the resource is large.

3 A high-intermediate degree of certainty. One of the following conditions exists:

1) There are limited wind data in the vicinity of the cell, but the low complexity of terrain and the small mesoscale variability of the resource indicate little departure from the wind resource in nearby areas with data.

2) Conside~able wind data exist but in moderately complex terrain and/or in areas where moderate variability of the resource is likely to occur.

4 The highest degree of certainty. Quantitative data exist at exposed sites in the vicinity of the cell and can be confidently applied to exposed areas in the cell because of the low com­ plexity of terrain and low spatial variability of the resource. Class 2 o 50 71; 0 50

"';" 70; ... ; ....; .... ;' " .. ; ., . . . ~ .. ···t 69

... ; -. 68; .. ;

...., 67; ... "'. ;

"'. ; 66;

64

142 150 148 146 1~4.,.~.72 Class 3 o 50

"';"

70:.; "'; .. ; .. 69, .. ,.. '., .,96"0i'!~Jo :',00 rOr;\O',O,.. ~;tt~~"2'\: ... ; "'; . \0,10:10: 3 3 0 0 : 0 : 0 : 0 0 : 0 0 3 : 0 : ... ;.;"'.' ',10'·10 ... .; ~·;:;I~ojl~J,~jl~FO!313.13·1·~·'·~·'·0· "0'. 3·»~:0\:.2~';\20·· ,20··~ 20·.~·~.~ 68 68; .. ; .' 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2. 2 2 0, 0., :~..: ~.:O '0 '. 0 .....: 67 i ..... ;.;

.. ~ .. -. .... ; .... ;. .,.

66 ~ ::70 '

65; , " 0:25 25 00'000'00:0:0:00 0: .; ..... ~, ....•.. 64 : l~: .'. 10 10 ,;O! ,~. ".":.:':.:':',: ':',:': ' :.:\;;.0;-0,_\ if ° " 166,.. • 148 146 160 158 I 56 154 152 150

FIGURE 4,8 (Continued). Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Northern Alaska (Power Classes 2 and 3); Percent of Land Area With or Exceeding Power Class Shown.

42 72J~8 166

Class 4 71; O=:=:====~~ o 50 ..... ' .. ~ .. 70.; ... ; ... ; ... ; ... ;

···h. '. '. ~ '" ~ 69.'

64 ; '.0 0 168 144 146

72J~8 166 146 I.~~ .. }.~~ 72 > 164 16~:I~DI581~6.,154 152 15~ 148 Cl ass 5 o 50' 100 MILES 71' 0 50 100 KILOMETERS'" ....; '.71 PNL-3195 WERA-l0 .j .... :..

70;; .. ; ... ; ". ; ... ~

. '" '. ~ '. ; -.. ; 69; ",. ... ; ···t .. 68,:.; ;00%07::::::: ::':'0",. 0 "':'., . 00.:, :!:,:i:,:r:,:;:':':'\:\:'Wo·&;:'>o'o~,.oo. 0 o. 0 . 0 : 0 : 0 : 0 0 0: 0 0 o. 0 0 o. o.~ .... ~ ...;..;' 0 66 ...... i.. .' ··f····!···; . . ; .., .~o \ 0 \ 0 • 0\0 '. -'70 . o o. 0 : 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 0 0 o. 0 . 0 : .; ... ;." '~''''. : 0 . ! .. ~ . ~ ~--- -~ .. ---: : ! ";" ~ .. -. ~ . ~"o ~ 0 :. 0 :.. 0 -',0. . :0:0:0:0:0:0:0'0,0:0:0: 0 : 0 : ; •• ' 0 0 65; " t '...... : .•..• ~ ....• ~ 0 0 0

.... ;. .. o • 0 :~ro. !o.{o I 0 FT~'T~" 0 : 0 '0 .00 •. °:...... :.::0.0.0 ...• :;::0 .. 0. .. 0 ~. 0 0 64 : .... : • 0 : 0 • 0 • 0 : 0 :'~': 0 • 0 : 0 • 0 0 -... .:. • . 0 '. 0 :.0 168 .: 166 0i 0 i 0 i 0 t~·:~·1~jo •0 o. 0 • 0 144 164 162 160 158 156 154 152 146 0... 150··1~8·

FIGURE 4.8. Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Northern Alaska (Power Classes 4 and 5); Percent of Land Area With or Exceeding Power Class Shown.

43 .Q) . . !!? !!?'" [I] RIDGE CREST ESTIMATES ~ WINTER

O~=~50:...._..:.100::;;,=~1,;;50 MILES o 50 PNl·3195 WERA-l0

690

69°

68°

65°

° ~ 64° 'b ~

. ~ [I] RIDGE CREST ESTIMATES SUMMER o-;;,==;;;50:...._.;.;100~=~150 MILES o 50 100 150 KILOMETERS;' PNl-3195 WERA-l0 70.!E

69'

68°

FIGURE 4.9. Seasonal Average Wind Power in Northern Alaska (Winter, Summer)

44 SPRING

EE1 RIDGE CREST ESTIMATES o';;,=~50;;;:.. __'.;.;OO;;;..=.;;;'50 MILES o 50 PNL-3195 WERA-,O

AUTUMN c::J RIDGE CREST ESTIMATES

O~=",;50:::.._..:'::;OO:...... :;'50 MILES o 50 PNl-3195 WERA·10

FIGURE 4.9 (Continued). Seasonal Average Wind Power in Northern Alaska (Spring, Autumn)

45 TABLE 4.2. Northern Alaska Stations with Graphs of the Wind Characteristics. Annual Average Annual Average Wind Speed, Wind Power, m/s W/m2

Station ID Station Name Barrow Wiley Post· 71.3 156.78 9.4 04/55-12/64 11.9 5.6 5.4 6.8 213 198 394 Will Rogers Airport

Barter Island Barter Island Airport 70.1 143.63 11.9 01/49·08/55 7.6 5.6 5.8 7.3 370 416 829

Bettles Bettles CAA 66.9 153.5 203.0 05/51·12/64 8.2 2.9 3.0 3.8 37 40 80

Cape Lisburne Cape Lisburne AFS 68.9 166.1 16.1 04/61·12/71 4.0 5.3 6.0 7.5 272 404 806

Fairbanks EIE Eielson AFB 64.7 140.1 173.4 08/59-12/70 4.0 1.4 1.6 2.0 13 19 39

Fairbanks INT Fairbanks Inter­ 64.8 147.9 134.1 09/57-12/64 10.1 2.5 2.5 3.2 26 26 52 national Airport

Flayman Island Flayman Island 70.2 158.0 7.0 08/57-12/70 4.3 5.0 5.7 7.1 232 334 666 Air Field

Fort Yukon Fort Yukon CAA 66.6 145.3 129.5 01/52-09/63 7.6 3.7 3.8 4.8 69 78 155

Galena Galena AFS 64.7 156.9 45.4 04/62-11/68 6.1 2.2 2.4 3.0 28 35 69

Indian Indian Mountain 66.0 153.7 288.3 04/61-12/70 4.0 2.6 2.9 3.7 56 83 166 Mountain AFS

Kotzebue Ralph Wein 65.9 163.0 6.1 01/45-12/64 9.4 5.8 5.8 7.3 309 317 631 Memorial Airport

Lonely Point Lonely Point Air 70.9 152.3 9.0 07/37-11/75 4.3 4.5 5.0 6.3 171 246 491 Field

Moses Point Moses Point AAF 64.7 162.1 6.4 06/52-07/64 8.2 5.4 5.6 7.0 241 262 522

Nenana Nenana AAF 66.6 149.1 110.9 07/53-12/64 8.5 2.7 2.8 3.5 38 41 81

Nome Nome Airport 64.5 165.4 5.5 08/58-12/64 21.3 5.4 4.9 6.1 247 179 356

Oliktak Oliktok Air Field 70.5 149.9 5.0 08/57-11/75 4.3 5.2 5.9 7.4 254 366 729

Point Lay Point Lay Air Field 69.7 163.0 6.0 08/57·11/75 4.3 5.4 6.1 7.7 281 405 807

Tanana Tanana FSS 65.2 152.1 73.2 07/48-12/64 10.1 2.5 2.5 3.2 42 42 84

Tin City Tin City AFS 65.6 167.9 78.6 06/60-12/71 4.0 7.4 8.4 10.6 519 772 1538

Umiat Umiat Airport 69.4 152.1 102.7 07/48-12/52 10.7 3.3 3.3 4.1 91 89 176

Wainwright Wainwright Air Field 70.6 160.1 27.0 08/57-11 /75 4.3 4.5 5.1 6.5 192 277 551

46

+------+ WI NO POWER LEFT ORDINATE - WATTS/M 2 +----. WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - MiS PNl·3195 WERA-10 ABSCISSA - YEAR V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW BARROW AK BARTER ISLAND AK BETTLES AK 27502 2/li01 26533 300 700 8 300 4 600 7 , i\ ';Y\:",-. 200 500 6 200 ·····i ... ~ '"'~,' 'J/--\/;'1~·'t\i;/ ... ~ .. ',7 i 3 400 5 ·1/' • ! 100 4 300 4 100 .... _ t._.J -.... 2 200 3 a 3 100 2 o ~0 1 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 60

FAIRBANKS/EIE.AK FAI RBANKS/I NT.AK 26407 26411 600 300 300 4 700 600 200 ... ) ..... j..... ~. .... ,. 200 3 500 ·r. +'" -,•• 400 100 ....l ..... ;.... -:- ..... :.... ,...... ,. r.Ll 100 2 300 200 2 o W----+-. a o 1 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 60 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 60

FLAXMAN IS. AK FT. YUKON AK GALENA AK 2/li04 26413 26501 600 7 300 5 300 4 500 6 400 5 200 4 200 3 300 4 200 3 100 3 100 2 100 2 o 1 a 2 o 1 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 46 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 60 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 eo INDIAN MTN. AK KOTZEBUE AK LONELY PT. AK 26535 26616 27512 ....•..... ,...... 300 4 600 8 400 ._. -~"'-': 6 500 7 . 200 3 400 6 300 .. -- . ~ .... ". ., . .. 5 300 5 .... -...... 100 2 200 4 200 .J~~I t··· j"'- : ..... ~.--.-~. _.( 4 100 3 o 1 a 2 100 3 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 eo 40 44 48 52 56 eo 64 68 72 76 eo

FIGU RE 4.10. Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Northern Alaska.

48 +----+ WIND POWER LEFT ORDINATE - WATTS/M~ +----+ WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - MIS PNl·3'95WERA·'O ABSCISSA - YEAR V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW MOSES PT. AK NENANA AK NOME AK 26620 26435 26617 400 7 300 4 300 ...... 6

300 6 200 · .. ··;· .... + .. ·+3

200 5 100 2 :,IM~W: , . .

~ 4 o 1 o 3 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 80 64 68 72 76 80 OLIKTOK AK PT. LAY AK TANANA AK 2'j1l03 26638 26529 500 7 700 8 300 4 600 7 400 6 500 6 200 3 400 5 300 5 300 4 100 2 200 3 200 4 100 2 o 1 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 TIN CITY AK UMIAT AK WAINWRIGHT AK 26634 26508 27508 12 300 4 600 10 500 8 200 3 400 :§tj!I~' 6 300 4 100 2 200 2 100 .... !FI.~Ii1 :: :::::l:::::L:T:::::, ...... ::::C:::.. ·· .. i·.... i...... ~ .... +...., .... ·i· .. · .... :).. ...: .... · o 0 o 1 o 0 40 44 48 52 56 80 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80

FIGURE 4.10 (Continued). Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Northern Alaska.

49 WIND POWER LEFT ORDINATE - WATTS/M2 WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - MiS PNl-31'5 WERA10 ABSC I SSA - MONTH V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW BARROW AK 04/55-12/64 BARTER ISLAND AK 01/49-08/55 BETTLES AK 05/51-12/64 27502 Z=11.9 R. V= 5.4, P= 197 2IIl01 Z= 76 R, V= 58. P= 415 26533 Z= 8.2 R, V= 30, P= 40 800

800

400 200 :2 ::200 -/.: ::l~/~+,~'m--:__:200 - -':' . _. 2 o --'---.--,.--r-t-Hr-t-----t-t--j--+ 0 0 0 0 0 J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON 0 J F M A M J J A SON D

CAPE LISBURNE AK 04/61-12/71 FAIRBANKS/EIE.AK 08/59-12/70 FAIRBANKS/I NT.AK 09/57-12/64 26631 Z= 4.0 G, V= 60, P= 404E 26407 Z= 4.0 G, V= 16, P= 19E 26411 Z=IO.1 G, V= 2.5, P= 25 800 B 800 800 8

800 6 600 600 6

400 4 400 4

200 2 200 200

o 0 O~~~~~~~~-+~ o 0 J F M A M J J A SON D J FM A M J J A SON J F M A M J J A SON D

FLAXMAN_IS. AK_ 08/57::::12/70 FT. YUKON AK 01/52-09/63 GALENA AK 04/62-11168 2IIl04 Z- 4.3 G, V-57, P- 334E 26413 Z= 7.6 R. V= 3B, P= 77 26501 Z= 6.1 G, V= 2.4, P= 34E 800 8 800 8 800 8

800 6 600 6 6

400 4 400 4 4

200 2 200 2 2

o 0 o 0 o 0 J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D

INDIAN ~TN_ AK_ 04/61::::12/70 KOTZEBUE_ AK_ 01,Al5-}2/64 LONELY PT. AK 07/57-11/75 26535 Z- 4.0 G, V- 2_9, P- 63E 26616 Z- 9.4 R. V - 5_8, P- 316 27512 Z= 4.3 G, V= 5.0, P= 248 800 8 800 8 800 8

800 6 800 800 8

400 4 400 4 400 4

200 2 200 2 200 2 o 0 o 0 o J F M A M J J A SON D ° J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D

FIGURE 4,11, Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Northern Alaska.

50 WIND POWER LEFT ORDINATE - WATTS/M 2 WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - M/S PNl-3195WERA-l0 ABSCISSA - MONTH V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW MOSES PT. AK 06/52-07/64 NENANA AK 07/53-12/64 NOME AK 08/58-12/64 26620 Z= 8.2 R. V= 5.6. P= 261 26435 Z= 8.5 R. V= 2.8. P= 40 266I7 Z=21.3 B. V= 4.9. P= I78 800 8 800 8 800 8

600 6 600 6 600 6

400 -i--x"'~""""""""" 4 400 4 400 4

200 + .... ;..... ,.... ,.. "'-' .... ;.... Y"'~;. 2 200 2 2oo-t··~~~·<·····;.···· ,···:.;;=~··~2

o 0 o 0 o 0 J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D

OLIKTOK _ A~ 08/57.=-11/75 PT LAY AK 08/57-11/75 TANANA AK 07/48-12/64 2'"i1i03 Z- 4.3 G. V - 5.9. P- 365E 26638 Z= 4.3 G. V= 61. P= 404E 26529 Z=!01 R. V= 2.5. P= 41 800 8 600 6 600 6

600 6 600 6 600 6

400 4 400 4 400 4

200 2 200 2 200 2

o 0 o 0 o 0 J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D

TIN CITY AK 06/60-12/71 UMIAT AK 07/48-12/52 WAINWRIGHT AK 08/57-11/75 26634 Z= 4.0 G. V= 8.4. P= 77IE 26508 Z=10.7 G. V= 3.3. P= 88 27508 Z= 4.3 G. V= 5.1. P= 276 3000 ...... •...... •.....•...... 30 600 8 600 8 2500 . ; .l....J ..... L.. .. ;..... :. .... ;.lL 25 600 6 600 6 2000 .:::r::.~ ... .L ... L....j ... ..! ... : .... l.....•.... L... 20 1500 .... .i .... ~ .... ~ .... ~ ..... L.... ;..... i..... ~ 15 400 4 400 4 1000 10 200 2 200 2 500·"­ 5 O~+-T-~r-~~~-+-T-+ 0 0 0 0 J F M A M J J A SON J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D

FIGURE 4.11 (Continued). Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Northern Alaska.

51 +---+WINTER • --- -.sPR I NG ORD I NATE - MIS ar - ---e SUMMER Bl- - -tEAUTUMN ABSC I SSA - HOUR PNl-3195 WERA-10

BARROW AK 04/55-12/64 BARTER ISLAND AK 01/49-08/55 BETTLES AK 05/51-12/64 27502 Z=11.9 R. V = 56. p= 213 21101 Z= 7.6 R. Y = 5.6. P= 370 26533 Z= 8.2 R. Y= 2.9. P= 37 IOl 10 10 81 8 8 6~~~~~~~~~~~· m= .~%--.~ 6 :r . 4 4 2 6~~~-"'=;:=::::=;~:.iE;:;; 2

o I iii Iii I I 036 9 ~ ~ ffi ~ ~ 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24

CAPE LISBURNE AK 04/61-12/71 FAIRBANKS/EIE.AK 08/59-12/70 FAIRBANKS/INT.AK 09/57-12/64 26631 Z= 4.0 G. V= 53. P= 272E 26407 Z= 4.0 G. Y= 1.4. P= 13E 26411 Z=!O.l G. Y= 2.5. P= 26 10 10 10 8 8 8 6t===~~~~~~ 6 6 4 4 4 2 2 2~~~~==~~= O+--r~~+--r~--.-~-' o -FR==;:::::;==+==;:::::;:::::; 036 9 ~ ~ ffi ~ ~ 036 9 ~ ~ ffi ~ ~ 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24

FLAXMAN IS. AK 08/57-12/70 FT. YUKON AK 01/52-09/63 GALENA AK 04/62-11/68 27104 Z= 4.3 G. Y= 5.0. P= 232E 26413 Z= 7.6 R. Y= :37. P= 69 26501 Z= 6.1 G. Y= 2.2. P= 28E 10 10 10

B B 8 6 6 4 4 2 :t'~~fi!: 2~~~~~~~~ O+--T--r-~-T--~-r~~ O+-~~--r-'--T~r-+-~ O+--r~r-~-T--~~-T~ 036 9 ~ ~ ffi ~ ~ 036 9 ~ ~ ffi ~ ~ o 3 6 9~ ~ ffi ~ ~

INDIAN ~TN. AK_ 04/61:::12/70 KOTZEBUE_ AK_ 01/45-_12164 LONELY PT. AK 07/57-11/75 26535 Z- 4.0 G. Y- 2.6. P- 56E 26616 Z- 9.4 R. Y - 58. P- 309 27512 Z= 4.3 G. Y= 45. p= m 10 10 IOU'8 .. . B 8 . ... ~ ...... ~ ...... f ..... :...... ; ...... J. 6 .. ,.. . :.. ;. . . 6+-~~~~~~--~--~ 6 ~ ...... ;...... j ...... j.. j 1 : ; 4 i ...... • ...... ; ... 4~"" ~~_~ 4Ii .... ·;··li .•.' .•.•. :.•. :.•. ·.:.·.··.· .... ;.i •. ·.:.,.·.·.·.:.i:...... 2 --.~.~: ...... 2 . . 2· .. .; ...... 1· O I i j iii iii 0 i I I , i i o+--r-,r-~-T--~-'i--+:~i o 3 6 9 ~ ~ ffi ~ ~ 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 o 3 6 9 ~ ~ ffi ~ ~

FIGURE 4.12. Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Northern Alaska.

52 +----t- WI NTER +-- -4SPRING ORDINATE - MIS E&- ~ SUMMER IB-- - -lIlAUTUMN ABSCISSA - HOUR PNl-3195 WERA-,O

MOSES PT. AK 06/52-07/64 NENANA AK 07/53-12/64 NOME AK 08/58-12/64 26620 Z= 8.2 R. v~ 5.4. p= 241 26435 Z= .8.5 R. V= 2.7. P= 38 266!7 Z=2L3 B. V= 5.4. P= 247 10 10 10 8 8 8 6~~~~~~~~ 6 6~!.c;;:S~t::::~k:'~ 4~~···c,. 4...1..:-:-::-=0-.. C'C ••••••••.

2 :L~a~~~J 2

O+--r-.--+-~-+--r-~ O+--r-.--,--r-.--r-~, o 3 6 9 12 15 18 o 3 6 9 ~ m ffi ~ M 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 OLIKTOK AK 08/57-11/75 PT. LAY AK 08/57-11/75 TANANA AK 07/48-12/64 2

O+--r-'--+--r-+--r-~~ O+--r-,--+--r-+--r-+-~ O+--r-,--+--r-+--r-+-~ o 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 o 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 o 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 TIN CITY AK 06/60-12/71 UMIAT AK 07/48-12/52 WAINWRIGHT AK 08/57-11/75 26634 Z= 4.0 G. V= 7.4. P= 519E 26508 Z=tO.7 G. V= 3.3. P= 91 27508 Z= 4.3 G. V= 4.5. P= 192 10 IOJ ...... , 10 8t;f:;G~S~t; 8 ...... :...... [ ... -; 6 6·· -+ ...... , 4 4 1·;··.1;. ••.. i ... !I .. ;.. 2 2 .. -.l ... --.; ..

O+--r-'--+--r-+--r-;-~ 0+--r-1--T-;--+-,r-.-~ o 3 6 9 ~ m ffi ~ M ~EffiTuto 3 6 9 ~ m ffi ~ M o 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24

FIGURE 4.12 (Continued). Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Northern Alaska.

53 PERCENT FREQUENCY LEFT ORDINATE - PERCENT WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - MIS ABSCISSA - WIND DIRECTION PNl-3195 WERA-'O

BARROW AK 04/55-12/64 BARTER ISLAND AK 01/49-08/55 BETTLES AK 05/51-12/64 27502 Z=11.9 R. V= 5.6, P= 213 :mOl Z= 7.6 R, V = 5.6, P= 370 26533 Z= B.2 R. V = 2.9, P.= 37 12 ~ m

9 ~ 9

6 ~ 6

3 W 3

o 0 NE E SE S SW W NW ~_fN NE E SE S SW 11' NW N NE E SE S SW 11' NW CAPE LISBURNE AK 04/61-12/71 FAlRBANKS/El EAK 08/59-12/70 FAl RBANKS/I NT.AK 09/57-12/64 26631 Z= 4.0 G, V = 5.3, P= 272E 26407 Z= 4.0 G, V= 14, P= 13E 26411 Z=IO.1 G, V= 2.5, P= 26 40 12 40 12 40 12

~ 9 ~ 9 ~ 9

~ 6 ~ 6

W 3 W 3 W 3

o 0 o 0 o 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SI\' 11' NW

FLAXMAN IS. AK 08/57-12/70 FT. YUKO~ AK _01/52-_09/63 GALENA AK 04/62-11/68 :m04 Z= 4.3 G, V= 5.0, P= 232E 26413 Z- 7.6 R. V- 3.7, P- 69 26501 Z= 6.1 G, V= 2.2, P= 28E 40 12 40 12 40 12

30 9 30 30 .. ;- .. ~ .. -.l ._,-- _.. L.. 1.. ~.. ..- -+--j-- 9

6 20 ~ 6

W 3 W 10H",<~'-:~-_cc'x:'~~h~"~L: 3

o 0 o~~~~~~~~~~ iii i , iii i i 0 N NE E SE S SW II' NW N NE E SE S SW W NW NE E SE S. SW W NW

INDIAN ~TN. AK_ 04/61:::12/70 KOTZEBUE_ AK_ 01/45-_12/64 LONELY PT. AK 07/57-11/75 26535 Z- 4.0 G, V- 2.6, P- ME 26616 Z- 9.4 R. V- 5.B, P- 309 27512 Z= 4.3 G, V= 4.5, P= 171 40 12 40 12 ~ m

30 9 ~ 9 30 9

20 6 20 6

W 3 W 3 W 3

o 0 o 0 o 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW NNEESESSWWNW NNEESESSWWNW

FIGURE 4.13. Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Northern Alaska.

54 PERCENT FREQUENCY LEFT ORDINATE - PERCENT WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - MIS ABSC I SSA - WI ND DIRECTION PNl-3195 WERA-l0

MOSES PT. AK 06/52-07/64 NENANA AK 07/53-12/64 NOME AK 08/58-12/64 26620 Z= 8.2 R. v= 5.4. P= 241 26435 Z= 8.5 R. V= 2.7, P= 38 26617 Z=21.3 B, V= 5.4, P= 247 40 12 40 12 40 12

ro 6 ro 6

W 3 W 3 W 3

o 0 o 0 o 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW

OLIKTOK AK 08/57-11/75 PT. LAY AK 08/57-11/75 TANANA AK 07/48-12/64 2"t03 Z= 4.3 G. V= 5.2. P= 254E 26638 Z= 4.3 G. V= 5.4. P= 281E 26529 Z=10.l R. V= 2.5. P= 42 ~ m 40 12 40 12

~ 9 ~ 9 ~ 9 ro 6 ro 6 ro 6

W 3 W 3 W 3 o 0 o 0 o 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW

TIN CITY AK 06/60-12/71 UMIAT AK 07/48-12/52 WAINWRIGHT AK 08/57-11/75 26634 Z= 4.0 G, V= 7.4. P= 519E 26508 Z=W.7 G. V= 3.3. P= 91 27508 Z= 4.3 G. V= 4.5. P= 192 ~ m 40 12 40 12

~ 9 ~ 9 ~ 9 ro 6 ro 6 ro 6

W 3 W 3 W 3

o 0 o 0 o 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E ~ S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW

FIGURE 4.13 (Continued). Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Northern Alaska.

55 --ACTUAL DISTRIBUTION ORDINATE - PERCENT ~~~~~~~ RAYLEIGH DISTRIBUTION ABSCISSA - MIS PNl-3195 WERA-l0

BARROW AK 04/55-12/64 BARTER ISLAND AK 01/49-08/55 BETTLES AK 05/51-12/64 27502 Z= 11.9 R. V = 5.6. p= 213 21\0\ Z= 7.6 R. V = 5.6. P= 370 26533 Z= 82 R. V= 2.9. P= 37 40 30 ::j .. :T.. ..,;...., .. ,;-' , 20 20 . 20

10 \0 ...... , 1:~li o iii 2 4 6 8 \0 12 14 16 o 2 4 6 B \0 ~ ~ ~ o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

CAPE LISBURNE AK 04/61-12/71 F IRBANKS/EIEAK 08/59-12/70 FAIRBANKS/INTAK 09/57-12/64 26631 Z= 4.0 G. V= 5.3. P= 272E . f}4~7 Z= 40 G. V= 14, P= 13E 26411 Z=\O.I G. V= 2.5. P= 26 40 40 : ',' 40 n ___ ~ 30 30 30 '--i'" ... -~.- ._--_.'

20 20 20

\0 10 10 ""-1- .. -.~ .

O~-r-T-;--~~~~~ O+-~--r-~~--~~~~ 0 I I i o 2 4 6 8 \0 12 14 16 o 2 4 6 8 \0 12 14 16 0 2 4 6 8 \0 12 14 16

FLAXMAN IS. AK 08/57-12/70 FT. YUKO~ AK _01152-_09/63 GALENA _ A~ 04/6::'-11168 ~04 Z= 4.3 G. V= 50. P= 232E 26413 z- 7.6 R. V - 3.7. P- 69 26501 Z- 6.1 G. V- 2.2. p- 2aE 40 40 40 30 ... :.}L. -.~.--.--.; ...... L..... ; .. _--.,- ..... 1...... 1 30 30 , " 20 20 20 .... __ i...... j... .

\0 \0 \0 .. ~. . _...... -:

O~-r~--+--r~~¥=~~ O~~-'--+-~~--r-+-~ I i j o 2 4 6 8 \0 ~ ~ ~ 024 6 8 \0 ~ ~ W 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16

INDIAN ~TN AK_ 04/61:::12/70 KOTZEBUE_ AK_ Ol/45-,}2/64 LONELY PT. AK 07/57-11/75 26535 Z- 4.0 G. V - 2.6. P- 56E 26616 Z- 9.4 R. V - 5.8, P- 309 27512 Z= 4.3 G. V= 4.5. P= 171 40 40 40

30 30 30

20 20 20

10 10 10

0+-,r~~~P=r-~-r~ O+--r~r-+--r--~~~~ 04--r-,~+--+~~~-T~ 024 6 8 W ~ ~ ~ o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 024 8 B 10 ~ W W

FIGURE 4.14. Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Northern Alaska.

56 --ACTUAL DISTRIBUTION ORDINATE - PERCENT ------RAYLEIGH DISTRIBUTION ABSCISSA - MIS PNl·3195 WERA-'O

MOSES PT. AK 06/52-07/64 NENANA AK 07/53-12/64 NOME AK 08/58-12/64 26620 Z= 8.2 R. V= 5.4. P= 241 26435 Z= 8.5 R, Y= 2.7, P= 38 266f7 Z=21.3 B, Y= 5.4, P= U7 40 40 40

30 30 30

20 20 20

10 10 10

O~~~--r-~-+~~~~ O~~~--~~-+~~~~ o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 024 6 810m M W

OLIKTOK _ AK_ 08/57.::-11/75 PT. LAY AK 08/57-11/75 TANANA AK 07/48-12/64 2'Jl03 Z- 4.3 G. Y- 5.2. P- 254E 26638 Z= 4.3 G. Y= 5.4. P= 28IE 26529 Z=IO.I R, Y= 2.5. P= 42 40 40 40

30 30 30

20 20 20

10 10 10

O~~~--+-~~~~~~ O~~-T--~+-~~~~ o 2 4 6 8 ill m M W o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16 TI N CITY AK 06/60-12/71 UMIAT AK 07/48-12/52 WAINWRIGHT AK 08/57-11/75 26634 Z= 4.0 G, Y= 7.4. P= 519E 26508 Z=10.7 G. Y= 3.3. P= 91 27508 Z= 4.3 G. Y= 4.5. P= 192 40 40 40

30 30 30

20 20 20

10 10 10

O~~~--r-'--+--r-~~ O+-~~--r-~-T~~~~ o 2 4 6 8 ill m M ~ 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 o 2 4 6 810m M W

FIGURE 4.14 (Continued). Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Northern Alaska.

57 ORDINATE - PERCENT ABSCISSA - MIS PNl·3195WERA·1Q

BARROW AK 04/55-12/64 BARTER ISLAND AK 01/49-08/55 BEITLES AK 05/51-12/64 27502 Z~I1.9 R. V~ 5.6, P~ 213 211101 Z~ 7.6 R, V= 5.6, P= 370 26533 Z= 8.2 R. V ~ 2.9, P= 37 100 100 100

80 80 80 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

2 4 6 Il 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16

CAPE LISBURNE AK 04/61-12/71 F'AI RBANKS/EI KAK 08/59-12/70 F'AI RBANKS/I NTAK 09/57-12/64 26631 Z= 4.0 G, V~ 53, P~ 272E 26407 Z= 4.0 G, V~ 14, P~ 13E 26411 Z~IO.I G, V~ 2.5, P= 26 100 100 100 80 80 80 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

0+-~--~1=~--~,-~-. 024 6 B 10 ~ W ill 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

F'LAXMAN IS. AK 08/57-12/70 F'T. YUKO~ AK _01152-_09/63 GALENA _ A~ 04/6':-11/68 ~04 Z~ 4.3 G, V~ 5.0, P~ 232E 26413 Z- 7.6 R. V - 37, P - 69 26501 Z- 6.1 G, V- 2.2, P- 28E 100 100 100 eo eo 80 C{) 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

O+-~~~~~~~-r~~ O+-~~~,-~~~,-~~ O~~~~~~-+~~~~ o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 o 2 4 6 6 10 12 14 16 o 2 4 6 6 10 ~ W ill INDIAN t.!.TN AK_ 04/61=12/70 KOTZEBUE AK 01/45-12/64 LONELY PT, AK 07/57-11/75 26535 Z- 4.0 G, V- 2.6, P- 56E 26616 Z~ 9.4 R. V~ 58, P~ 309 27512 Z= 4.3 G. V= 4.5, P= 171 100 100 100 eo 80 SO eo +,,",, .; .. ,... ; 60 80 40 40 40

20 20 20

O~~~~~~~~-r~ O~-r~~~~~~'-~~ o 2 4 6 8 10 ~ W ill o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

FIGURE 4,15. Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Northern Alaska.

58 ORDINATE - PERCENT ABSCI SSA - MIS PNl-3195 WERA-10

MOSES PT._ AK ..?B/52-.?7/64 NENANA AK 07/53-12/64 NOME AK 08/58-12/64 26620 Z- 8.2 R. v- 5.4, P- 241 26435 Z= 8.5 R. V= 2.7, P= 38 266U Z=21.3 B, V= 5.4, P= 247 100 100 100 eo +.,.,.", .. "",,,.,,, eo 80 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

o+-~~~'-~~~-r~~ 024 6 8 ill m M W 2 4 6 6 ill 12 14 16 2 4 6 8 ill 12 14 16

OLIKTOK _ AK_ 08/57::-11/75 PT. LAY AK 08/57-11/75 TANANA AK 07/48-12/64 zjIl03 Z- 4.3 G, V- 5.2, P- 254E 26638 Z= 4.3 G, V= 5.4, P= 281E 26529 Z=IO.l R. V= 2.5, P= 42 100 100 100 eo eo 80 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

o+-~~~;-~~~~=r~ o+-~~~;-~~~.-~~ 024 6 8 W m M W o 2 4 6 8 W m M W 2 4 6 B W 12 14 16 TIN CITY AK 06/60-12/71 UMIAT AK 07,48-12/52 WAINWRIGHT AK 08/57-11/75 26634 Z= 4.0 G, V= 7.4, P= '519E 26508 Z=10.7 G, V= 3.3, P= 91 27508 Z= 4.3 G, V= 4.5. P= 192 100 100 100 eo 80 80 eo 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

O~~~~~-r~~~~~ O+-~~~~~~~~~~ 024 6 6 W m M W 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

FIGU RE 4.15 (Continued). Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Northern Alaska.

59 ORDINATE - PERCENT ABSCISSA - WATTS/M 2 PNl-3195 WERA·l0

BARROW AK 04/55-12/64 BARTER ISLAND AK 01/49-08/55 BETTLES AK 05/51-12/64 27502 Z=I1.9 R. V= 56. P= 213 2'M01 Z= 7.6 R. V = 5.6. P= 370 26533 Z= 8.2 R. V = 2.9. P= 37 100 100 100 80 80 80 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

o i I I i j I o 200 400 600 800 1000

CAPE LISBURNE AK 04/61-12/71 FAIRBANKS/EIEAK 08/59-12/70 FAI RBANKS/I NT.AK 09/57-12/64 26631 Z= 4.0 G. V= 53. P= 272E 26407 Z= 4.0 G. V= 1.4. P= 13E 26411 Z=IO.I G. V= 2.5. P= 26 100 100 100 80 80 80 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

o -W-r-~---,--+=t::;::±:; O+-~~~-r~-T~~~~ o 200 400 600 800 1000 o 200 400 600 800 1000

FLAXMAN IS. AK 08/57-12/70 FT. YUKO~ AK _01152-_09/63 GALENA _ A~ 94/6::'-11/68 27404 Z= 4.3 G. V= 50. P= 232E 26413 Z- 7.6 R. V- 3.7. P- 69 26501 Z- 6.1 G. V- 2.2. P- 2BE 100 100 100 80 80 80 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20 Ot--+--~~==~~ O+-~~~~~~-T~~ O+-~~--~--~--~~~ o 200 400 800 800 1000 o 200 400 600 800 1000 o 200 400 600 800 1000 INDIAN MTN. AK 04/61-12/70 KOTZEBUE_ AK_ 01/45-_12164 LONELY PT. AK 07/57-11/75 26535 Z= 4.0 G. V= 26. P= 56E 26616 Z- 9.4 R. V- 5.8. P- 309 27512 Z= 4.3 G. V= 4.5. p= m 100 100 100 80 80 80 .... L.... ~ ... 60 60 60 :.... i .. . 40 40 40 -L .i ..... ~ ..... j ... L.. -.l .... ~- ..... ;- 20 20 20 "·I·~ O+-~~==~~~~~~ O+-~~~~--,,---r~~ o o 200 400 600 800 1000 o 200 400 600 800 1000 o 200 400 600 800 1000

FIGURE 4.16. Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Northern Alaska.

60 ORDINATE - PERCENT ABSCISSA - WATTS/M 2 PNL-3195 WERA-10

MOSES PT. AK 06/52-07/64 NENANA AK 07/53-12/64 NOME AK 08/58-12/64 26620 Z= 8.2 R. V= 5.4. P= 241 26435 Z= 8.5 R. V= 2.7. P= 38 26617 Z=21.3 B. V= 5.4. P= 247 100 100 100 50 80 50 60 60 50 40 40 40 20 20 20 o+-~~~~-=~~ o 200 400 600 600 1000 200 400 600 600 1000 200 400 600 600 1000

OLI KTOK _ AK_ 08/57.::-11/75 PT. LAY AK 08/57-11/75 TANANA AK 07,48-12/64 2':Il03 Z- 4.3 G. V- 5.2. P- 254E 26638 Z= 4.3 G. V= 5.4. P= 2BIE 26529 Z=IO.1 R. V= 2.5. P= 42 100 100 100 50 50 80 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

O+-~~~--~~~~ O+-~-r~-r~~~~r-~ o 200 400 600 600 1000 o 200 400 600 600 1000 200 400 600 600 1000 TIN CITY AK 06/60-12/71 UMIAT AK 07/48-12/52 WAINWRIGHT AK 08/57-11/75 26634 Z= 4.0 G. V= 7.4. P= 519E 2650B Z=10.7 G. V= 3.3. P= 91 2750B Z= 4.3 G. V= 4.5. ?= 192 100 100 100 50 50 80 50 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

O+-~'-~'-~~~-r~~ o 200 400 600 600 1000 200 400 600 600 1000 200 400 600 600 1000

FIGURE 4.16 (Continued). Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Northern Alaska.

61

SOUTHCENTRALALASKA

CHAPTER 5: SOUTHCENTRAL ALASKA

The southcentra1 subregion had an esti­ large enough for floatplanes to land and mated population of 265,745 in 1979. The take off. Major lakes in the subregion are major population centers of this subregion Tustumena, 303 km 2 (117 mi 2); Lake Clark, are the Matanuska-Susitna Borough, the Kenai 285 km 2 (110 mi 2); Wood River/Tikchik Lakes Peninsula Borough, and the Municipality of area; Skilak Lake and Kenai Lake. Anchorage (formerly the Greater Anchorage Area Borough). With a population of 185,280, The coastal areas of this subregion Anchorage is the largest population center vary from the fjords, inlets, and islands in the state. of Prince William Sound, the Kenai Peninsu­ la, and Cook Inlet to the delta portions of This subregion extends from 1410W on the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers. its east end to 176°06' in the Bering Sea on the west. Its northern boundary is 64°N Wind data stations in the southcentral and its southern boundary is 59°N and the subregion (identified in Figures 5.4 and Gulf of Alaska. The southcentra1 subregion 5.5) are primarily along the coast, major covers an area of 574,980 km 2 (222,000 mi 2). rivers, the railroad, and the few highways. Geographic and topographic features of Fire weather data (Figure 5.5) from the southcentra1 Alaska are shown in Fig- forested foothill and the lowland areas ures 5.1 and 5.2. were used for calculations where other reli­ able data were absent. The subregion is characterized by rug­ ged, mountainous terrain (Figure 5.3). 5.1 ANNUAL AVERAGE WIND POWER IN Important exceptions are in the lowlands SOUTHCENTRAL ALASKA bordering Cook Inlet, the Kuskokwim River valley, the lower Susitna Valley, the The annual average wind- power density Copper River plateau, and intermittent low­ in southcentra1 Alaska is shown in Figure lands along the coast. The borders of this 5.6. The analyses of mean wind power apply subregion encompass the southern portion of to terrain features that are favorably ex­ the Nulato Hills, the Kuskokwim Mountains, posed to the wind, such as mountain summits, the Alaska Range (including the 6,194 m ridge crests, hilltops and uplands. However, high Mt. McKinley, the tallest peak in North nearby terrain features may interact with America), and the Talkeetna, Wrangell, the windfie1d to cause the wind power at Chugach, and Kenai mountain ranges. some exposed sites to vary as much as 50 to 100% from the assessment value. (See The subregion experiences great tec­ Weg1ey et al. 1980 for information on ter­ tonic activity. It is subject to frequent rain features that may increase or reduce violent movements of the earth's crust that wind energy.) In forested or wooded areas cause severe earthquakes, and it exhibits the assessment values are representative of all the manifestations of the Pacific Rim's large clearings with good exposure to the "Ring of Fire," including the following prevailing strong winds, such as airports. active volcanoes--Augustine, Iliamna, Re­ In mountainous regions, the analyses also doubt, Spurr, and the Wrangel1s. reflect major valleys. The percentage of land area that is favorably exposed to the Great glaciers abound in the Alaska, wind strongly depends on the land-surface Wrangell, Chugach, and Kenai mountain form (Section 1.8). ranges. Meltwater from glaciers contri­ butes huge quantities of water and silt to The annual average wind power (Figure many of the large rivers in the south­ 5.6) is class 4 or higher all along the central subregion. Bering Sea coast, at islands in the Bering Sea, in wind corridors in lower Cook Inlet The subregion has three of the largest and Isabel Pass, and at mountain summits river systems in the state: the Kuskokwim, and ridge crests of the Alaska Range and Susitna, and Copper. It also includes the the Wrangell Mountains. St. Lawrence lower third and delta region of the Yukon Island shows class 7 power at the east and River, the longest river in Alaska. Their west ends and class 6 along the north shore; drainage basins account for more than half however, St. Matthew Island, Nunivak Island, the total area of the subregion. Next in and the Bering Sea coast all show class 7 size is the Matanuska River with a drainage wind powers. Class 4 or higher wind power area of 5,672 km 2 (2,190 mi 2). extends eastward in the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta for more than 150 km (100 mil, as Lakes abound in thi s subregion. 11 i am­ shown by Bethel data. These high wind na Lake covers 2,590 km2(2,190 mi 2) and is powers reflect the frequent storms that the largest in the state; others are just occur in the Bering Sea year round.

65 Off the Gulf of Alaska coast and Nulato Hills, the Alaska Range, and the Middleton Island class 7 wind power occurs. Kuskokwim, Talkeetna, Wrangell, Chugach, However, most coastal data are in sheltered and Kenai mountains. locations and thus reflect annual power of class 2 or 3. Exposed locations should be Stations along the Gulf of Alaska class 4 or higher. coast and in the Prince William Sound area that represent exposed locations are North There are wind corridors with class 4 Dutch Island, Cape Hinchinbrook, and Middle­ and higher power in the lower Cook Inlet ton Island. The certainty rating at all of from Kamishak Bay to the Barren Islands. these stations except Middleton Island is Bruin Bay shows class 7 for all seasons of reduced to 2 or 3 because of the complexity the year. Isabel Pass along the Delta of the terrain in the vicinity. Other Gulf River through the Alaska Range shows annual of Alaska coast stations, such as Valdez, wind power of class 4 to 7. Other wind Cordova, and Yakataga, are not favorably corridors with no objective data have a exposed to the prevailing winds. significant wind resource. A few examples of these are: Portage Pass, which connects 5.1. 2 Areal Distribution of the the Turnagain Arm of Cook Inlet with Prince Wind Resource William Sound; the lower Copper River; Windy Pass near Mt. McKinley National Park; and The areal distribution of the wind several other passes through the Alaska power in southcentral Alaska is illustrated Range. in Figure 5.8. The numbers identify the percentage of area in each cell of the grid Mountain summits and ridge crests of in which the wind power equals or exceeds the Alaska Range east of 150 0 Wreach wind some threshold value. Although class 4 or power class 6 in the vicinity of Mt. McKin­ higher is predicted in 18% of the grid cells, ley; class 4 or higher occurs north of 60 0 N only about 10% of the land area is estimated along this range. In the Wrangell Moun­ to experience these power densities (see tains along the Canadian border, class 4 Table 5.1). High wind energy resource areas wind power also occurs. However, other are along the Bering Sea coast and its is­ mountain summits and ridge crests are lands, lower Cook Inlet, and the coast of generally estimated to have class 3 power. the Gulf of Alaska from Prince William Sound eastward, mountain summits and ridge Annual wind power of class 1 prevails crests of the Alaska Range west of Cook in interior regions along the Yukon, Kusko­ Inlet, and the Wrangell Mountains. The kwim, and Tanana rivers; in the source most exploitable high wind resource areas region of the Copper River, in the relative­ are the Bering Sea coast, the Yukon-Kusko­ ly low relief area between the Talkeetna, kwim Delta, the wind corridor from Bristol Chugach, Wrangell, and Alaska mountain Bay to lower Cook Inlet, Isabel Pass south ranges; and in the sheltered areas of Cook of Big Delta, and Portage Pass at the east Inlet and the Susitna River valley. end of the Turnagain Arm. High wind re­ source areas along the Gulf of Alaska coast are estimated to be in a narrow strip along 5.1.1 Certainty Rating of the Wind the coast and the Copper River delta. The Resource remainder of southcentra1 Alaska is estima­ ted to be of class 1 or 2. Certa1nty ratings in southcentral Alaska vary from 1 to 4 (Figure 5.7). 5.2 SEASONAL WIND POWER There are only two areas with class 4 or higher wind power and a certainty rating of Wind power maps for each season are 4--southern St. Matthew Island and Middle­ shown in Figure 5.9. Generally, winter is ton Island, both with an annual wind power the season of maximum wind power along the of class 7. Elsewhere in the subregion, coastlines, the mountain ranges, and in certainty ratings of 3 or less predominate. passes where pressure differences in winter cause strong winds in the passes. Maximum There are several areas where data are wind power along major inland rivers and adequate but the certainty rating is reduced the upper Cook Inlet coasts generally because of terrain complexity. These are occurs in spring. the vicinities of Cook Inlet, St. Lawrence Island, the Bering Sea coast, and the inner 5.2.1 Winter mountain region around Gulkana. Most of the subregion is of certainty rating 2 Class 7 wind power occurs all along because the powers are based on mountain the Bering coast in winter except along the summit and ridge crest estimates in the south shore of Norton Sound and Kvichak Bay

66 at the northeast end of Bristol Bay. Class 4 Mountain summits and ridge crests with or higher wind power is estimated to occur class 4 or higher wind power are restricted over the western 150 km of the Yukon-Kusko­ to the Alaska Range in the vicinity of Mt. kwim Delta, as shown by Bethel data that McKinley and the Wrangell Mountains along indicate class 5 wind power. Along the the Canadian border. The remainder of the Gulf of Alaska coast, class 5 or 6 wind mountain summits and ridge crests are pri­ power generally occurs with class 7 over marily class 2, with a few estimated at the open waters and in the Middleton Island class 3. area. Wind corridors at Isabel Pass have of At mountain summits and ridge crests class 3 or 4 power, and Chickaloon has in the Alaska Range, class 7 wind power is class 3. Other wind corridors shown in the estimated in the vicinity of Mt. McKinley winter season are not significant in spring and west of the Susitna River valley. In because of the seasonal decrease in pressure the Wrangell Mountains along the Canadian gradients. Class 1 wind power covers most border class 7 is estimated at the highest of the interior west of the Alaska Range, peaks, and class 4 or higher is estimated the major river valleys, the Cook Inlet for most of the Chugach Range and the Tal­ area, and the low relief area between the keetna Mountains. Talkeetna, Wrangell, Chugach, and Alaska mountains. Wind corridors in lower Cook Inlet from Kamishak Bay to the Barren Islands and 5.2.3 Summer in Isabel have class 7 power for part of their lengths, as shown by Bruin Bay and In summer, locations with class 4 or Big Delta data. Other passes with high higher wind power are St. Lawrence and wind powers that are primarily a winter Nunivak Islands in the Bering Sea and the phenomenon resulting from strong pressure wind corridor from Kamishak Bay to the gradients are Portage Pass, which connects Barren Islands. This corridor shows the Turnagain Arm of Cook Inlet to Prince class 7 wind power at the west end of William Sound, with class 5 to 7 wind power; Kamishak Bay, which diminishes rapidly to Isabel Pass, with class 6 and 7, Windy Pass, class 3 in both directions. The Bering Sea with class 5 and 6; Chickaloon Pass, along coast is predominantly class 3, and the the Matanuska River, with class 6 power as Gulf of Alaska coast is class 2 as far out shown by Palmer and Sheep Mountain; and the as Middleton Island. lower Copper River, estimated to experience class 6 wind power. Mountain summits and ridge crests have up to class 4 power in the vicinity of Mt. Class 1 wind power occurs along major McKinley, and class 3 in the Wrangell Moun­ rivers, such as the Yukon, Kuskokwim, tains along the Canadian border and portions Tanana, Susitna, and the source region of of the Alaska Range southwest of Mt. McKinley. the Copper River where extremely stable air The remainder of mountains summits are of at the surface may persist for weeks at a class 2 or 1. time with intense temperature inversions. Class 1 prevails over the rest of south­ central Alaska in summer. 5.2.2 ~

Class 4 or higher wind power prevails 5.2.4 Autumn all along the Bering Sea coast and at is­ lands in the Bering Sea in the spring. In autumn, class 4 or higher wind power Class 7 only occurs at the most exposed occurs along the Bering Sea coast and at areas of the western coast of St. Lawrence islands in the Bering Sea. Class 7 occurs Island at Gambell and at Cape Romanzof and along the Bering coast from Cape Romanzof Platinum on the mainland coast. The remain­ to Kuskokwim Bay and at St. Matthew, St. der of the Bering Sea islands are of class 6 Lawrence, and Nunivak Islands. Class 4 or and the remainder of the coast is class 6, higher occurs over the western Yukon-Kusko­ decreasing to class 4 at the east end of kwim Delta up to 160 km from the coast. Bristol Bay and along the shore of Norton The Norton Sound coast has class 4 or 5 Sound. Class 7 wind power still occurs in power, as does the north shore of Bristol the wind corridor from Kamishak Bay to the Bay. Barren Islands in lower Cook Inlet. Along the Gulf of Alaska coast class 4 and 5 wind power is the rule; power generally increases to class 6 at Middleton Island and class 7 over the more open waters of the Gulf of Alaska.

67 The wind corridor from Iliamna Lake Cape Romanzof on the Bering coast is through the lower Cook Inlet to the Barren surrounded on three sides by hil"ls up to Islands has class 7 power. Other wind cor­ 700 m within a few kilometers of the sta­ ridors show wind powers as follows: Isabel tion. It is exposed to winds from the Pass, class 5 and 4; Chickaloon Pass, class 2 southwest toward Kokechik Bay. Prevailing and 3; Portage Pass, class 4 and 3; and the winds are along the direction of the valley, lower Copper River corridor, class 3. either southwest or northeast. During the seven-year period of record used in the Mountain summits and ridge crests in analysis, there was an average of 22 observa­ the Alaska Range and the Wrangells near the tions per day. Canadian border reach class 6. Class 3 wind power occurs in the Chugach Range north There are three stations along the and east of Prince William Sound. Else­ Kuskokwim River: Bethel, Aniak, and Mc­ where in the Talkeetna, Kenai, and Kusko­ Grath. kwim mountains, class 2 power is the rule. Bethel is about 80 km from the coast Class 1 power prevails over the remain­ on the Kuskokwim River. Surrounding ter­ der of the subregion west of the Alaska rain is flat tundra except for the Kilbuck Range; in the Susitna River valley and vicin­ Mountains about 65 km southeast of the sta­ ity of Cook Inlet; and in the inner mountain tion. Bethel is very representative of the region at the headwaters of the Copper, Yukon-Kuskokwim delta area. There was an Delta, Susitna, and Matanuska rivers. average of n;ght observations per day coded during the lo-year summary used in the 5.3 FEATURES OF SELECTED STATIONS analysis. Graphs of wind characteristics are Aniak is located at the confluence of shown for 23 stations in southcentral the Aniak and Kuskokwim Rivers, where the Alaska. Nine of these are along the coast wind direction is from east to west. The and 14 are inland. The station character­ surrounding terrain is generally level to istics are summarized in Table 5.2. the south with low brush vegetation. To the north there are rolling hills with Northeast Cape is located on the elevations over 300 m within 16 km of the extreme northeastern coast of St. Lawrence station. Aniak is typical of a sheltered Island. It is well exposed to the open sea valley wind regime. There were 24 obser­ to the north, east, and south with the ter­ vations pel' day during the ll-yeal~ summary rain to the west gradually rising to 300 to used in the analysis. 450 m elevation about 8 km west of the sta­ tion. During the six-year summary used in McGrath is located in a relatively this analysis there was an average of 22 flat drainage basin in the upper portion of observations made per day. the Kuskokwim River. Elevations in the Kuskokwim Mountains from northeast to south­ Unalakleet is at the east end of west of the station are more than 500 m Norton Sound about 100 m from the shoreline within 8 km of the station and 1,000 to and 400 m north northwest of the mouth of 1,300 m within 30 km. McGrath had 24 obser­ the Unalakleet River. The country in the vations per day during the 16-year summary immediate vicinity is flat beach and tide­ used in the analysis. land. Low, rolling hills rise to 200 to 300 m about 3 km northeast of the station There are four stations in the western and extend from north-northwest to east. slopes of the Alaska Range: Iliamna, Fare­ Mountains 800 to 1,100 m high and 16 to well, Lake Minchumina, and Sparrevohn. 64 km distant extend from southeast to south. The Unalakleet River valley extends Iliamna is located near the north shore inland in an easterly direction and forms a of Iliamna Lake along the Newhalen River, low pass into the Yukon River basin. which connects Lake Clark to Iliamna Lake. Strong easterly winds are common down this The area immediately surrounding the station valley during the winter months. During is relatively level and covered with muskeg, the seven-year summary used in thi s anal­ and slopes gently southward to the lake. ysis there were 24 observations per day. To the northeast and northwest on both sides of the Newhalen River there are peaks over 600 m within 15 km of the station. This station is exposed to winds from Cook Inlet

68 across the lake from the east-southeast and Anchorage International Airport is on also from the north from the direction of a point of land that separates the Knik Arm Lake Clark. During the 16-year summary from the Turnagain Arm of Cook Inlet. The used in this analysis there were 24 obser­ terrain in the immediate vicinity is gently vations per day. rolling. To the south, west, and north are the open waters of Cook Inlet. Peaks of Farewell is located on the south fork the Chugach Mountains rise to more than of the Kuskokwim River, a few miles from 1,600 m within 30 km to the southeast the foothills of the Alaska Range and about through northeast. Three-hour synoptic 45 km from the entrance to Rainy Pass. At observations were used in the 17-year 500 m elevation, it is one of the few sta­ summary in this analysis. tions higher than 300 m in Alaska. The surrounding terrain is generally level or Elmendorf AFB is located on a 65-m rolling tundra. Frequent gusty southeast high bluff on the Knik Arm of Cook Inlet. winds from the direction of Rainy Pass It is sheltered somewhat by a 200-m high occur in winter. During the 16-year sum­ glacial moraine that lies parallel to the mary used in this analysis, there was an runway and is oriented east-northeast to average of 24 observations per day. west- southwest less than one kilometer to the north. The mountains of the Chugach Lake Minchumina is located on the north Range with elevations higher than 600 mare shore of the lake in a broad valley between 30 km to the southeast through northeast. the Kuskokwim Mountains and the Alaska Range. During the 10-year period of the summary It is sheltered from all except the east­ used in this analysis, there were 24 northeast and south-southwest. To the observations per day. north of the station, thickly wooded slopes begin about 80 m from the station and ex­ The Susitna River valley between the tend into the Kuskokwim Mountains, provid­ Alaska Range and the Talkeetna Mountains is ing a very effective block to northerly well represented by Skwentna, Summit, and winds. During the 16-year summary used in Talkeetna. the analysis there were 24 observations per day. Skwentna is located in a broad valley at the confluence of the Skwentna and Yentna Sparrevohn is in a very sheltered loca­ Rivers in the eastern foothills of the Alaska tion with ridges to the north, east, and Range. The immediate area around the station southeast rising to about 600 m above the is very flat swampy ground with numerous station within 10 km of the station. During ponds and small lakes. There are dense the 10-year summary used in the analysis, patches of birch and spruce trees 7 to 10 m there was an average of 21 observations per high. The area is open to the east, but day. mountains and hills are nearby in other directions. During the six-year summary The eastern shore of Cook Inlet is used in the analysis there were 24 obser­ represented by Homer, Kenai, and two loca­ vations per day. tions in the Anchorage area. Summit is located on a plateau that Homer, located on the shore of Kachemak lies lr1iiI1ortheast-southwest direction and Bay, is sheltered from all except southwest averages about 15 km in width. Mountains and northeast winds. The terrain in the are 6 km away to the north and south and immediate vicinity is flat or gently rolling 15 km away to east and west. Much of the with alternating wooded and open, swampy immediate vicinity is swampy and covered patches. A bluff 300 to 500 m high and with brush and a few small trees. During oriented east-west rises sharply about 3 km the eight-year summary used in "the analysis, north of the station. The Kenai Mountains there were 24 observations per day. on the south shore of Kachemak Bay protect the station from the southwest to east direc­ Talkeetna is located on the Susitna tion. During the 16-year summary used in River near the confluence with the Chulitna the analysis, there were 24 observations River. The area in the vicinity is slightly per day. rolling, with considerable swampland and a moderate growth of brush and trees on the Kenai is located about 3 km from the higher elevations. The mountains of the shore~ook Inlet. Terrain is flat, Alaska Range are about 100 km to the west there are swampy areas, and it is covered and north and the Talkeetna Mountains are with a moderate growth of trees and brush. within 20 km to the east. During the During the 16-year summary used in the period of the 16-year summary used in the analysis, there were 24 observations per analysis, there were 24 observations per day. day.

69 The Tanana River valley is represented allow for moderate exposure. There were 24 by Big Delta and Northway. observations per day during the nine-year summary used in the analysis. Big Delta is located on the Delta River about 15 km southeast of its confluence Middleton Island lies in the Gulf of with the Tanana River. This station is Alaska about 120 km south of Cordova. The affected by flow through Isabel Pass, one station is 400 m from the island's west of the few passes through the Alaska Range. edge, 520 m from its east edge and 1,300 m In the immediate vicinity the terrain is from its northern tip. The island is about gently rolling for 15 to 20 km in all direc­ 8 km long and about 1.5 km at the widest tions. However, the mountains of the Alaska part. It has no trees and is covered with Range reach altitudes to near 3,000 m within a dense growth of heavy grass. There are 50 km to the southwest to southeast. During no obstructions. During the eight-year the 16-year summary used in this analysis, period of the summary used in the analysis, there were 24 observations per day. there were 24 observations per day. Northway is located on the Nabesna 5.3.1 Interannual Wind Power and Speed River 8 km from its confluence with the Tanana River. The terrain in the vicinity The three locations exposed to the is gently rolling, with numerous lakes and open Bering Sea (Cape Romanzof, Northeast swamps and moderate growth of trees on the Cape, and Unalakleet) are highly variable higher ground. There is a range of hills from one year to another (Figure 5.10). across the Tanana River oriented southeast Northeast Cape and Unalakleet varied by a to northwest up to 1,000 m elevation within factor of more than 2 and Cape Romanzof by 15 km of the station. The mountains of the 1.5. Interannual variations coincide at Alaska Range are within 30 km to the south­ these three locations. Along the Kuskokwim west of the station. During the seven-year River, Bethel showed wind power values of period of the summary used in the analysis, class 2 or 3 from 1948 to 1957, but varied there were 24 observations per day. between class 4 and 6 wind power for the remainder of its period of record. In 1958 Gulkana is located in a broad valley the anemometer was moved 8 km and from an about 15 km wide, 3 km from the Copper River. elevation of 5 to 42 m and the height above The terrain is nearly level in the vicinity, ground changed from 12 to 20 m. During the sloping slightly toward the Copper River to last 16 years the wind power varied by a the east. The area is heavily wooded with factor of 1.5 from minimum to maximum. spruce and alder. The Wrangell Mountains Aniak and McGrath, with class 1 wind power, are to the east and south of the station show very little variability from year to about 30 km and the Alaska Range is to year. Between the Kuskokwim Mountains and northeast and north about 40 km. Toward the Alaska Range, Lake Minchumina and Spar­ the west and northwest there are no obstruc­ revohn show very little interannual varia­ tions for 80 km. During the 16-year period tion while Iliamna and Farewell vary by a of the summary used in this analysis, there factor of more than 2, from wind power were 24 observations per day. classes 1 to 4. In the Cook Inlet area, Anchorage, Homer, and Kenai vary little The Gulf of Alaska coast is represent­ from year to year, remaining in wind power ed by Cordova and Yakataga. class 1 at all times. These sites do not reflect the wind powers that occur' at more Cordova is located in a sheltered area exposed locations or passes in the Cook of the gulf coast 20 km east of the town of Inlet area. Skwentna and Talkeetna, in the Cordova and 15 km west of the Copper River Susitna River drainage, show very little delta. There are mountains up to 1,000 m change in wind power from year to year while within 15 km of the station and the Chugach Summit, at a more exposed location, varies Mountains rise to more than 2,200 m within between c 1as s 1 and 4 wi nd power. I n the 40 km from northeast to northwest of the Tanana River valley, Northway shows very station. The station's immediate vicinity little interannual variation; however, Big is gently rolling and heavily wooded. Dur­ Delta at the north end of Isabel Pass varies ing the 16-year period of the summary used from class 1 to class 7 wind power from one in the analysis, there were 24 observation year to another. Gulkana, on the upper per day. Copper River, shows very little variation from year to year, which is typical of an Yakataga is located on a narrow strip interior location. Along the Gulf of of relatively level land bounded on the Alaska coast, Cordova, in a sheltered loca­ south by the Gulf of Alaska near the mouth tion, and Cape Yakataga show very little of the Yakataga River. To the north the interannual variation in wind power or Chugach Mountains rise to more than 1,000 m speed, remaining in wind power classes 1 within 8 km. The immediate vicinity has and 2. Middleton Island varied from been cleared of a dense growth of timber to class 6 to 7 wind power over the seven-year record.

70 5.3.2 Monthly Average Wind Power (Figure 5.12). The season with greatest and Speed diurnal variation was spring at seven stations and summer at the remainder. All At coastal and island stations in south­ stations showed the least diurnal variation central Alaska, wind power class 7 dominates during winter, when there is very little in autumn and winter and minimum wind powers warming by the sun. Coastal stations tend occur in summer (Figure 5.11). Two excep­ to experience maximum winds earlier in the tions are Cordova and Yakataga, where there afternoon than do island stations. is very little seasonal change in wind power. Cordova is class 1 and Yakataga is class 2 5.3.4 Directional Frequency and most of the time Unalakleet shows wind power Average Speed class 7 in winter only. Along the Kuskokwim River, Bethel is typical of inland areas of In the Bering Sea and along the coast the Yukon and Kuskokwim Deltas, with class 6 inland to Bethel, the prevailing winds are wind power occurring in late autumn and north through east and southwest through winter, decreasing to class 3 in summer. south (Figure 5.13). These are also the Aniak, with class 1 wind power, shows a quadrants of strongest winds, averaging March maximum and a July minimum. McGrath 9 m/s at Northeast Cape from south-south­ is typical of much of the interior area, east and 6 to 8 m/s at Cape Romanzof and with a winter minimum and spring/summer Bethel. Unalakleet has a high frequency of maximum. In the area between the Kuskokwim strong easterly winds from a pass through Mountains and the Alaska Range, Sparrevohn, the Nulato Hills and a pressure gradient with wind power class 2, shows a March maxi­ from a high in the interior to a low over mum and June minimum. Farewell and Iliamna the Bering Sea. Migrating storms are both show summer minima and maxima in autumn responsible for the strong southerly winds and winter, with annual wind powers of class 2 along the coast. Prevailing winds at Aniak and 3, respectively. Lake Minchumina shows are along the direction of the Kuskokwim very little change in wind power and speed River valley, with no real peak in wind throughout the year. speed. McGrath shows predominant north and northwest winds, but the strongest winds All stations in the Cook Inlet area (4 to 5 m/s) are from the south-southwest. show an annual wind power class 1, with Farewell and Iliamna show prevailing east­ minima in summer at Kenai and Homer and in southeast and southeast winds, averaging winter at Anchorage. However, there is 6 m/s. Along the broad valley in which very little change during the year. In the Lake Minchumina is located, winds from Susitna drainage area, Skwentna and Talkeet­ east-northeast and west-southwest average 3 na show annual wind power class 1, with to 4 m/s. very little seasonal variation, summer minima, and winter or spring maxima. Summit, on Stations along Cook Inlet show prevail­ the other hand, with annual wind power class 2, ing north to northeast winds; however, reaches class 3 in winter and class 1 from strongest winds are most likely to be south­ April to December. Summit, at 770 m, is southeast to southwest. There are light less affected by the persistent arctic winds in the Susitna drainage; Skwentna's temperature inversion that generally affects winds are from the west-northwest and Tal­ more sheltered locations during the winter­ keetna's from the north. Summit shows pre­ time. vailing winds from the northeast and south­ west. The strongest winds average 6 m/s Big Delta, along the Tanana River valley from east-northeast and originate in the at the north end of Isabel Pass, shows a high plain around Summit. winter maximum and summer minimum. Big Delta is only representative of a small Big Delta shows strong east-southeast area affected by this local phenomenon. winds and mean speeds of 8 to 9 m/s from Northway, with annual class 1 wind power, that direction. The strong winds at Big is more typical of the broad Tanana Valley; Delta are affected by flow through Isabel it has a winter minimum and summer maximum, Pass. Northway, more typical of locations reflecting the influence of the persistent in the Tanana River valley, has prevailing winter temperature inversions. Gulkana, at winds from northwest along the direction of 510 m elevation, is very representative of the Tanana River; however, speeds only the broad, rolling plain that forms the average 4 m/s from northwest. Gu1kana's divide between rivers flowing north, south, stongest winds tend to come from south to and west. Wind power class 1, a winter southeast; the wind speed averages less minimum, and small spring maximum are re­ than 6 m/s. The winds at Cordova average flected in Gulkana's data. less than 4 m/s. Yakataga winds occur most often from southeast through south and 5.3.3 Diurnal Wind Speed by Season average 6 m/s. Middleton Island's prevail­ ing and strongest winds are east-southeast, All 22 stations showed maximum winds averaging 6 to 8 m/s. This station is more between noon and late afternoon (local time) representative of exposed areas of the coast than either Yakataga or Cordova.

71 5.3.5 Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency 5.3.6 Annual Average Wind Speed and Power Duration Many interior stations have a high percentage of calm winds and do not follow The percent of time that a given wind the Rayleigh distribution (Figure 5.14). speed or power is exceeded is shown in Fig­ The Rayleigh distribution in these cases ures 5.15 and 5.16. Evidence of observer tends to put too high a percentage of winds bias and instrument response is indicated in the 1 to 4 m/s range and not enough by abrupt changes in the shape of the wind above 4 m/s. Coastal stations like North­ speed duration curves. Note that wind east Cape, Unalakleet, Middleton Island, power class 7 occurs 20 percent of the time and Cape Romanzof tend to follow the Ray­ at Cape Romanzof, Middleton Island, and leigh distribution. There is also observer Northeast Cape, all coastal or i sl and loca­ bias shown in the preference for 2, 5, 8, tions. Bethel data indicate that the Yukon­ and 10 m/s (corresponding to 5, 10, 15, and Kuskokwim Delta also has a substantial 20 mph) in the data at Aniak, Cape Romanzof, potential for wind power development. Cordova, Homer, Iliamna, Middleton Island, Northeast Cape, Summit, Unalakleet, and Yakataga.

72

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16(}0

GULF OF

FIGURE 5.1. Geographic Map of Southcentral Alaska 64' 175" 170" \'65' 64' m 11) ;po MILES .}~-=r: ./ i b,=:!li.'_.iiiIOOlb,d1¥lIll-...iI1OO !s.n¥.:!.tI;ERS /.f ·4.:h- ~ \ -:t:.: . -.- - I -r-:"-"_::::~~ I "'_ k' ~ .~~ "'=.: .:\ I r

~ i. , 0

~ .- ~~. ~: ...... : ~~- 6d' I til' 17So 1110" \

FIGURE 5.2. Topographic Map of Southcentral Alaska 1750 WEST /. 1700 / .. / .. ..

60.0______t--- 600

1750 WEST 1700

\

COB \

\ \

II SO 100 MILE"

(J 50 100 KILOMEn:H.<.; PNL 3195 WERA-10 \ \ 1600 1550 1500 145 0

FIGURE 5.3. Land-Surface Form Map of Southccntral Alaska. LAND-SURFACE FORM LEGEND

PLAINS TABLELANDS 1 FLAT PLAINS B3e.d TABLELANDS. MODERATE RELIEF A2 SMOOTH PLAINS B4e.d TABLELANDS. CONSIDERABLE RELIEF ~B1 IRREGULAR PLAINS. SLIGHT RELIEF B5e,d TABLELANDS, HIGH RELIEF B2 IRREGULAR PLAINS B6e.d TABLELANDS. VERY HIGH RELIEF

PLAINS WITH HILLS OR MOUNTAINS SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION A.B3a.b PLAINS WITH HILLS SLOPE (1st LETTER) B4.a.b PLAINS WITH HIGH HILLS A >BO% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING B5a,b PLAINS WITH LOW MOUNTAINS B 50-80% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING B6a,b PLAINS WITH HIGH MOUNTAINS C 20-50% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING D <20% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING OPEN HILLS AND MOUNTAINS C2 OPEN LOW HILLS LOCAL RELIEF (2nd LETTER) 1----1 C3 OPEN HILLS o TO 30m 11 TO 100 It) f-----i C4 OPEN HIGH HILLS 2 30 TO 90m (100 TO 300 It) 1----1 C5 OPEN LOW MOUNTAINS 3 90 TO 150m (300 TO 500 It) 1----1 C6 OPEN HIGH MOUNTAINS 4 150 TO 300m (500 TO 1000 It) '-----' 5 300 ro 900m (1000 TO 3000 It) HILLS AND MOUNTAINS 6 900 TO 1 500m (3000 TO 5000 It) 3 HILLS D4 HIGH HILLS PROFILE TYPE (3rd LETTER) ~D5 LOW MOUNTAINS a >75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS IN LOWLAND D6 HIGH MOUNTAINS b 50-75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS IN LOWLAND e 50-75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS ON UPLAND d >75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS ON UPLAND ~ I I r' I

~"SAVOONGA ~, 1'- o DIGITIZED DATA o 50 100 150 MILES V • DIGITIZED AND SUMMARIZED DATA 0 '0"""""'if o O~ 7fO 6. SUMMARIZED DATA ... UNSUMMARIZED DATA

600

6.RAPIDS

6.0PHIR BROAD PASS 6.. SUMMIT NORTtlWAY. "'PAXSON \ TATALINA AF7S MCGRATH \ CAPE ROMANZOF MOUNTAIN VILLAGE 6. FLAT 0 FAREWELL '\.,.. STUYAHUK 6. HOLY CROSS ~ a/? TALKEETNA '\) ~ ,GULKANAl • ~ \l rr-=---J' ~CROOKEDCREEK OHOGAMUTE~ RO~ _ "-.,. tvSTONYRIVER 11 ~ COPPER CENTER " KALSKAG~ANIAK ~ SKWENTNA. -"- SHEEP MOUNTAIN~ WILLOW ... BIG LAKE - \ U CHITINA 't> c::,a •• / D ( !PALMER '16(,0 NUNIVA~~N~ <:::J BETHEL =" ELME~DORF AFB~NCH-MER~~LL FLD P VALDEZ .SPARREVOHNAFS ~" ANCHORAGE APTVVf . \ &]0 ~ 'b PORT~ ~&~ORTH DUTCH ISLAND . 16(,0 CORDOVA(> '" DOCK),~ Vi~ORDOVA \ KENAI SOLDOTNA "I~~ ~I L.,.". . "- TANALIAN POrNT K~SrLOF ~ "=iI ~ f1f "")7 .-CAPE ~INCHINBR09K~r~K~A~ o SEWARD\JEWARP.!.90CK) 0 ,40 .o'Y ,~ 1420 V :f(V~ i'~w l:fCAPESTELIAS HOM~RHOMER'S};T 1480 • MIDDLETON ISLAND o \/V,500 I

I 1540

FIGURE 5.4. NCC Station Locations in South central Alaska 61 .•.... ~"" .: k: :.t····t····;····~·61 ...... :' : ..... ~ ..... ; ..... : ,: 17,: .. ,) 72 170 60 ; .... ;. .: :' ! .. '. -: '.

o TD1440 DIGITIZED .... :' ····r···j····j· ... j ... 64jL.f~·:!::r)64 D TD1440 DIGITIZED & NCC-SUMMARIZED 6 NCC-SUMMARIZED ./ ... '/ .... f .... ~ .... '; ..... ;. . 6 a 63 ; .. : : : . " OTHER-SUMMARIZED : ...•.... ~ .... ; .... : . 63 x NCC/OTHER-UNSUMMARIZED ...... MARINE 59 ...... : • • • I , .... ~ .... <> . . ,: . : : lII[ CANADIAN/OTHER fOREIGN 174 •• .. 0 + USfS fiRE WEATHER 172 ...... : /'···f····.~· .. ·f· ...... ;.. 170 62 ; .... ; :' : .: : 142 168 166 ...... v ...... ,...... ; ...... ; ...... ; ...... 144 .. , .... ,.··· 64 64 ! ... : .... ,' ... '.' .. 16 4 ~ 6 148 146 ...... , .. . I : : : .. ",:" ...... "" ..... 158 156 154 152 .1.~q ...... : .... : .... :D· \ \ .. :\ .... ~. :! .../ ;.. ·r··r···f····..:.' .... ; 63 :'····t .: .... /. .... f····.' j :.

I" .. ... ~ .. . .. I • . ..' , ..

•.• ~ .... \ ••.. ~.•••• : ..•... t.. t' • A' • .,. 62 ~·' .. t :•• • : • : If '. ..~ tJ.. ~"":'" . " , : : .. ,t .... ; ···;····A ...; :d: :1).: : : : : : : : : .... ;····;····~x··: u '. + I). ' .... Of ...• · ;. ·i···i .: r··!····~~.; ... ;; .. ;;!!~.~ x ' :;... ;... "...... ~. A . . . 6. + ll' . . . . . +"" .... ~ . 61 i.i ... ; ... ; .. :.. ·.~.:L·j .. ·t·T~T .. T.L.T~rL.LT..... : .

! .. 7..... ; ..... ; ..... ; .... .f .....; ..... ; 59 :···:·· ... f.... ! ::,

• • .~ ...... "to .. " 168 H36"""i'~4 ...... ~ ...... to ...... 148 o 50 100 MILES o 50 100 KILOMETERS PNL-3195 WERA-10

FIGURE 5.5. Location of Stations Used in Southcentral Alaska Assessment. o

em RIDGE CREST ESTIMATES o 50 100 150 MILES ~=~-...;.;;,;~===' o 50 100 150 KILOMETERS PNL·3195 WERA·'O

00 o

...... ":' ...... ::

600 .... ~..• ~./i .....

_//~ .. 0'" --f. " Q) (0 o :·········· ... f.. (0 o - CD 'it" - (0 • -590 ,.

FIGURE 5.6. South central Alaska Annual Average Wind Power Classes of Wind Power Density at 10m and 50 m (a)

10 m (33 ft) 50 m (164 ft)

Wind Wind Power Wind Power Power Density, Speed,(b) Density, Speed,(b) Class watts/m2 m/s (mph) watts/m2 m/s (mph)

------0 1_--100-4.4 (° 9.8)--200--5.6 ° °(12.5) 2 150--5.1 (11.5)--300--6.4 (14.3) 3_--200--5.6 (12.5)--400--7.0 (15.7) 4_--250--6.0 (13.4)--500--7.5 (16.8) 5 300--6.4 (14.3)--600--8.0 (17.9) 6 400--7.0 (15.7)--800--8.8 (19.7) 7_-1000--9.4 (21.1)--2000-11.9 (26.6)

(a)Vertical extrapolation of wind speed based on the 1/7 power law. (b)Mean wind speed is based on Rayleigh speed distribution of equiva­ lent mean wind power density. Wind speed is for stJndard sed-level

conditions. To maintain the same power density I speed increases 5%/5000 ft (3%/1000 m) of elevation.

.....00

TABLE 5.1. Areal Distribution (km2 ) of Wind Power Classes in South central Alaska

% Land Cumulative % Cumulative Power Class Land Area Area Land Area Land Area 480,000 82 580,000 100 2 25,000 4.2 100,000 18 3 22,000 3.8 78,000 13 4 5,000 0.85 56,000 10 5 15,000 2.6 51,000 8.7 6 18,000 3.2 36,000 6.1 7 17,000 3.0 17,000 3.0 174 2 64 :...... ·)7. 170 :/ ....:':' .... :/~.....•... "J64 3 : ... : ,: : : , 6 : .: ' ... , .... ; .... ; , 63

, ' ' , ...: - ... ~' : .' .: .'2' '."- :' : .... : .....; .... ; .... ;-- 62 : .... ' :' : :' : •.... ,._--:- ... ;--_. :

(X) N

.. " 146 148 o 50 100 MILES 00 KILOMETERS o, 50 1 PNl-3195 WEAA-l0

FIGURE 5.7. Certainty Rating. of Sout hcentral Alaska Wind Resource, CERTAINTY RATING LEGEND

Rating Definition

The lowest degree of certainty. A combination of the following conditions exists:

1) No data exist in the vicinity of the cell.

2) The terrain is highly complex.

3) Various meteorological and topographical indicators suggest a high level of variability of the resource within the cell.

2 A low-intermediate degree of certainty. One of the following conditions exists:

1) Little or no data exist in or near the cell, but the small variability of the resource and the low complexity of the terrain suggest that the wind resource will not differ substantially from the resource in nearby areas with data.

2) Limited data exist in the vicinity of the cell, but the terrain is highly complex or the mesoscale variability of the resource is large.

OJ 3 A high-intermediate degree of certainty. One of the following conditions exists: W

1) There are limited wind data in the vicinity of the cell, but the low complexity of terrain and the small mesoscale variability of the resource indicate little departure from the wind resource in nearby areas with data.

2) Considerable wind data exist but in moderately complex terrain and/or in areas where moderate variability of the resource is likely to occur.

4 The highest degree of certainty. Quantitative data exist at exposed sites in the vicinity of the cell and can be confidently applied to exposed areas in the cell because of the low com­ plexity of terrain and low spatial variability of the resource. 174 64, ... )72 170 .' .... ':... ~.:.·.64 63/. ... :· :,; ...:g ...... ;...... / ..../ .... ;..... ". .' 0 Class 2 ... . :90...... 63 62; .. ;"" .. ... ;

.~ . ; . '. .' 168 61 20 ;,; 8 156 154 152 150 148 ; ~20. 00 000 002 2 60;20,~/

.. ~ .. . .. ; 59· 174 17~1; . . ... 7 0 6oi7~O.· ; .. ;.:70 ,. 59: . 59 168 166' 164 o, 50 100 MILES 150 o 50 100 KILOMETER...... , ~ PNl-3195WERA-10 174 64 : ....).(2 170 ::· .... :....• ~·: .. :'···,54 63 ; ... :''; .;. .... / ..../ .... / .... ; . .' 0, Class 3 62/·····/···;.;... /70":' 53

". ~ ... ; -"...... ',.. '.,.. 168

148 - 154 152 ISO ...... 6 .. ' .... ; a .0 ...... a a a a a :2 ", .; 0 0 fJ 0 '80: 2 ....; " ; 59 '. a ", a a 174': ;. 172 :,. a 02 ":-., 61 f, a 2 : 2

59:· .... 168 ...... ·59 166 164 MILES 150 o 50 100 KILOMETERS ~ P~~L-3195WERA-10

FIGURE 5.8. Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Southcentral Alaska (Power Classes 2 and 3); Percent of Land Area With or Exceeding Power Class Shown.

84 174 64'···)7~. 170 63 /···:...... If:fj~L.:/. ,64 Class 5 ! ;"'j!~~~ ...... 70' ·,63 62.:/ ... / .. '/' '" /····;· ... i..· -··t .. ,. ..;.. . .. ~ "168 ...... 61 ; .... ; '. 166 164 "v. il0:10 '; ..... " 16 'lO~ll. ; ..... 60 ;" .. ;" •....ir&.· ;

'" .. of'. • ••; •• ~ 5y74 < " 172 61, .;.

~ -..

59 ...... 166 164 150 o 50 100 KILOMETER...S c:::::-.

Class 4

59

FIGURE 5.8 (Continued). Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Southcentral Alaska (Power Classes 4 and 5); Percent of Land Area With or Exceeding Power Class Shown.

85 WINTER

PNL-3195 WERA-,O 63 EIJ RIDGE CAEST ESTIMATES ~ O~==50;;;.. __1;.;00~=~150 MILES o 50 100 150 KILOMETERS . ? 60o ~ 64° I £°

62°

6/0 ?

6,0 60°

~ 60° ~ to ~ ~ <0 -59°

SUMMER

PNL-31 95 WERA·, a 63 EJ RIDOE CREST ESTIMATES

~==50:;:.. __1:;;00~=~150 MILES o 50 100 150 KILOMETERS

60°

FIGURE 5.9. Seasonal Average Wind Power in South central Alaska (Winter, Summer)

86 SPRING

PNL-3195 WERA-10 CZJ RIDGE CREST ESTIMATES o 50 100 150 MILES o 50 100 150 KILOMETERS

60·

PNL-3195 WERA-l0 AUTUMN 2IJ RIDGE CREST ESTIMATES

~=",,50::::.. __1;.;:00~=,;;150 MILES

50 100 150 KILOMETERS

FIGURE 5.9 (Continued). Seasonal Average Wind Power in Southcentral Alaska (Spring, Autumn)

87 TABLE 5.2. Southcentral Alaska Stations with Graphs of the Wind Characteristics

Annual Average Annual Average Wind Speed, Wind Power, m/s W/m2

Station ID Station Name Anchorage/ Elmendorf AFB ELM

Anchorage/ Anchorage Inter· 61.2 150.0 32.0 03/61·12/78 6.7 3.2 3A 4.2 52 62 123 INT national Airport

Aniak Aniak CAA 61.6 159.5 8.5 07/48·02/59 9.8 3.0 3.1 3.8 50 51 101

Bethel Bethel WBAS 60.8 161.8 39.9 10/62·12/78 6.1 5.6 6.1 7.6 209 258 515

Big Delta Big Delta CAA 64.00 145.7 388.2 07/48·12/64 8.8 4.2 4.3 SA 215 227 452

Cape Romanzof Cape Romanzof AFS 61.8 166.0 123.4 04/61·11/68 4.0 5.8 6.6 8.3 346 514 1026

Cordova Cordova WBAS 60.5 145.5 13.4 07/48·12/64 lOA 2.3 2.3 2.9 38 37 75

Farewell Farewell CAA 62.5 153.9 458.1 07/48·07/64 9.1 3.8 3.8 4.8 124 129 257

Gulkana Gulkana CAA 62.2 145.5 481.3 07/48·12/64 9.1 3.1 3.1 3.9 76 79 157

Homer Homer CAA 59.6 151.5 22.3 07/48·12/64 9.1 3.0 3.0 3.8 52 54 108

Iliamna IliamnaCAA 59.8 154.9 46.3 07/48·09/64 9.8 4.6 4.6 5.8 151 153 304

Kenai Kenai CAA 60.6 151.3 27.7 07/48·12/64 10.7 3.5 3A 4.3 73 71 142

L. Minchumina Minchumina CAA 63.9 152.3 65.2 07/48·09/64 9.8 2.3 2.3 2.9 41 41 83

McGrath McGrath WBAS 63.0 155.6 103.9 07! 48·12/64 8.5 2.2 2.3 2.9 27 29 58

Middleton '.1iddleton Island 59.5 146.3 13.7 07/48·08/56 9.1 6.2 6.3 8.0 389 404 806 Island CAA

Northeast CP Northeast Cape AFS 63.3 169.0 9.1 04/62·12/68 4.0 5.6 6.4 8.1 295 439 874

Northway Northway FAA 63.0 141.9 523.6 10/57·12/64 9A 1.8 1.8 2.3 24 25 49

Skwentna Skwentna CAA 62.0 151.2 46.6 06/53·02/28 10.1 1.4 1.4 1.8 14 14 28

Sparrevohn Sparrevohn AFS 61.1 155.6 529.1 06/58·11/68 4.3 2.4 2.7 3.4 55 79 158

Summit SummitCAA 63.3 149.1 733.7 03/51·12/59 9.8 4.2 4.2 5.3 112 113 226

Tal keetna Talkeetna CAA 62.3 150.1 107.0 07/48·12/64 lOA 2.2 2.2 2.8 29 29 57

Unalakleet Unalakleet CAA 63.9 160.8 6A 07/52·06/59 7.6 5.3 5.5 6.9 240 270 537

Yakataga Yakataga CAA 60.1 142.5 10.1 01/53·06/62 9.4 3.7 3.7 4.7 108 111 221

88

+---+ WIND POWER LEFT ORDINATE - WATTS/M2 +----+ WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - M/S PNL·3195WERA10 ABSCISSA - YF.AR V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW ANCHORAGE/ELM.AK ANCHORAGE/I NT.AK ANI AK AK 26401 26451 26516 300 300 300 5 "'''T 4 200 200 ··,·:··,;'.:;",!·,·4"\:"'1~

200 200 4 200 :3 , . 100 , .... ":" .~ .... ": . : ~ ····i··· 100 3 100 ,~*J,\: o 0 o 2 o 1 40 44 48 52 58 60 64 68 72 76 60 40 44 48 52 58 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 58 60 64 68 72 76 80 HOMER AK ILIAMNA AK KENAI AK 25507 25506 26523 JOO 6 300 ... -; ... -., ..... ~ 5

il'l j 200 5 200 .. ; , .•..•. - ~ I -\ .. -~. --f.-t· 4

100 ~·"···f· ... 4 100 ~"'+\1"':' 3 o 1 o 3 o 2 40 44 48 52 58 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 58 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 58 60 64 68 72 76 80

FIGU RE 5.10. Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Southcentral Alaska.

90 +---+ WI ND POWER LEFT ORDINATE - WATTS/M2 .---... WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - MIS PNt·3'95 WERA·'O ABSC I SSA - YEAR V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW L.MINCHUMINA AK MCGRATH AK MIDDLETON IS. AK 26512 26510 25402 300 3 300 500

..... :-.-... _-.. _ . .,r, .. '.'.'.' .•.!, . •. :\ j,. 3 .-.~ ·.i.;.~,:,','< 2 200 2 200 ...•. -.. ~~.,;~. - 400 r~ .".[,: : 100 100 r'.,.: ... : ...... • ;. ... :..... 1 300 ..... ~- ...... :... --.~- .. --i- .. -) . 5 :~~ o 0 o 0 200 4 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 80 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 46 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 60

NORTHEAST CPo AK NORTHWAY AK SKWENTNA AK 26632 26412 26514 800 300 ...... , 3 300 ...... __ .. -r .. !" .... ~ 3 700 800 200 ",.,;,/: .... _:.jL,i~.. .. ,..... 2 200 ..... !:..... -:i ... ;...... ;. .... ,i.--- . .;...... ,l !. 2 500 ! .1' 400 ;1'N~[I j 100 ..... i ...... ; ..... L.... .; .... :..... <..... L ... ~ ..... L ... 100 ..... ;.... ,rJ.. 't.t...... i ..... :... L..[ ... 1 .... ; .... ;..... c...... ;..... 3 300 :¥:~: 200 2 o , 0 o ~~i i. 0 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 80 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80

SPARREVOHN AK SUMMIT AK TALKEETNA AK 26534 26414 28528 300 •• -•• : ••••••~ ••••• : ••••• "'!'" ••••• ! 4 : : :·j:i~~:L :

o 1 o 3 40 44 48 52 56 80 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 46 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80

UNALAKLEET AK YAKATAGA AK 26627 26445 600 .. ,..... 7 300 .. ·' .... T· .. ,..... , ..., ..... 5 500 ..... ~ ..... + ···i····-1~.L. ... l .... +.... ~ ..... +.... 6 ;l:~~T;' ~ o 1 o 2 40 44 48 52 56 80 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80

FIGURE 5.10 (Continued), Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Southcentral Alaska,

91 WIND POWER LEFT ORDINATE - WATTS/M2 WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - M/S PNl·3195WERA10 ABSCISSA - MONTH V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW ANCHORAGE/ELM.AK 02/61-12/70 ANCHORAGE/INT.AK 03/61-12/78 ANIAK AK 07/48-02/59 26401 Z= 4.3 G. V= 2.6. P= 43E 26451 Z= 6.7 G. V= 34, P= 61 26516 Z= 9.B R. V= 3.1. P= 50 800 B 800 800 B

800 6 600 600 6

400 4 400 400 4

200 2 200 200 2

o 0 o -Lt=+=~=;::::i=-+=+=i::::;==i o 0 J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D

BETHEL AK 10/62-12/78 BIG DELTA AK 07/48-12/64 CAPE ROMANZOF AK 04/61-11/68 26615 Z= 6.1 G. V= 6.1. P= 258 26415 Z= B.B R. V= 4.3. P= 226 26633 Z= 4.0 G. V= 66. P= 514E 800 B 800 8 1200 12 1000 10 800 6 600 6 BOO 400 4 400 4 600 400 4 200 2 200 2 200 2 o 0 o 0 o 0 J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D

CORDOVA AK 07/48-12/64 FAREWELL AK 07/48-07/64 GULKANA AK 07A8-12/64 26410 Z=10.4 R. V= 2.3. P= 37 26519 Z= 9.1 R. V= 38. P= 12B 26425 Z= 9.1 R. V= 3.1. P= 7B 800 B 800 BOO B

600 6 600 600 6

400 4 400 400 4

200 2 200 2

o 0 o 0 J F M A M J J A SON D F M A M J J A SON J F M A M J J A SON D

HOMER AK 07A8-12/64 ILIAMNA AK 07A8-09/64 KENAI AK 07/48-12/64 25507 Z= 9.1 R. V= 3.0. P= 54 25506 Z= 9.B R. V= 4,6, P= 152 26523 Z=10.7 R. V= 3,4. P= 71 800 8 800 8 6001 -.' .: - tB 600 6 600 6

400 4 400 4 :i'~-C~"':'- -, ... - - .. - --:..- -I'-:':':".:'_ - .. __ ~ __.::.~...- ... _I- __ ~: ... __.. : 200 2 2 200 ,.. .. , .. . . - 2

o 0 o 0 o ' ; I: ,:---t=H 0 J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J A SON D

FIGURE 5.11. Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Southcentral Alaska.

92 WIND POWER LEFT ORDINATE - WATTSjM 2 WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - MjS PNL·3195WERA·l0 ABSCISSA - MONTH V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW L.MINSHUMINA AK 07/48-09/64 MCGRATH AK 07/48-12/64 MIDDLETON IS. AK 07/48-08/56 26512 Z= 9.B R. y= 2.3. P= 41 26510 Z= B.5 R, Y= 2.3. P= 2B 25402 Z= 9.1 R. Y= 6.3. P= 404 BOO B BOO B 1200 12 1000 10 BOO 6 600 .. ··; .. ·+···., .. ·+6 800 +--,.... + .. ~ .....; .. 8 400 4 400 4 600 ···; .. ···;·· .. ·;.'··i=Z-+6 400 4 200 2 200 + .. :: ... ,.,';..... ,... ,..... 2004 .... +·,.... ·;···,··~ +... ~~ ... ;..... <..... 2 o 0 o 0 o 0 J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D

NORTHEAST CPo AK 04/62-12/68 NORTHWAY AK 10/57-12/64 SKWENTNA AK 06/53-02/59 26632 Z= 4.0 G. Y= 6.4, P= 43BE 26412 Z= 9.4 R. Y= 1B, P= 24 26514 Z=1O.1 R. Y= 14. P= 13 1200 12 BOO 8 800 8 1000 10 6 600 6 BOO BOO 6 400 4 400 4 400 4 200 -t ... + ....;.~;.; ..... ,..... ,. 200 ·· .. +C"~~~:··, .. ···;·····i· ..··;···, .. ··;···~'···~2 200 2 o 0 o 0 o 0 J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D

SPARREVO~N A~ 06/~-11/68 SUMMIT AK 03/51-12/59 TALKEETNA AK 07/48-12/64 26534 Z- 4.3 G. V- 2.7, P- 79E 26414 Z= 9.B R. V= 4.2, P= i13 26526 Z=10.4 R. V= 2.2, P= 2B BOO 8 BOO 8 800 " ... , .... ,.".. ,..... " ...• " .... ""., ...... ". 8 ~ : : ~ BOO 6 BOO 6 BOO --l:c--,,-:- ···1.~···)· .. _~ ..... L ... i. .... ~ ... :.... 6 1 ~ 400 4 400 +···;····;·,,·:······i····'·····;···· 4 400 ... : ••.• .j. .,..••• ; ... :•.••• : .• !.... L·· .. ····7··· 4

200 2 200 2 200 .-T.:.:f'~.~'''-+.--~<~~~~).. J~.. 2 o 0 o 0 o 0 J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J ~ A SON D

UNALAKLEET AK 07/52-06/59 YAKATAGA AK 01/53-06/62 26627 Z= 7.6 R. V= 5.5. P= 269 26445 Z= 9.4 R. Y= 3.7. P= 110 800 8 800 .. ~ .... ~ ..., ..... ;..... :..... :." .. :..... , B

800 600 ..... ~ .... ~ .... ~ ..... ;..... ; ..... ~ ..... ~- ... -} ... -+ ... ·t···- 6

400 4 400 ~~~.~ -~ --r-~""r'- :~-..-.:: .. --r"~~-" 4 200 2 2OO~ ....;.L .. ;.. :.... i ... ;.. +.... ~... 2 o 0 o 0 J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON 0

FIGURE 5.11 (Continued). Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Southcentral Alaska.

93 +--+WINTER +---"'::;PRING ORDINATE - MIS - ~ SUMMER Ell- - --ffiAUTUMN ABSC I SSA - HOUR PNl-3195 WERA·'O

ANCHORAGE/ELM.AK 02/61-12/70 ANCHORAGE/INTAK 03/61-12/78 ANIAK AK 07/48-02/59 26401 Zz 4.3 G. Vz 2.3. pz 30E 26451 Zz 6.7 G. V= 32. pz 52 26516 Z~ 9.8 R. V= 3.0. pz 50 10 10 8 8 6 6 I:~.:.. ' 4 4 4 __ -~~ 2~~~~~~~~~== 2 2 "':' ~ O+--+--r-~-+--~~~~ o Ii! Ii, I i I o 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 036 9 ~ ffi ~ ~ ~

BETHEL AK 10/62-12/78 BIG DELTA AK 07/48-12/64 CAPE ROMANZOF AK 04/61-11/68 26615 Zz 61 G. Vz 5.6. pz 209 26415 Zz 8.8 R. Vz 4.2. P= 215 26633 Z= 4.0 G. V= 5.8. P= 346E 10 10 10 8 8 8 r-~~--~-"~ 6~~=+~~~~~~~ 6 6 ~-;..:. .. ~-.-.~.--.~---~ ~~~--~~~~~~~ 4 4+:-i---'-:- 4 ~~ .. ~~;'.-~ .. ~

2 2 2 ...... " ".--.. . ..•...

O+--+--r-~-+--r-'--+~ 0 i i i i 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 o 3 6 9 ~ ffi ~ ~ " 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 CORDOVA AK 07/48-12/64 FAREWELL AK 07/48-07/64 GULKANA AK 07/48-12/64 26410 Z=10.4 R. V= 2.3. P= 38 26519 Z= 91 R. V= 3.8. pz 124 26425 Z= 9.1 R. V= 31. P= 76 10 10 8 8 6 ~l6 . It, • ., 6 4 4 - -t:- z:;;a.--=i~-c,::,:, 4 21=~~~~~==~ 2 . ., .... 2+===~~~~~~== 0+-~-4--+-,r-+--r-~~ o I iii iii i I O+--r~--T-~-+--~~~ o 3 6 9 ~ ffi ~ ~ ~ o 3 6 9 ~ ffi ~ ~ " 036 9 ~ m ~ ~ ~

HOMER AK 07/48-12/64 ILIAMNA _ AK _07/48-~9/64 KENAI AK 07/48-12/64 25507 Z= 9.1 R. Vz 3.0. P= 52 25506 Z- 9.8 R. V- 46. P- 151 28523 Z=10.7 R. V= 3.5. P= 73 10 10 10 8 B 8 6 6 6 4 4b::::::~~~~;j 2~~~~~~~~~ 4 ~~~:=P=N~~ 2 2

O+--+--~~-+--~~-+~ O+--+--r-~-+--~~-+~ o iii I o 3 6 9 ~ ffi ~ ~ ~ o 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 o 3 6 9 ~ ffi ~ m ~

FIGU RE 5.12. Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for South central Alaska.

94 ~WINTER • ----.sPR I NG ORDINATE - MIS EIT- . ~ SUMMER ffi- - ---lBAUTUMN ABSCISSA - HOUR PNL-3195 WERA-10

L.MINCHUMINA AK 07/48-09/64 MCGRATH AK 07f48-12/64 MIDDLETON IS. AK 07/46-08/56 26512 Z= 9.8 R. V= 2.3. P= 41 26510 Z= 8.5 R. V= 2.2. P= 27 25402 Z= 9.1 R. V= 62. P= 389 10 10 10 8 6 ...... ,...... i...... !...... L...... ~ 8 ... 6 6 ·...... : ..·1; . ,r...... ~.' ...... ,: ...... ··; 4 : --:.~ti::t:t~tJ 2~~~~~~~~~ :i":.4:~=S.. U 2 ...... , ...... ,...... :...... i...... ,...... j ...... ;...... ;

O~-+~~~-r~--r-~-i O~-+~--+--r-+--r-~-; o+-~~--+-~-+~~+-~ o 3 6 9 ~ ffi ffi Z ~ 036 9 ~ ffi ffi Z ~ o 3 6 9 ~ ffi ffi Z ~ NORTHEAST CP. AK 04/62-12/68 NORTHWAY AK 10/57-12/64 SKWENTNA AK 06/53-02/59 26632 Z= 4.0 G. V= 5.6. P= 295E 26412 Z= 9.4 R. V= 1.8. P= 24 26514 Z=IO.1 R. V= 1.4. P= 14 10 10 . ···:·······:·······r······r······~ 10~ .. · .... •...... ·,· ...... ,.... ···, .... · 8 6 ..' .... 1...... :,:.L... 6 I--~-.- 6 ... ..j ...... ·······i·· ...... ··i· ...... ~· ..... ~ 6~~~~~~~~~~~ 6 4 4 2 :· .... J.::·:14~~·~d 2b;;;;';4~~~~ O+-~-'--r--r-+--r-;--; o O~-r~--+--r-+--r-~-; o 3 6 9 12 15 16 21 24 o 3 6 9 ~ ffi ffi Z ~ o 3 6 9 ~ ffi ffi Z U SPARREVOHN AK 06/58-11/68 SUMMIT AK 03/51-12/59 TALKEETNA AK 07}l6-12/64 26534 Z= 4.3 G. V= 2.4. P= 55E 26414 Z= 9.8 R. V= 4.2. P= 112 26528 Z=10.4 R. V= 22. P= 29 10 10 10 8 8 8;·.. · .. ·, ...... ·, ...... ·, .... ··

6 6~~~~~~~~~~~ 6 4 4 42 ~.~.'~.. ~~~"'*~I.~.,,· .. ~.~: 2 - .. ;...... : ...... :

O+--r~~+--r~--r-~-i 0+--+~--+--r-+--~4-~ 036 9 ~ ffi ffi Z ~ 036 9 ~ ffi ffi Z ~ UNALAKLEET AK 07/52-06/59 YAKATAGA _ AK _01l53-,?6/62 26627 Z= 7.6 R. V= 5.3. P= 240 26445 Z- 9.4 R. V- 3.7. P- 108 10 10 8 8 6t=±=~~~~~= 6 4 4 ~~-A~:::p;.;~~ 2 ...... : .... 1...... )...... +..... ~ ...... ) 2 .

O+--+~~+--r~--+--r-; O+-~-+--~+-~-+~~ 036 9 ~ ~ ffi Z ~ o 3 6 9 ~ ~ ffi Z U

FIGURE 5.12 (Continued). Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Southcentral Alaska.

95 PERCENT FREQUENCY LEFT ORDINATE - PERCENT WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - MIS PNl-3195 WERA-10 ABSCISSA - WIND DIRECTION

ANCHORA~E/ELMA~ 02/61~12/70 ANCHORAGE/INTAK 03/61-12/78 ANIAK AK 07/46-02/59 26401 Z- 4.3 G. v- 2.3. p- 30E 26451 Z= 6.7 G. V= 32. P= 52 26516 Z= 9.8 R. 'Ii= 30. P= 50 ~ ~ 40 'l12 40 12

30 9 30 "'~9 30 9 I I 1 20 6 ~ 20 6

10 3 10 10 3

o 0 o 0 o 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW

BETHEL AK 10/62-12/78 BIG DELTA AK 07/48-12/64 CAPE ROMANZOF AK 04/61-11/68 26615 Z= 6.1 G. v= 5.6. p= 209 26415 Z= 8.8 R. V= 4.2. P= 215 26633 Z= 4.0 G. V= 58. P= 346E 40 . 12 40 12 40 12

30 9 30 9 30 9

~ 6 ~ 6 ~ 6

W 3 W 3 W 3

o 0 o 0 o 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW

CORDOVA AK 07,48-12/64 FAREWELL AK 07,48-07/64 GULKANA AK 07,48-12/64 26410 Z=IO.4 R. V= 2.3. P= 38 26519 Z= 9.1 R. V= 38. P= 124 26425 Z= 9.1 R. V= 3.1. P= 76 40 12 40 12 40 12

30 9 30

~ 6 W 6 20

W 3 W 3 10

o 0 o 0 o~~~r+~~~~-r~-+ N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW

HOMER AK 07,48-12/64 ILIAMNA AK 07/48-09/64 KENAI AK 07/48-12/64 25507 Z= 9.1 R. V= 3.0. P= 52 25506 Z= 9.B R. V= 4.6, P= 151 26523 Z=10.7 R. V= 3.5. P= 73 40 12 40 12 40 12

30 9 30 9

~ 6 ~ 6 ~ 6

W 3 W 3 W 3

o 0 o 0 o 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW

FIGURE 5.13. Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Southcentral Alaska.

96 PERCENT FRBQUENCY LEFT ORDINATE - PERCENT WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - MIS PNL-3195 WERA-10 ABSCISSA - WIND DIRECTION

L.MINCHUMINA AK 07/48-09/64 MCGRATH AK 07/48-12/64 MIDDLETON IS. AK 07/48-08/56 26512 Z= 9.B R. V= 2.3. P= 41 26510 Z= B.5 R. V= 22. P= 27 25402 Z= 9.1 R. V= 62. P= 389 12 40 12 40 .. ,·T .. ·'.... 'rTT.'· .. · [12 9 30 6 20 ::~tftn:;L~e~ -:-: -J: 3 10 10

o 0 o 0 NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW

NORTHEA~ CPo AK _ 04/62:::-12/68 NORTHWAY AK 10/57-12/64 SKWENTNA AK 06/53-02/59 26632 Z- 40 G. V- 5.6. P- 295E 26412 Z= 9.4 R. V= I.B. P= 24 26514 Z=IO.l R. V= 1.4. P= 14 40 12 40 12 40 12

30 9 30 9

20 6 20 6 20 -t ... ;... ,. ..,. .. ;... :...... ";"';";""'''~6

10 3 10 3

o 0 o 0 o 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW

SPARREVOHN AK 06/58-11/68 SUMMIT AK 03/51-12/59 TALKEETNA AK 07/48-12/64 26534 Z= 4.3 G. V= 2.4. P= S5E 26414 Z= 9.8 R. V= 4.2. P= il2 2652B Z=10.4 R. V= 22. P= 29 40 12 40 12 40 ·.. ,.. ·,· .. ,· .. :.. .,..·r .. '· .. '.... ' .. T.. :.. ·T .. ·'· .. :.. · 12 30 9 30 9 30 ..L, +';1"'1.[ ,.. ;. !'" .];.. 1. 9

6 20 6 20 ... ;... ;. "r"'": : .; ... ~, ... , ..' ... l~ ....' ....: ... ~• ...... : .. . 6 20 :: ! i 10 3 10 .. ~ "<·i::~·.:~·~-r-r:;.::~~·":+- .. ·~::~·:t·;:~·::p- 3 : : o 0 o 0 o 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW

UNALAKLEET AK 07/52-06/59 YAKATAGA AK 01153-06/62 26627 Z= 7.6 R. V= 5.3. P= 240 26445 Z= 9.4 R. V= 3.7. P= lOB 40 12 40 12

30 9 30 9

20 6 20 6

W 3 W 3

o 0 o 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW

FIGU RE 5.13 (Continued). Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for South central Alaska.

97 --ACTUAL DISTRIBUTION ORDINATE PERCENT ------RAYLEIGH DISTRIBUTION ABSCISSA MiS PNl-3195 WERA-l0

ANCHORA~E/ELM.A~ 02/61_-12/70 ANCHORAGE/I NT.AK 03/61-12/78 ANIAK AK 07/48-02/59 26401 Z- 4.3 G. V - 2.3. P- 30E 26451 Z= 6.7 G. V= 32. P= 52 26516 Z= 9.B R. V= 30. P= 50 40 40

30 30 :~[r,: -" : ~: 20 20 20 ----f:- - \~ .. -----; .. -.---:--.----; ...•.

10 10

O+--r-'--~~-+--r-~~ ':Y, f$+:, , , , o 2 4 6 A 00 ~ M W 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 BETHEL AK 10/62-12/78 BIG DELTA AK 07/48-12/64 CAPE ROMANZOF AK 04/61-11/68 26615 Z= 6.1 G. V= 5.6. P= 209 26415 Z= B.B R. V= 4.2. P= 215 26633 Z= 4.0 G. V= 5.B. P= 346E 40 40 40

30 30 30 ...... , ..

20 20 20 :- ...... , ...... : ...... :.

10 00 10 !...... j ...... !... ;. o+-~~~-~-~·-+·=--~·~. 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 o 2 4 6 8 00 ~ M W CORDOVA AK 07/48-12/64 FAREWELL AK 07/48-07/64 GULKANA AK 07/48-12/64 264m Z=IO.4 R. V= 2.3. P= 38 26519 Z= 9.1 R. V= 38. P= 124 26425 Z= 9.1 R. V= 3.1. P= 76 40 40 40

30 30 30

20 20 20

10 00 10

0+-~-4--~~~~~+-~ 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 6 10 12 14 16 o 2 4 6 8 10 ~ M W HOMER AK 07,.48-12/64 ILIAMNA AK 07/48-09/64 KENAI AK 07/48-12/64 25507 Z= 9.1 R. V= 3.0. P= 52 25506 Z= 9.8 R. V= 46. P= 151 26523 Z=10.7 R. V= 3.5. P= 73 40 40 40

30 30 30

20 20 20

10 10 10

0+-~-4--r-;--T~~+-~ 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 024 6 8 10 ~ M W 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

FIGURE 5.14. Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Southcentral Alaska.

98 --ACTUAL DISTRIBUTION ORDINATE PERCENT ------RAYLEIGH DISTRI BUTION ABSCISSA MIS PNL-3195 WERA-10

L.M I NCHUM I NA AK 07/48-09/64 MCGRATH AK 07A8-12/64 MIDDLETON IS. AK 07/48-08/56 26512 Z; 9.8 R. V; 2.3. p; 41 26510 Z; 8.5 R. V; 2.2. p; 27 25402 Z; 9.1 R. V; 6.2. p; 389 40 40 40

30 30 30

20 20 20

10 10 10

0~-r-4--~;--+~~~~ 2 4 6 f! 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16 o 2 4 6 810m u ~

NORTHEAST CPo AK 04/62-12/68 N SK ENTNA AK 06/53-02/59 26632 Z; 4.0 G. V; 5.6. p; 295E l!6~14 Z;10.1 R. V= 1.4. P= 14 40 40 40 ! ....•. ; ~ ~ '. 30 30 ...... i...... j _.... j_ .. __ •••••.. ; ••...••1 30 ... I'\...... ; ... ··i·.·. .•i ...... ,l . . .. .:..... j .... ,

.....i...... , ...... j ...... :;. : : 20 20 20 ·-·T······~ 10 10 10 "'T o~-r-.--~~-+~~~~ o~.~~~-r~~~~-+~ 0+--r~--r=~-r-4--~~ o 2 4 6 B 10 m U ~ o 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16 024 6 B 10 12 14 16

SPARREVO~N A~ 06/58_-11168 SUMMIT AK 03/51-12/59 TALKEETNA AK 07A8-12/64 26534 Z- 4.3 G. V- 2.4. P- 55E 26414 Z; 9.8 R. V= 4.2. p; i12 26528 Z=IO.4 R. V= 2.2. p; 29 40 40 30 :l".I ... ::1. .,..... 1·.:.:·:] .. , 30 20 20

10 10

0+--r-4~~~~~r-T-~ o 2 4 6 6 10 m U ~ :~i;i246 810m ~ 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 o u UNALAKLEET AK 07/52-06/59 YAKATAGA _ AK _01l53-,?6/62 26627 Z; 7.6 R. V; 5.3. p; 240 26445 Z- 9.4 R. V- 3.7. P- 108 40 40

30 30

20 20;······7·-··,······

10 10

o~~~~~~r=~~~ O~-r-4--T-~-T~r-+-~ 024 6 810m u ~ 024 6 810m u ~

FIGURE 5.14 (Continued). Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Southcentral Alaska.

99 ORDINATE PERCENT ABSCISSA MIS PNl-:~195 WERA-10

ANCHORA~E/ELM.A~ 02/61_-12170 ANCHORAGE/INTAK 03/61-12/78 ANIAK AK 07/48-02/59 26401 Z- 4.3 G. V - 23. P- 30E 26451 Z= 6.7 G. V= 3.2. P= 52 26516 Z= 9.8 R. V= 3.0. P= 50 100 100 100 80 80 80 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

O+--T--~~~--~-r~__, o 2 4 6 fl 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

BETHEL AK 10/62-12/78 BIG DELTA AK 07/48-12/64 CAPE ROMANZOF AK 04/61-11/68 26615 Z= 6.1 G. V= 5.6. P= 209 26415 Z= 8.8 R. V= 4.2. P= 215 26633 Z= 4.0 G. V= 5.8. P= 346E 100 100 100 80 80 60 60 60 60 40 40 40

20 20 20

0+-~~~1-~~r-'--T~ 2 4 6 6 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 8 \0 12 14 16 o 2 4 6 6 \0 ~ ~ W

CORDOVA AK 07/48-12/64 FAREWELL AK 07/48-07/64 GULKANA AK 07/48-12/64 264\0 Z=\O.4 R. V= 2.3. p= 38 26519 Z= 9.1 R. V= 38. P= 124 26425 Z= 9.1 R. V= 3.1. P= 76 100 100 100 80 BO 60 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

2 4 6 8 \0 12 14 18 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 HOMER AK 07/48-12/64 ILIAMNA AK 07/48-09/64 KENAI AK 07/48-12/64 25507 Z= 9.1 R. V= 3.0. P= 52 25506 Z= 9.8 R. V= 46. P= 151 26523 Z=\O.7 R. V= 3.5. P= 73 100 100 100 SO 80 80 60 60 80 40 40 40 20 20 20

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

FIGU RE 5.15, Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Southcentral Alaska.

100 ORDINATE - PERCENT ABSCISSA - MiS PNL·3195 WERA-10

L.MINCHUMINA AK 07/48-09/64 MCGRATH _ A~ 07/48-=.12/64 MIDDLETON IS. AK 07/48-08/56 26512 Z~ 9.8 R. V~ 2.3, p~ 41 26510 Z- 8.5 R. V - 2.2, P- 27 25402 Z= 9.1 R. V= 6.2, P= 389 100 100 100

BO 80 BO

60 60 6O~··;·'·+··'·*·'·;···i···;·i···i··i··· 40 40 40 20 20 20

O~-r~~~~~~~~~ O+-~~~~~~~~~~ O+-~~~+-~~~r-~~ o 2 4 6 fl 10 12 14 16 o 2 4 6 8 W m A ffi o 2 4 6 8 W m A ffl NORTHEAST CPo AK 04/62-12/68 NORTHWAY AK 10/57-12/64 SKWENTNA AK 06/53-02/59 26632 Z~ 4.0 G, V~ 56, p~ 295E 26412 Z= 9.4 R, V= 1.8. P~ 24 28514 Z~10.1 R, V= 1.4, P= 14 100 100 100 .,...... , ...•... ,.. BO BO BO 60 60 60 40 40 40+,;:"""··"""""";",;",;""",,,,

20 20 20

0+-~~~~-r~~~4==' o 2 4 6 8 W m A ffi 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

SPARREV0.!:lN A~ 06/58~1l/68 SUMMIT AK 03/51-12/59 TALKEETNA AK 07/48-12/64 26534 Z- 4.3 G, V- 2.4, P- 55E 26414 Z~ 9.8 R, V= 4.2, P= 112 28528 Z=10.4 R. V= 22, P= 29 100 100 100 BO 80 BO 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

O+-~~~+-~~--~~~ O+-~~~+-~~~r-~~ 024 6 8 W m A ffi o 2 4 6 8 W m A ffl 2 4 6 6 10 12 14 16

UNALAKLEET AK 07/52-06/59 YAKATAGA _ AK _01l53-~/62 26627 Z= 7.6 R, V= 5.3, P= 240 26445 Z- 9.4 R. v- 3.7, P- 108 100 100 BO BO 60 60 40 40 20 20

o+-~~~+-~~~~~~ O+-~~~+--r~~~;-~ o 2 4 6 8 W m A ffi 024 6 8 W m A ffl

FIGU RE 5.15 (Continued). Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Southcentral Alaska.

101 ORDINATE ~ PERCENT ABSCISSA ~ WATTS/M 2 PNL-3195WERA-10

ANCHORAGE/ELM.AK 02/61-12/70 ANCHORAGE/I NTAK 03/61-12/78 ANIAK AK 07/48-02/59 26401 Z= 4.3 G, V= 2.3, P= 30E 26451 Z= 6.7 G, V= 32, P= 52 26516 Z= 9.8 R. V= 3,0, P= 50 100 100 80 1:~ BO 60 60 40 40 ::~\ . 20 20~ \; ...' 20 O+-~~=-~~~~-r~~ O!~[ I I i o 200 400 600 BOO 1000 o 200 400 600 BOO 1000 200 400 600

BETHEL AK 10/62-12/78 BIG DELTA AK 07/48-12/64 CAPE ROMANZOF AK 04/61-11/68 26615 Z= 6.1 G, V= 5.6, P= 209 26415 Z= B.B R. V = 42, P= 215 26633 Z= 40 G, V= 5.6, P= 346E 100 100 100 80 BO BO 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

200 400 600 800 1000 200 400 600 BOO 1000

CORDOVA AK 07/48-12/64 FAREWELL AK 07/48-07/64 GULKANA AK 07/48-12/64 26410 Z=104 R. V= 2.3, P= 3B 26519 Z= 9.1 R. V= 3.8, P= 124 26425 Z= 9.1 R. V= 3.1, P= 76 100 100 100 SO BO BO 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

200 400 600 600 1000 200 400 600 BOO 1000 200 400 600 BOO 1000 HOMER AK 07/48-12/64 ILIAMNA AK 07/48-09/64 KENAI AK 07/48-12/64 25507 Z= 9.1 R. V= 3.0, P= 52 25506 Z= 9.6 R. V= 4.6, P= 151 26523 Z=10,7 R. V= 3,5, P= 73 100 100 100 BO 80 BO 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20

0+-~~~~=9~~~~ 200 400 600 BOO 1000 200 400 BOO BOO 1000 o 200 400 600 BOO 1000

FIGURE 5.16. Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Southcentral Alaska.

102 ORDINATE - PERCENT ABSCISSA - WATTS/M 2 PNl.3195 WERA-'O

L.MINCHUMINA AK 07/48-09/64 MCGRATH AK 07/48-12/64 MIDDLETON IS. AK 07/48-08/56 26512 Z= 9.8 R. v= 2.3. P= 41 26510 Z= 8.5 R. V= 2.2. P= 27 25402 Z= 9.1 R. V= 6.2. P= 389 100 100 100 80 80 80 60 60 60 40 40 40+· .. ;·""" .. · 20 20 20

200 400 600 800 1000 200 400 600 800 1000 200 400 800 800 1000

NORTHEAST CPo AK 04/62-12/68 NORTHWAY AK 10/57-12/64 SKWENTNA AK 06/53-02/59 26632 Z= 40 G. V= 5.6. P= 295E 26412 Z= 9.4 R. V= 1.8. P= 24 26514 Z=10.1 R. V= 1.4. P= 14 100 100 100 80 80 80+.. ··' .... ·+ .... · 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

O+-~'-~-r~-r---r~-; o 200 400 600 800 1000 200 400 600 800 1000 200 400 800 800 1000

SPARREVO~N A~ 06/58~11/68 SUMMIT AK 03/51-12/59 TALKEETNA AK 07/48-12/64 26534 Z- 4.3 G. V- 2.4. P- 55E 26414 Z= 9.8 R. V= 4.2. P= 112 26526 Z=IO.4 R. V= 2.2. P= 29 100 100 100 80 80 80 80 60 80 40 40 40 20 20 20 0+-~~~==~~4-~ o 200 400 800 800 1000 200 400 600 800 1000 200 400 &00 eoo 1000 UNALAKLEET AK 07/52-06/59 YAKATAGA AK 01/53-06/62 26627 Z= 7.6 R. V= 5.3. P= 240 '26445 Z= 9.4 R. V= 3.7. P= 108 100 100 80 80 80 80 40 40 20 20 O+-~~~~~~+=~ 200 400 600 800 1000 o 200 400 800 800 1000

FIGURE 5.16 (Continued). Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Southcentral Alaska.

103

SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA

CHAPTER 6: SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA

In 1979 southeastern Alaska had an the Alsek, Chilkat, Klehini, Taku, Whiting, estimated population of 60,967, which is Chichamin, Unuk, Bradfield, Speel, Stikine, about 1. 7 persons per square mil e. t10s t and Taiya. The largest2drainages are the of the population is found along the coast Stikine River 51,036 km (19,700 mi2), A1sek and on the islands that make up about River 24,611 km 2 (19,700 mi2), Taku River 40 percent of this subregion. (See Fig- 17,358 km 2 (6,700 mi2), and the Chilkat ure 6.1). The major population centers are 3,187 km 2 (1,230 mi 2). Many of these rivers Juneau, Sitka, and Ketchikan. This sub­ have glaciers at their headwaters. Fresh­ region is 200 km (125 mil wide and stretches water lakes vary in size from a few to sev­ approximately 966 km (590 mil north from .era1 thousand acres and in type from coastal the southern tip of Prince of Wales Island marsh to high alpine cirque lakes. Only to 141°W, which runs through the Malaspina Harlequin Lake exceeds 25 km 2 (10 mi 2). Glacier. 2Total surface area is about Water storage is princiDa11y in the glaciers 92,706 km (35,785 mi 2). and winter snowpack. Cross Sound divides the subregion into Although no permafrost exists at lower two parts. To the north the coast is regu­ elevations, the region contains extensive lar but is bordered by a low, hummocky, glaciers. The Ma1asDina Glacier, one of irregular coastal plain less than 61 m high the largest ice masses on the North APler­ and covered in part by the Malaspina Glacier, ican continent, lies at the northwestern which separates the Coast Mountains from extremity of the region. The ~ountains of the Gulf of Alaska. South of Cross Sound, the St. Elias Range rise to elevations of the mainland of southeastern Alaska is dis­ 4,267 to 5,791 m from a jagged mass of sected by an intricate system of fjords peaks having elevations of 2,438 to 3,048 m. forming a complex of mountainous islands Interconnected valleys between the peaks with summits 700 to 1,100 m high (see Fig­ are filled with glaciers and ice fields. ure 6.2). These spectacular fjords are These ice fields and smaller ones to the believed to be former drainage courses that southeast feed many streams. were eroded and deepened by glaciers and ice currents. On the mainland strip, peaks Wind data available from NCC are most­ as high as 3,000 m are frequently found. ly from stations along the waterways of the inland passage (Figure 6.4). Data from The Alexander Archipelago, an exten­ three fire weather stations were used in sion of the coastal mountains to the north, the calculations for this subregion (Fig­ is about 500 km long and has hundreds of 2 ure 6.5); two from Prince of Wales Island islands. Sixty-five of these excp.ed 10 km2 and the other from Chichagof Island. Fire (4 mi 2) and six exceed 2,600 km 2 ,1,000 mi ). weather data were used only where other From largest to smallest they are Prince of reliable data were absent. Wales, Chichagof, Admiralty, Baranof, Revil­ lagigedo, and Kupreanof. The islands are 6.1 ANNUAL AVERAGE WIND POWER IN separated by a system of marine features SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA such as sounds, straits, canals, narrows, and channels. There are nearly 17,000 km The annual average wind power density (10,000 mil of shoreline along the islands in southeastern Alaska is shown in Fig- and mainland. ure 6.6. The analyses of mean wind power apply to terrain features that are favor­ The Chatham Trough divides the coastal ably exposed to the wind, such as mountain St. Elias Mountains from the irregularly summits, ridge crests, hilltops and uplands. incised Coast Mountains along the U.S.­ However, nearby terrain features may inter­ Canada border. The Coastal Mountains in act with the windfie1d to cause the wind southeast Alaska consist of the Fairweather power at some exposed sites to vary as much Range, the Alsek Ranges, the Glacier Bay as 50 to 100% from the assessment value. Section, the Chichagof Highland, and the (See Wegley et al. 1980 for information on Baranof Mountains (see Figu~e 6.3). The terrain features that may increase or reduce Fairweather Range, the most rugged in wind energy.) In forested or wooded areas southeastern Alaska, is the coastal the assessment values are representative of extension of the St. Elias Mountains. large clearings with good exposure to the prevailing strong winds, such as airports. The major rivers of the region In mountainous regions, the analyses also originate in Canada, apparently as ante­ reflect major valleys. The percentage of cedent streams that were able to maintain land area that is favorably exposed to the their courses as the Coastal Mountains were wind strongly depends on the land-surface thrust upward. The principal rivers are form (Section 1.8).

107 In the major portion of the southeast along the Gulf of Alaska coast and in the subregion, from Cape Fairweather and Skagway mountain summits and ridge crests of the in the north to Dixon Entrance in the south, Coast Mountains parallel ing the Alaska­ wind powers range between class 3 and 6 Canada border, and the higher elevations of with a small area of class 7 in Lynn Canal Baranof, Admiralty, and Kupreanof Islands. (Figure 6.6). In general, there is class 3 Since the entire subregion has high relief, and 4 power over the relatively low, wooded only about 1% of the area is estimated to islands. Class 5, 6, and 7 powers are lo­ have wind power class 4 or higher (see cated along the outer coast,' over the major Table 6.1). U.S. Coast Guard stations in channels and over high terrain, the latter Lynn Canal and Frederick Sound indicate being generally inaccessible and extremely that exposed areas along these waterways hostile to both people and equipment. It and Chatham Strait will have the higher is suspected that the Taku River valley, wind power classes. Exposed locations all the Stikine River valley, Behm Canal, and along the coast of the Gulf of Alaska are Portland Canal also have high wind classes, estimated to have class 4 to 7 wind power. but no data exist from these areas and they More than 98% of the subregion is estimated are too narrow to depict on Figure 6.6. • to be of wind power class 1 to 3 because of the high topographic relief. ~ost of the I'lind power is generated by atmospheric pressure gradients with lowest 6.2 SEASONAL WIND POWER pressure associated with storms in the Gulf of Alaska and relatively higher pressures Wind power maps for each season are over the mainland. The pressure gradient shown in Figure 6.9. Winter is the season winds tend to blow along the isobars--mostly of maximum wind power, and autumn is a close from the southeast--but in areas of rough second. Juneau and Ketchikan report an terrain the wind will blow almost directly autumn maximum, but all other sites report from high to low pressure. Consequently a winter maximum. The highest to lowest the winds in southeast Alaska tend to blow wind power seasons are winter, autumn, parallel to the axis of a channel, strait, spring, and summer. passage, or valley. In addition to the winds induced by pressure gradients, gravity 6.2.1 Winter winds are found in the passes and valleys leading into the interior. Gravity winds Wind power is highest during the winter; are caused by dense (cold) air flowing into class 4 to 7 powers are encountered. The an area of less dense air. Gradient winds highest classes (6 and 7) occur near sea and gravity winds can work together to level because of the combined effects of create very strong winds. These conditions grav ity and pressu re gradi ents and stronger account for the class 7 winds in Lynn Canal pressure gradient winds from above 1,520 m. and the probable strong but unconfirmed The intermediate area has power between winds in the Taku Inlet, Stikine River, class 4 and 6 in exposed areas, primarily Behm Canal, and Portland Canal. as a result of pressure gradient winds. Winter conditions in southeastern Alaska 6.1.1 Certainty Rating of the Wind are almost completely opposite those in Resource interior Alaska. In interior Alaska the valleys fill with very cold, stable, and The wind power estimates of southeast stagnant air because of radiation and drain­ Alaska have a rather uniform certainty rating age. In southeastern Alaska the valleys of 2 (Figure 6.7). The three major criteria are mostly filled with relatively warm sea­ for determining certainty ratings are data water, causing unstable conditions in the quantity, terrain complexity, and resource lower portion of the atmosphere and, conse­ variability. The entire subregion has ex­ quently, stronger surface winds., As a result tremely complex terrain; surface data are some of the highest wind powers occur over mostly from sheltered locations and the and adjacent to waterways. The most notable analysis is primarily based on ridge crest waterways for high wind power are Chatham estimates. Strait and Lynn Canal. Others are Icy Strait, Cross Sound, Sumner Strait, Frederick Sound, 6.1.2 Areal Distribution of the Clarence Strait, and Dixon Entrance. Although Wind Resource no data are available, Taku Inlet, Stikine River, Behm Canal, and Portland Canal prob­ The areal distribution of wind power ably experience similar wind conditions. in southeast Alaska is illustrated in Fig­ ure 6.8. The numbers identify the percen­ 6.2.2 tage of area in each cell of the grid in which the wind power equals or exceeds some In the spring wind power ranges between threshold value. Wind power class 4 or class 2 and 6; class 5 and 6 is generally higher is estimated to occur in 48% of the restricted to terrain above 900 m. Thus, grid cells in southeast Alaska, primarily the effective class range is generally from

108 2 to 4. Pressure gradient winds and drain­ terrain in the Juneau area, winds and wind age winds are less frequent than in winter, powers vary from a little higher than those but some low level maxima are still evident at the airport to considerably lower than over the waterways. These low-level maxima those at the airport. are considerably less than winter maxima but st ill account for class 4 power. In Gustavus Airport, although on an un­ fact a few small areas of class 5 exist at usually large tract of flat land, is quite the seaward entrances to Chatham Strait, sheltered by high mountains in all direc­ Sumner Strait, Clarence Strait, and Cross tions except from the south. The most Sound. In summary, spring wind power, common strong winds are from the southeast. lower than that found in winter, can be It is representative of the habitable area attributed to the weaker pressure grad­ from Icy Strait northward. Icy Strait and ients, very weak gravity winds, and more Pleasant Island, which lie to the south, stability in the low layers of the atmos­ have much higher wind values although the phere that occur in spring. values are not known. Icy strait is sub­ jected to strong sustained easterly and 6.2.3 Summer southeasterly winds. Summer wind power classes are mostly 1 Petersburg is in a very sheltered or 2 with a possiblility of a class 3 on location and is not representative of the very exposed locations along the outer stronger winds found on nearby ridges or coast and near Dixon Entrance. The low exposed locations along Frederick Sound. classes are a result of low pressure grad­ Hind speeds on nearby ridges and exposed ients, stable conditions, and very weak and locations are probably a little higher than erratic gravity winds. Average wind power those at the Juneau Airport. Strong winds is less than that in spring and much less tend to be south-southeasterly. than that in autumn. Haines, located in the northern, inside 6.2.4 Autumn porti~southeast Alaska, is in a rela­ tively well protected area and is not repre­ Autumn wind classes are high--generally sentative of wind speeds nearby. Chilkat 4 to 7--with a few areas of class 3 in the Inlet, oriented approximately north-south northern portion. The class average is on either side of Haines, is subjected to about one class lower than winter. The strong northerly winds in the winter and to highest powers (class 5 to 7) are over the brisk southerly sea breezes in the summer. higher terrain. Classes 4 to 6 prevail The terrain is very rough. The most fre­ over the major waterways and adjacent exposed quent and sustained winds at Haines are locations. The exposed areas near Dixon from the south-southeast. Entrance may experience class 7. The high wind powers can be attributed mainly to Sitka, although close to the outer strong pressure gradients associated with coast~entral southeast Alaska, is in a autumn stonns. relatively sheltered area. Sitka Sound lies to the south and west and rough ter­ 6.3 FEATURES OF SELECTED STATIONS rain lies to the east and north. Wind values are lower than one might expect. Graphs of wind characteristics are Higher wind values probably occur on the shown for seven stations. Characteristics numerous small islands in Sitka Sound, and of these stations are summarized in . considerably higher values probably occur Table 6.2. on nearby ridges. Strongest winds are from the southeast. Annette Island Airport winds are quite representative of winds over southern south­ Yakutat Airport is representative of east Alaska because the airport is on a most of the habitable land along the east relatively large piece of flat land in an coast of the Gulf of Alaska between Dry Bay exposed location. This station would not and Icy Cape. The wind speeds are much accurately represent the wind power avail­ lower than one might expect. This is caused able at nearby Ketchikan, which is relative­ by the very high mountain range that paral­ ly sheltered, or at other communities that lels the coast and rises from sea level to are quite sheltered. Strongest and most 3,000 m within 48 km of the coast. Moun­ frequent winds are from the southeast. tain peaks rise to nearly 6,000 m. Exposed areas along the immediate coast may have Juneau Airport wind speeds are reason­ higher wind speeds. The strongest winds at ably representative of the Juneau-Gastineau Yakutat are from the southeast. Channel area. The most frequent sustained winds are from the southeast and east-south­ 6.3.1 Interannual Wind Power and Speed east, caused by funneling through Gastineau Channel. Because of the extremely rough The interannual wind power and speed (Figure 6.10) varied considerably between

109 stations; Annette Island has the highest west-southwest and from the east-southeast, values and Petersburg has the lowest. This with the west-southwest winds being slightly variability is attributed more to the differ­ more predominant. However, the maximum ences in exposure of the two locations than wind speeds were reported to be from the to a difference in climatic conditions. In south-southedst. Petersburg is in a very addition, peak years of wind power did not unusual topographic location, and it is necessarily coincide between stations. For this location to which we can attribute instance, Annette had high values of wind wind records quite different from those of power between the years 1952 and 1956 with other stations. a peak in 1954. Yakutat had high wind values in 1952 and 1956 but had a minimum 6.3.5 Annual Average Wind Speed in 1954. The ratio of highest annual wind Frequency power to lowest annual wind power at any one station was greatest at Juneau (2.66); The actual wind speed distribution however, the greatest interannual variabil­ (Figure 6.14) clearly depicts one of the ity at anyone station was at Annette, where shortcomings of the wind speed observa­ it varied between a minimum of 130 W/m2 tional program in that speeds of 1 m/s are to a maximum of 270 W/m2 for a difference rarely reported. This can be attributed to of 140 \1/[12. \~ind powers approaching those observer bias and low instrument threshold at Annette and Juneau are probably attain­ speeds. Consequently the actual wind speed able over most of southeast Alaska in curve does not approximate well with the exposed locations. Rayleigh speed distribution curve in the lower wind ranges between 0 and 2 m/s. 6.3.2 Monthly Average Wind Power Disregarding the low-level anomalies in the and Speed actual distribution curve, the actual curve at Annette Island approximates very closely At most locations, maximum wind power the Rayleigh curve. Juneau, Yakutat, Gus­ and speed occurred from October through tavus, and Petersburg are also reasonably March (Figure 6.11). All stations exhibited close to the Rayleigh curve. However, both relatively constant values during those Haines and Sitka are considerably below months except Yakutat and Haines, which had Rayleigh curve estimates in the 3 and 4 m/s sharp peaks during January. The monthly range. There is no obvious explanation for wind and power averages from Annette and the anomalies at this particular speed range. Juneau shoul d be cons idered the most repre­ Wind speeds of 2 m/s are reported with the sentative of exposed areas throughout south­ greatest frequency, and this is particularly east Alaska. At those stations the wind true of Petersburg, which reports a 2 m/s reaches a near maximum during the month of wind speed about 40 percent of the time. October and remains high through December, Here again, it seems obvious that Peters­ drops off a little during January, rises to burg should not be used as guidance for another peak in February, and then drops determining general wind power availability steadily to a minimum in July. in southeast Alaska. 6.3.3 Diurnal Wind Speed by Season 6.3.6 Annual Average Wind Speed and Power Duration Diurnal variations of wind speed (Fig­ ure 6.12) are greatest during the summer Annette, Juneau, and Haines have the months with maximum variations of near 2 m/s highest percent of stronger winds (Fig- at Juneau, Gustavus, Haines, and Sitka. ure 6.15 and 6.16), and since wind energy Yakutat varied by 3 m/s. The maximum winds is generated most effectively above 8 mis, occurred at 1500 hours, and the minimum the wind power duration curves at these winds occurred between midnight and 0500 locations are quite favorable. In fact, in hours. Winter variations were the least; terms of wind power duration, Haines is the no station reported a diurnal variation of most effective, generating 200 Wabout 20% 1 m/s or more. Spring and autumn had some of the time and 400 W approximately 10% of significant diurnal variations, ranging the time. This is slightly better than between 1 and 2 m/s at all locations. both Annette and Juneau and considerably better than all the other locations. The 6.3.4 Directional Frequency and wind power duration results at Haines indi­ Average Speed cate that favorable locations for wind generators would be in exposed areas along The prevailing direction at all stations major channels and passages such as Chilkat except Petersburg is southeasterly, varying Inlet, Lynn Canal, and Chatham Strait. from easterly at Yakutat to south-southeast Annette Island and Juneau indicate that at Haines (Figure 6.13). Average wind speed wind power generation is favorable in most was highest from these directions. Peters­ of southeastern Alaska in exposed locations. burg reported prevailing winds from the

110

Cope

...... N

o 50 100 150 MILES

o 50 100 150 KILOMETERS

PNl-3195 WEAA-10

FIGU RE 6.1. Geographic Map of Southeastern Alaska o 50 1110 ¥j9 200 MILES O~===50~.. ~W?====~lW~ .. .&~ ~!~!~RS

..... w

1400

FIGURE 6.2. Topographic Map of Southeastern Alaska 140° 130°

60° "'" 60° ~~~~------~------r-- .'

.' )

55°--1I------______~------

9c===50 ... __ 1.00 MILES

140°

FIGURE 6.3. Land-Surface Form Map for Southeastern Alaska LAND-SURFACE FORM LEGEND

PLAINS TABLELANDS 1 FLAT PLAINS B3c,d TABLELANDS, MODERATE RELIEF A2 SMOOTH PLAINS B4c,d TABLELANDS, CONSIDERABLE RELIEF ~B1 IRREGULAR PLAINS, SLIGHT RELIEF B5c,d TABLELANDS, HIGH RELIEF B2 IRREGULAR PLAINS B6c,d TABLELANDS, VERY HIGH RELIEF

PLAINS WITH HILLS OR MOUNTAINS SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION A,B3a,b PLAINS WITH HILLS SLOPE 11st LETTER) B4,a,b PLAINS WITH HIGH HILLS A >80% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING B5a,b PLAINS WITH LOW MOUNTAINS B 50-80% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING B6a,b PLAINS WITH HIGH MOUNTAINS C 20-50% OF AREA GENTlY SLOPING o <20% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING OPEN HILLS AND MOUNTAINS I--' I--' C2 OPEN LOW HILLS LOCAL RELIEF 12nd LETTER) (J1 C3 OPEN HILLS o TO 30m 11 TO 100 It) 1----; C4 OPEN HIGH HILLS 2 30 TO 90m 1100 TO 300 It) I-----i C5 OPEN LOW MOUNTAINS 3 90 TO 150m 1300 TO 500 ttl f----i C6 OPEN HIGH MOUNTAINS 4 150 TO 300m 1500 TO 1000 ttl '-----' 5 300 TO 900m 11000 TO 3000 It)

HILLS AND MOUNTAINS 6 900 TO 1500m 13000 TO 5000 tt) 3 HILLS 04 HIGH HILLS PROFILE TYPE 13rd LETTER) §§ a >75% OF GENTlE SLOPE IS IN LOWLAND 05 LOW MOUNTAINS 06 HIGH MOUNTAINS b 50-75% OF GENTlE SLOPE IS IN LOWLAND

C 50-75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS ON UPLAND d >75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS ON UPLAND o LJIGITIZED DATA • DIGITIZED ANLJ SUMMARIZED DATA t:. SUMMARIZED DATA I>. UNSUMMARIZElJ DATA

o 50 100 150 MILES

o 50 100 150 KILOMETERS

PNl·3195 WERA-10

FIGURE 6.4. NCC Station Locations in Southeastern Alaska 1 137 136 135 134 133 132 61 ...... ,...... •...... • ...... • ...... • . ..•......

. .... ;. ·;60

...... ~ ...... •...... o 50 100 MILES o 50 100 KILOMETERS i PNL·31 95 WERA-l0 59 i···· ... ". ·······t········ .~ ......

,"'" .. '

58 ...... ; .... . -.. ~ ...... •...... "":.58

. ~ -...... ' ...• ·········t···· ...... -...J 57 .•• 1'. -" _ •••• 1' ~ ...... •......

...... ~ ...... , ~

56 ; ..... " ... ,;.. :56

: .... " .....; ...... ~

[J TD1440 DIGITIZED D TD1440 DIGITIZED & NCC·SUMMARIZED 55;"" (;. NCC·SUMMARIZED ·:55 'i7 OTHER·SUMMARIZED X NCC/OTHER·UNSUMMARIZED <> MARINE lilt CANADIAN/OTHER FOREIGN + USFS FIRE WEATHER' 54 :."" """'" 141 140

FIGURE 6.5. Location of Stations Used in Southeastern Alaska Resource Assessment Classes of Wind Power Density at 10m and 50 m(a)

10 m (33 ft) 50 m (164 ft)

Wind Wind Power Wind Power Power Density, Speed,(b) Density, Speed,(b) Class watts/m2 m/s (mph) watts/m2 m/s (mph) ----0 0 0 0-- 1---100--4.4 ( 9.8)--200--5.6 (12.5) 2 150--5.1 (11.5)--300--6.4 (14.3) 3 200--5.6 (12.5)--400 --7.0 (15.7) 4_--250--6.0 (13.4)--500--7.5 (16.8) 5 300--6.4 (14.3)--600--8.0 (17.9) 6. 400--7.0 (15.7)--800--8.8 (19.7) 7_-1000--9.4 (21.1)--2000-11.9 (26.6)

(a)Vertical extrapolation of wind speed based on the 1/7 power law.

{b )Mean wind speed is based on Rayleigh speed distribution of equiva­ lent mean wind power density. Wind speed is for standard sea-level conditions. To maintain the SJme power density, speed increases 5%/5000 ft (3%/1 000 m) of elevdtion.

TABLE 6.1. Areal Distribution (km2 )" of Wind Power Classes in Southeast Alaska

% Land Cumulative % Cumulative Power Class Land Area Area Land Area Land Area 85,000 97 88,000 100 2 1,100 1.2 3,000 3.5 3 900 1.1 2,000 2.2 4 700 0.80 1,000 1.1 5 300 0.33 300 0.34 6 12 0.01 12 0.01 7 0 0.00 0 0.00 .:.: .. : ..

.' ,:.,

......

1:::::1 RIDGE CREST ESTIMATES o 50 100 150 MILES

o 50 100 150 KILOMETERS PNL·3195 WEAA·10

FIGURE 6.6. Southeastern Alaska Annual Average Wind Power I I I I I I I I I I I 130 129 I 137 136 135 134 133 132 131 .. , ..... ·61 140I~~138, . . . . . I , I I ...... ; ...... " '" .. I I .•.. ··60 I I I I I 59 ; ...... ; ...... ,.59 I I I I I I 58! ...... ;...... ; I I

t . " ..•••. ~ . . • • . • . .. ;... • .....• _ I ..... I N a I .....• '" , .- t,· I I

~ ... -...... ~ ...... , .. . I I I ··.56 56 ; ...... , .. I I I ...... •.... " .... I I 55; 0ic::::=::::iI 50 ___100 MILES ,55 I I o 50 100 KILOMETERS I i PNl·3195 WERA-10 I I 54 ;..,. S4 I ~ 129 141 140 139 138 137 133 132 I 136 135 134 I I FIGU RE 6.7. Certainty Rating of Southeast Alaska Wind Resource. I I I I CERTAINTY RATING LEGEND

Rating Definition

The lowest degree of certainty. A combination of the following conditions exists:

1) No data exist in the vicinity of the cell.

2) The terrain is highly complex.

3) Various meteorological and topographical indicators suggest a high level of variability of the resource within the cell.

2 A low-intermediate degree of certainty. One of the following conditions exists:

1) little or no data exist in or near the cell, but the small variability of the resource and the low complexity of the terrain suggest that the wind resource will not differ substantially from the resource in nearby areas with data.

2) limited data exist in the vicinity of the cell, but the terrain is highly complex or the mesoscale variability of the resource is large.

3 A high-intermediate degree of certainty. One of the following conditions exists:

1) There are limited wind data in the vicinity of the cell, but the low complexity of terrain and the small mesoscale variability of the resource indicate little departure from the wind resource in nearby areas with data.

2) Considerable wind data exist but in moderately complex terrain and/or in areas where moderate variability of the resource is likely to occur.

4 The highest degree of certainty. Quantitative data exist at exposed sites in the vicinity of the cell and can be confidently applied to exposed areas in the cell because of the low com­ plexity of terrain and low spatial variability of the resource. 130 129 137 136 :S2 '3! 51 Class 2

58

57·

56 '

o 50 100 MILES o 50 100 KILOMETERS PNL-3195WERA-10 '55

54 '51 141 129 140 139 138 137 136 135 131 133

1 140 130 129 61 13~138 137 136 135 134 133 132 131 61

Class 3 '60

'59

58, . ·,58

57, '57

56 '56

0 50 100 MILES 0 50 100 KILOMETER.." '55 PNl·3195 WERA-10

54' '51 141 129 140 139 138 137 136 135 134 133

FIGURE 6.8. Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Southeast Alaska (Power Classes 2 and 3); Percent of Land Area With or Exceeding Power Class Shown.

122 13~138 Class 4 ." ~ .'

~ ....

. ; ...... ;."

56, 56

o 50 100 MILES :55 o 50 100 KILOMETERS PNL·3195WERA-10

54 ~ 141 140 139 138 137 136 135 134 133 132

Class 5

56

o o 50

54 141 138 137 136 135 134 133

FIGU RE 6.8 (Continued). Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Southeast Alaska (Power Classes 4 and 5); Percent of Land Area With or Exceeding Power Class Shown.

123 WINTER

EIJ RIDGE CREST ESTIMATES o=='=>5o____ 1..;OO===~150 MI LES

o 50 100 150 KILOMETERS

PNl-3195 WERA-10

SUMMER

C2J RIDGE CREST ESTIMATES o 50 100 150 MILES ====~-----===== o 50 100 150 KILOMETERS

PNL-3195 WEAA-l0

FIGU RE 6.9. Seasonal Average Wind Power in Southeastern Alaska (Winter, Summer)

124 SPRING

[2] RIDGE CREST ESTIMATES o 50 100 150 MILES ====~-----===== o 50 100 150 KILOMETERS PNl·3195 WERA·10

AUTUMN

1

[]]l RIDGE CREST ESTIMATES

0'======-50..... __ 1_00====':;150 MILES

o 50 100 150 KILOMETERS

PNL·3195 WERA·' 0

FIGURE 6.9 (Continued). Seasonal Average Wind Power in Southeastern Alaska (Spring, Autumn)

125 TABLE 6.2. Southeastern Alaska Stations with Graphs of the Wind Characteristics.

Annual Average Annual Average Wind Speed, Wind Power, m/s W/m 2

Station ID Station Name Annette Island Annette Airport 55.0 131.6 33.5

Gustavus Gustavus FAA 58.4 135.7 8.8 07/48-09/64 9.8 3.2 3.2 4.0 68 69 132

Haines Haines CAA 59.2 135.4 78.3 07/48-07/53 10.7 4.1 4.1 S.l 124 121 240

Juneau J uncau Airport 58.4 134.6 6.1 04/59-12/78 11.3 4.0 4.0 5.0 121 115 229

Petersburg Petersburg Airport 56.8 133.0 33.8 07/48-04/56 10.7 2.6 2.6 3.2 37 36 72

Sitka Sitka FAA 57.1 135.4 20.1 07/48-05/58 21.6 3.4 3.0 3.8 113 81 162

Yakutat Yakutat WBAS 59.5 139.7 9.4 11 /58-12/64 10.4 3.5 3.4 4.3 82 81 161 State Airport

126 +--+WIND POWER LEFT ORDINATE - WATTSjM 2 .----+ WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - MjS PNl3195WERA10 ABSCISSA - YEAR V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW ANNE'ITE IS. AK GUSTAVUS AK HAINES AK 25308 25322 25323 300 .....,... - 6 300 4 300 5 200 !t1r~, 200 3 200 4 100 ...... 4 100 2 100 3

o 3 o 1 o 2 40 44 48 52 56 BO 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 80 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 56 80 64 68 72 76 80

JUNEAU AK PETERSBURG AK SITKA AK 25309 25329 25333 300 5 300 3 i :

200 ...... :. .. 200 2

100 100 lOO';7\~: 2

o 2 o 0 o 1 40 44 48 52 56 80 64 68 72 76 80 40 44 48 52 58 80 64 68 72 76 60 40 44 48 52 56 80 64 68 72 76 80

YAKUTAT AK ' 25339 300 ..... ,...... , ... _..... , ..... - ... ,..... ,...... ,... 5

o 2 40 44 48 52 58 80 64 68 72 76 80

FIGURE 6.10. Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Southeastern Alaska

127 WIND POWER LEFT ORDINATE - WATTS/M2- WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - M/S PNl3195WERA10 ABSCISSA - MONTH V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW ANNETTE IS. AK 03/60-12/78 GUSTAVUS AK 07/48-09/64 HAINES AK 07/48-07/53 25308 Z; 6.1 G, V; 4.8, p; 158 25322 Z~ 9.8 R. V~ 3.2, P~ 68 25323 Z;10.7 R, v; 4.1, p; 120 BOO 8 BOO 8 BOO 8

600 6 600 6 600 6

400 4 400 4 400 4

200 2 200 2 200 2

0 0 0 0 0 0 J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D

JUNEAU AK 04/59-12/78 PETERSBURG AK 07,Al8-04/56 SITKA AK 07,Al8-05/58 25309 Z~113 G, V~ 4.0, P~ 114 25329 Z~10.7 R. V~ 2.6, P= 35 25333 Z~216 R. V= 3.0, P= 81 BOO 8 BOO 8 BOO 8

600 6 600 6 600 6

400 4 400 4 400 4

200 2 200 2 200 2

0 0 0 0 0 0 J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D J F Id A Id J J A S o N D

YAKUTAT AK 11/58-12/64 25339 Z=10.4 G, V; 3.4, P= 80 600 8

600 6

400 4

200 2

o 0 J F Id A M J J A SON D

FIGURE 6.11. Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Southeastern Alaska

128 +---+ WI NTER + .... - -~PRING ORDINATE MIS e-- ~ SUMMER ffi- - -HlAUTUMN ABSCISSA HOUR PNl-3195 WERA 10

ANNETIE IS. AK 03/60-12/78 GUSTAVUS AK 07/48-09/64 HAINES AK 07/48-07/53 25308 2= 6.1 G, V= 45, p= 128 25322 2= 9.8 R. V= 32, P= 68 25323 2=10.7 R. V= 4.1, P= 124 10 10 10 8 8 8 6 6 6 4 4~~~~~~~ 4 +=~~7~;:;:-1:::j 2 2 2

O~-r--r-~-T--.--r~~ o 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24

JUNEAU AK 04/59-12/78 PETERSBURG AK 07/48-04/56 SITKA AK 07/48-05/58 25309 2=11.3 G, V= 40, P= 121 25329 2=10.7 R. V= 2.6, P= 37 25333 Z=21.6 R. V= 34, P= 113 10 10 10 8 8 8 6 6 6 4+-~~~~~~~ 4 4t=±=~~~~~~ 2 2~~~~~~~~ 2

0~-+--r-1--T--r--r~~ o 3 6 9 ~ m ill ~ ~ 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24

YAKUTAT _ AK _11/58-~2/64 25339 2-10.4 G, V- 3.5, P- 82 10 8 6 4~~~~~~~ 24----.. ''.··· ..· .. ,··· .. ·

O~-+--r-~-T--r--r~~ o 3 6 9 ~ m ill ~ ~

FIGURE 6.12. Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Southeastern Alaska

129 PERCENT FR£QUENCY LEFT ORDINATE - PERCENT WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - MIS PNL-3195 WERA·10 ABSCISSA - WIND DIRECTION

ANNETIE IS AK 03/60-12/78 GUSTAVUS AK 07/48-09/64 HAINES AK 07/48-07/53 25308 Z= 6.1 G. v= 4.5. P= 128 25322 Z= 9.8 R. V= 32. P= 68 25323 Z=!O.7 R. V= 4.1. P= 124 40 12 ~ ~ ~ ~

30 9 30

20 6 20 ~ 6

10 3 10 10 3

0 0 0 o 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW

JUNEAU AK 04/59-12/78 PETERSBURG AK 07/48-04/56 SITKA AK 07/48-05/58 25309 Z=113 G. V= 40. P= 121 25329 Z= 10.7 R. V = 26. P= 37 25333 Z=21.6 R. V" 3.4. P= 113 40 12 40 12 40 12

30 9

20 6 ~ 6

10 3 10 3 10 3

o 0 o 0 o 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW

YAKUTAT _ AK _11158-!2/64 25339 Z-IO.4 G. V- 3.5. P- 82 40 ~

10 3

o 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW

FIGU RE 6.13. Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Southeastern Alaska

130 --ACTUAL DISTRIBUTION ORDINATE PERCENT -- RAYLEIGH DISTRIBUTION ABSCISSA MIS PNL-3195 WERA- ~ 0

ANNETIE IS. AK 03/60-12/78 GUSTAVUS AK 07/48-09/64 HAl NES AK 07/48-07/53 25308 Z= 6.1 G, V= 4.5, P= 128 25322 Z= 9.8 R. V= 32, P= 6B 25323 Z=10.7 R. V= 4.1, P= 124 40 40 """" ... 30 30,·· ; ::~ . . . . 1 20

10

o~~~--~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~,m"246 8 ~ M 024 ~ 2 4 6 W M W W W ~crth~~,6 B W M W o o

JUNEAU AK 04/59-12/78 PETERSBURG AK 07/48-04/56 SITKA AK 07/48-05/58 25309 Z=11.3 G, V= 40, P= 121 ! 25329 Z=W.7 R. V= 2.6, P= 37 25333 Z=21.6 R. V= 34, P= 113 40 40 40

30 30 30

20 20 20

10 W 10

O~-r-+-o--~~~-r-4 O+-~~--~~=+--~~~ o 2 4 6 8 W ~ M W o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 YAKUTAT AK 11/58-12/64 25339 Z=10,4 G, V= 3,5, P= 82 40

30

20

10

2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16

FIGURE 6.14. Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Southeastern Alaska

131 ORDINATE PERCENT ABSCISSA MiS PNL-3195 WERA 10

ANNETTE IS. AK 03/60-12/78 GUSTAVUS AK 07/48-09/64 HAl NES AK 071'8-07/53 25308 Z= 6.1 G, V= 4.5, P= 128 25322 Z= 9.8 R. V = 32, P= 68 25323 Z=10.? R. V= 4.1, P= 124 100 100 100 80 80 eo 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

2 4 6 fl 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16

JUNEAU AK 04/59-12/78 PETERSBURG AK 07/48-04/56 SITKA AK 07/48-05/58 25309 Z=lL3 G, V= 40, P= 121 25329 Z=1O.7 R, V= 2.6, P= 37 25333 Z=21.6 R. V= 3.4, P= 113 100 100 100 80 80 BO 60 60 60 40 40 40 -+<, ... ;.. ·,:,,··.···;····i··· ; ... ; ... ;. 20 20 20

2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 6 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16

YAKUTAT _ AK_ll/58-~2/64 25339 Z-lOA G, V - 35, P- 82 100 eo 60 40 20

o+-~~~-r~~~~~~ 024 6 8 10 ~ M ffi

FIGURE 6,15. Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Southeastern Alaska

132 ORDINATE PERCENT ABSCISSA WATTS/M 2 PNL·3195 WERA-10

ANNETI'E IS. AK 03/60-12/78 GUSTAVUS AK 07/48-09/64 HAl NES AK 07/48-07/53 25308 Z= 61 G, y= 4.5, P= 128 25322 Z= 9.8 R. V= 3.2, P= 68 25323 Z=IO.7 R. V= 41, P= 124 100 100 100

80 80 80 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

200 400 600 800 1000 200 400 600 800 1000 200 400 600 600 1000

JUNEAU AK 04/59-12/78 PETERSBURG AK 07/48-04/56 SITKA AK 07/48-05/58 25309 Z=II.3 G, Y= 40. P= 121 25329 Z=IO.7 R. V= 26, P= 37 25333 Z=21.6 R. V= 3.4. P= 113 100 100 100 80 80 80 60 60 60 40 40 40

20 20 20

200 400 600 600 1000 200 400 600 600 1000 200 400 600 600 1000

YAKUTAT _ AK _1l/58-!2/64 25339 Z-10.4 G, v- 3.5, P- 82 100 80 60 40 20 o+-~+=~~==~~~~ o 200 400 600 800 1000

FIGURE 6.16. Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Southeastern Alaska

133

SOUTHWESTERN ALASKA

CHAPTER 7: SOUTHWESTERN ALASKA

Southwestern Alaska had an estimated that is favorably exposed to the wind strong­ population of 17,364 in 1979, which is ly depends on the land-surface form (Sec­ approximately 0.62 persons per square mile. tion 1.8). The major population centers of the sub- region are the Bristol Bay Borough, Kodiak The annual average wind power (Fig- Island, and Adak Island. As shown in Fig- ure 7.6) is class 4 or higher throughout ure 7.1, this subregion has a northern southwestern Alaska. Class 7 wind power boundary of 59°N and includes the Alaska prevails in the Pribilof Islands, the Peninsula, the Aleutian Chain, the Pribilof Aleutian Islands, the west end of the Islands, and the Kodiak Islands. Its Alaska Peninsula, and the islands south of southern boundary is the Pacific Ocean and the Alaska Peninsula southwest of Kodiak the western boundary is the western tip of Island. Several stations show annual wind Attu Island, which is approximately 173°30'E. powers of over 1,000 W/m2 including Amchitka, With a total area of 118,780 km2, (45,849 mi 2), Shemya, Asi Tanaga, and Scotch Cap. Indi­ the southwestern area is the smallest sub­ vidual stations with annual wind power region in the state. classes less than 7 in the Aleutians are sheltered somewhat from a part of the The Aleutians are the only major moun­ strong winds. All open waters in the tain range in the south~lestern subregion Bering Sea and Pacific Ocean have class 7 (Figure 7.2, 7.3). The Alaska Peninsula power. and the more than 50 islands of the Aleu­ tian Island chain form an arc separating Mountain summits and ridge crests on the north Pacific Ocean and the Berino Sea the Alaska Peninsula and Kodiak Island are and are part of one of the world's most estimated at class 4 for the most part and active seismic zones. There are many small 5 at the higher elevations. Mountain sum­ streams in the subregion but no major mits and ridge crests in the Aleutians are rivers. Three lakes on the Alaska Peninsula isolated peaks and the estimates were much are of noteworthy size: Becharof Lake and lower than surface data for the most part, upper and lower Ugashik Lakes. One very so the wind power classes discussed for the significant physical feature of the Aleu­ Aleutians are exclusively based on surface tian Islands is that they are treeless. data at exposed locations. It is assumed that for the purposes of wind energy conver­ Hind data from NCC were available for sion systems (~JECS), these surface data stations along the coast of the Alaska Pen­ reflect the wind powers to expect for WECS insula, Kodiak Islands, and the Aleutian installations. Islands (Figure 7.4). Data from one fire weather station on the peninsula were used Kodiak Island's exposed locations are in the calculations for this subregion estimated to experience class 6 and 7 wind (Figure 7.5) because other reliable data power; however, the Kodiak station shows were absent. annual class 4 power because of its shel­ tered location. 7.1 ANNUAL AVERAGE WIND POWER IN SOUTHVlESTERN ALASKA The only wind corridors in the sub­ region for which there are data are Cold The annual average available wind Bay (where south-southeast winds, enhanced power density in southwestern Alaska is by surrounding terrain, are of class 7 wind shown in Figure 7.6. The analyses of mean power) and the wind corridor from Kamishak wind power apply to terrain features that Bay to the Barren Islands in the northeast are favorably exposed to the wind, such as corner of the subregion (also with class 7 mountain summits, ridge crests, hilltops power). Other major wind corridors may and uplands. However, nearby terrain fea­ exist along the Alaska Peninsula at Dry tures may interact with the windfield to Bay, Puale Bay, and Port Heiden, based on cause the wind power at some exposed sites examination of satellite imagery and sub­ to vary as much as 50 to 100% from the jective meteorological considerations, but assessment value. (See Wegley et al. 1980 no data have been gathered at these sites. for information on terrain features that may increase or reduce wind energy.) In 7.1.1 Certainty Rating of the forested or wooded areas the assessment Wind Resource values are representative of large clear­ ings with good exposure to the prevailing The wind power estimates for most of strong winds, such as airports. In moun­ the subregion have a certainty rating of 2 tainous regions, the analyses also reflect (Figure 7.7). In the Aleutians, even though major valleys. The percentage of land area there was a fair amount of data, many of

137 the locations were shielded from at least the eastern Bristol Bay area, where class 5 one direction and the land-surface forms or 6 occurs, and the Kodiak Island coasts, are moderately to highly complex. A cer­ where class 6 occurs for the most part. tainty rating of 3 was assigned to the Winter wind power over 1,000 W/m2 occurs in Pribi10f and Chirikof Islands. the open waters of the southern Bering Sea, the north Pacific Ocean, and the Gulf of Mainland areas of the Alaska Peninsula Alaska. Land stations in the Aleutians have generally class 2 power, because most with over 1,000 W/m2 are Shemya, Kiska, of the area consists of mountain summit and Amchitka, Ogliuga, Asi Tanaga, and Sitki­ ridge crest estimates. Data are sparse on nak. the mainland in the Bristol Bay area where land-surface forms are less complex, but Mountain summits and ridge crests of the certainty rating is still 2 or 1. the Aleutian Mountains on the Alaska Penin­ sula generally have class 6 power; however, the higher peaks experience class 7 power, 7.1. 2 Areal Distribution of the and those of Kodiak Islands have class 5 Wind Resource (also class 7 at highest elevations). The wind corridor from Kamishak Bav to the Figure 7.8 illustrates the areal dis­ Barren Islands (affectinq the northeast tribution of wind power in southwest Alaska. corner of the subregion)-also has wind The numbers identify the percentage of area power class 7. in each cell of the grid in which the wind power equals or exceeds some threshold 7.2.2 value. Wind power class 4 or higher is estimated to occur in 98% of the grid cells Class 4 or higher wind power occurs including all of the Aleutian Islands, throughout southwest Alaska in the spring. Kodiak Island, all other islands in the The Pribilof Islands, Aleutians, dnd the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering Sea, the islands south of the Alaska Peninsula west Trinity Islands, and the Alaska Peninsula. of Kodiak all have class 7 power. Bristol The only area not of class 4 or higher is Bay coastal areas vary from class 7 in the inland from the north shore of Bristol Bay west as shown by Cape Newenham and Port and is estimated to be class 3. Following Heiden, to class 4 in the east, shown by the assumptions and computations described King Salmon. Kodiak Island has c'lass 5 or in Section 1.10 and because of the high 6 along the coast at exposed locations and relief in most of this region, only 21% of 4 elsewhere. the land area is estimated to be of class 4 or higher (see Table 7.1). This subregion, Mountian summits and ridge crest located along a storm track that generally estimates show mostly class 4 for Kodiak affects Alaska and much of North America, Island and the northeastern Alaska Penin­ reflects an annual wind power class 7 sula and increase to class 6 farther west (approximately 55% of the grid cells). along the peninsula. In the Aleutian However, the assumption that there is a Islands the mountain peaks were considered reduction of wind power class in high to be well represented by surface data and topographic relief may be too general for are class 7. The wind corridor from Kami­ this subregion, particularly for land forms shak Bay to the Barren Islands also experi­ D5 and D6 where entire islands consist ences class 7 power. of one or two mountain peaks with only a few sheltered valleys. Using the same reason­ 7.2.3 Summer ing, the estimated 72% of wind power class 1 is most likely high. In summer, the wind resource is more variable in southwestern Alaska than in any 7.2 SEASONAL WIND POWER other season. Class 4 or higher wind power occurs in the Pribi10f Islands, the Aleutians, Wind power maps for each season are and the west end of the Alaska Peninsula. shown in Figure 7.9. The season of maximum However, the Pribi10fs are of class 4 and wind power is generally winter in the entire the Aleutians are of class 4 to 6, except subregion. There are few sheltered valleys for Amchitka, which is class 7. The open where stable air is present for any period waters of the Bering Sea have class 6 power, of time in southwestern Alaska. Summer is as does the western north Pacific. Wind the season of minimum wind power in the power class in the Gulf of Alaska decreases entire subregion. from 7 in the southwest to 3 in the north. The Trinity Islands still have class 7 power, 7.2.1 Winter as shown by Sitkinak. The wind corridor from Kamishak Bay to the Barren Islands is In winter class 7 wind power occurs in reduced to class 3 power by the time it all coastal areas of the subregion except affects southwestern Alaska.

138 Mountain summit and ridge crest Cold Bay is located on the northwest estimates vary from class 2 to 4 on the side of the bay that bears its name. Ten Alaska Peninsula and are class 3 on Kodiak. miles southwest of the station Frosty Peak Isolated summits in the Aleutians are rises to 1.870 m. Across the bay to the assumed to be of the same power as the sur­ east, several peaks rise to elevations of face data, varying from class 4 to 7. approximately 1,610 m. The station is shel­ tered from strong southwesterly and easterly 7.2.4 Autumn winds. The open bay area to the south-south­ east tends to provide a funneling effect on Class 4 or higher wind power occurs all winds of consequence from the southwest throughout the subregion in autumn. The through southeast to produce strong south­ Pribilof, Aleutian, Trinity, and Chirikof southeasterly winds. From west-northwest Islands are all estimated to have class 7 to the northeast the land is relatively power. Bristol Bay coastal areas vary from flat with much swampland and numerous small class 7 at Port Heiden and class 6 at Cape lakes. During the 16-year summary used in Newenham to class 4 along the shores of the analysis, there was an average of six Kvichak Bay. Kodiak Island is class 5 or 6 observations per day. along the coast depending on the degree of exposure. Open waters of the Bering Sea, Port Moller is located on a sand spit the North Pacific and Gulf of Alaska exper­ between Moller Bay and the Bering Sea. It ience class 7. is exposed to west, north, and northeast winds but is sheltered somewhat from the Mountain summits and ridge crests are east through south to southwest by the estimated at class 4 to 6 on the Alaska Aleutian Range, which rises to more than Peninsula and class 4 on Kodiak Island. 2,260 m within 8 km of the station. During The wind corridor from Kamishak Bay to the the period of the summary used in the anal­ Barren Islands experiences class 7 power as ysis, there were an average of eight observa­ it affects the northeast portion of south­ tions per day. western Alaska. Kodiak, the only station on Kodiak 7.3 FEATURES OF SELECTED STATIONS Islan~located on the western shore of Women's Bay. The area around the station Graphs of wind characteristics are is heavily wooded and steep in all direc­ shown for 13 stations in southwest Alaska. tions except northeast through east-south­ All stations are near the coast or on an east, where it is exposed to the open water island. The station characteristics are of the Gulf of Alaska. Mountain peaks rise summarized in Table 7.2. to more than 800 m within 5 km to the west of the station. During the summary period The Bristol Bay area is represented by used in the analysis, there were 24 obser­ Cape Newenham and King Salmon. vations per day. Cape Newenham is on a rugged point of St. Paul is located on the south shore land at the northwest end of Bristol Bay. of St. Paul Island, which is 11 by 14 km in It is sheltered on the east, south and west size, of low relief, and has no trees. The by a ridge that extends to more than 610 m. station is well exposed to winds from all It is open to the northwest, and there is a directions. St. Paul's winds are consider­ saddleback in the ridge to the southeast. ed to be representative of other islands in The terrain slopes steeply upward toward the Pribilofs. During the three-year sum­ the southeast in the vicinity of the sta­ mary used in the analysis, there were 24 tion. During the nine-year period of observations per day. record used in the summary, there was an average of 22 observations per day. The Aleutian Islands are represented by seven stations: Adak, Amchitka, Asi King Salmon is located about half a Tanaga, Attu, Driftwood Bay, Nikolski, and kilometer (one-fourth mile) from the Naknek Shenya. River, 29 km inland from the shores of Kvichak Bay at the east end of Bristol Bay. Adak Naval Station is located on Adak The terrain surrounding the station is gently Island. It is shielded to the northwest, rolling, barren tundra for 50 to 100 km in north-northwest, and south by mountains the north through east to south-southwest. more than 610 m high within 8 km of the Some 100 km to the east are the mountains station. However, there are no obstruc­ of the Aleutian Range with peaks to more tions to the north, west, or east. During than 2,260 m. During the summary period of the nine years of the summary used in the used in this analysis, there were eight analysis, there were 24 observations per observations per day digitized. day. There are two stations on the Alaska Peninsula. Cold Bay and Port Moller.

139 Amchitka is located at the southeast These locations are all shielded from a end of Amchitka Island where the terrain is particular direction by surrounding terrain. gently rolling. There are no elevations Less interannual variability of wind power within 25 km more than 300 m high. At the was shown at St. Paul Island, Shemya, and northwest end of the island there are a few Nikolski where no obstructions exist. Many peaks. During the seven-year period of the of the stations' periods of record are not summary used in the analysis, there were 24 simultaneous; however, 1964 and 1965 appear observations per day. to be maximum years for wind power for most locations except Cold Bay and Kodiak, which Asi Tanaga is located at the south end show somewhat less wind resource during of Tanaga Island on a gently rolling portion those years. The year 1976 was a relative­ of the island. The station is shielded ly low wind power year at all stations somewhat to the northwest to northeast by a reporting then except Kodiak, which was mountain, with an elevation more than 1,600 m, high. Kodiak is more exposed to storms about 19 km from the station. There are no from the southwest than other stations. obstructions in any other directions. During The most prevalent storm track is west to the two years of the summary used in the east along the Aleutians to the Gulf of analysis, there was an average of 21 observa­ Alaska. Attu varied by a fact~r of two in tions per day. wind power from 300 to 600 W/m whereas St. Paul, Shemya, and Nikolski varied by a Attu is located at the east end of fraction of only 1.1 to 1.2. Most other Attu Island on the west shore of Massacre stations have too few years to make a com­ Bay. It is shielded from all directions parision of long-term trends in interannual except south to east. The island is moun­ variability. tainous, with elevations to more than 610 m. During the two-year period summary used in 7.3.2 Monthly Average Wind Power the analysis, there were 24 observations and Speed per day. Class 7 mean annual wind power occurs Driftwood Bay is located on the north at all locations west of Driftwood Bay except shore of Unalaska Island. The terrain south Adak and Attu (Figure 7.11). Since both of of the station slopes upward to 1,060 m these stations are shielded to some extent within a mile of the station. The location by local terrain, class 7 appears to be the is sheltered from strong winds from north­ normal for the entire west end of the sub­ east through south to southwest but is region. Class 7 wind power also occurs at exposed to the west and north. During the St. Paul in the Pribilofs and at Cold Bay. five-year summary period used in the anal­ The winds at Cold Bay are enhanced somewhat ysis, there was an average of eight obser­ by local terrain, so this station is high vations per day. in reference to the rest of the Alaska Pen­ insula. Driftwood Bay and Port Moller are Nikolski is located at the southwest somewhat sheltered from the strongest winds, end of Umnak Island. The terrain around a so their annual power (class of 4 and 3) is 3-km radius of the station is gently rolling somewhat low. King Salmon, with class 4 hills or open water. There are mountains annual power is representative of the broad with elevations more than 1,800 m 15 to relatively flat area of the southern and 25 km northeast of the station. All other eastern Bristol Bay area. Cape Newenham, directions are free of obstructions. During with class 6 annual power, is character­ the summary period used in the analysis, istic of an exposed location even though it there was an average of eight observations is sheltered from all except southeast and per day. northwest winds. Kodiak's annual power (class 4) is low for exposed areas on Kodiak Shemya AFS is on Shemya Island, a small Island and adjacent islands. island about 5 by 5 km with very little relief. There are no trees or hills of any The season for maximum wind speed and size on the island, and it is open in all wind power is winter at all except Shemya, directions. Only observations taken every Attu, Adak, Nikolski, and Port Moller. three hours were used in the analysis. Attu's maximum wind power occurs in March, and the remainding stations have maximum 7.3.1 Interannual Wind Power and Speed wind power in October and November. Class 7 wind power occurs during some months at The only stations with long periods of Amchitka, Asi Tanaga, Attu, Cape Newenham, record in this subregion are Adak, Cape Cold Bay, Nikolski, St. Paul, and Shemya. Newenham, Cold Bay, King Salmon, Kodiak, Summer is the season of minimum wind power St. Paul Island, and Shemya (Figure 7.10). except Col d Bay where the mi nirnum occurs in The greatest interannual variability is at May. The greatest seasonal variation occurs Attu, Adak, Cape Newenham, and Kodiak. in the western Aleutians, the Pribilofs, and Cape Newenham.

140 7.3.3 Diurnal Wind Speed by Season the southeast. At Port Moller, south winds are most frequent, but the strongest winds There is very little diurnal variation are from the south-southeast. of wind speeds (Figure 7.12) at any location. The highest diurnal variation is at King 7.3.5 Annual Average Wind Speed Salmon in spring with about 2 m/s. The Freguency rest of the stations showed the greatest diurnal variation in summer with the varia­ There is some observer bias in favor­ tion 1 mls or less. Since King Salmon is ing speeds of 2, 5, 8 and 10 mls (5, 10, the farthest from the coast of any location 15, and 20 mph) at the older stations such in the subregion, it also has the greatest as Amchitka, Asi Tanaga, Nikolski, Port diurnal temperature change particularly in Moller, and Cape Newenham (Figure 7.14). spring and autumn. Strongest winds tend to Actual wind speed distributions agree quite occur from 1200 to 1500 hours. well with the Rayleigh distribution except at Attu, Asi Tanaga, Cape Newenham, Drift­ 7.3.4 Directional Freguency and wood Bay, Kodiak, and Nikolski. Some of Average Speed the disagreement is the result of observer bias, but at other stations (such as Attu, Only Cold Bay has its strongest winds Kodiak, and Cape Newenham) the disagreement and its most frequent winds from the south­ is more from local peculiarities of terrain. southeast direction (Figure 7.13). Most of the remaining stations show very little 7.3.6 Annual Average Wind Speed directional prominence. Only Adak, Asi and Power Duration Tanaga, Attu, Cape Newenham, Cold Bay, King Salmon, Kodiak, and Port Moller show more The percentage of time that a given than 10 percent of the winds from anyone wind speed or power is exceeded is shown in direction. The most frequent directions of Figures 7.15 and 7.16. Wind power class 7 wind are west-southwest through north. occurs more than 40 percent of the time at However, exceptions are Cold Bay, Cape New­ Amchitka, Asi Tanaga, Cold Bay, Nikolski, enham, and Port Moller. At Cold Bay winds St. Paul, and Shemya. Some abrupt changes are most frequently from the south-south­ in the shapes of the wind speed duration east. At Cape Newenham they are from the curve are due to observer bias and instru­ south; strong winds occur most often from ment threshold velocity.

141 il'\i.",- c:;;:t ST PAUL ISLAND

PRIBILOF 't;:>ST GEORGE ISl.AM)

ISLANDS

o "{lNIl'. u:s'Dh I<"LANDS --, 154°

(J CHIRIKOF ISLAND

...... 0 50 100 150 MILES .j::> 0° C) N OCEj\N 0 50 100 150 KILOMETERS PACIFIC

172° 174° 176° 178° 178° 17bo 172°

ATTU ISLAND ~I CUAM ISLAND ~TTU JK 0 NEAR ISLANDS • a ,,'IM'A ISLAND "'1 L A1KA~SlAN[) 4 o f U T A N rANN;A ISLAND ADA~~_ 52° KISKAIS1A~ o p ",,0 O~Qc., ~. ~~ ~AK ISLAND -1C / RAT ~\...l' F I C 01;1 AMCHITKA ISLAND

172° 174° 176° 178° 180° 178°

FIGURE 7.1. Geogra p h·Ie Map of 5 outhwestern Alaska , 1£/0 II! II) MILES rg ¥!O 1'9 fO IUM!f!PRS

52'

FIGURE 7.2. Topographic Map of Southwestern Alaska 1700

/ / () 06

175 , , , ~ \ , , , () Os .' .. , ()~===50~ __..!!IOO :\11 LES ~ , , • 50 , , '0\ \ 1700

I I II ~ Q

~====50~ __.llIO() MILES

!tl!;S?~"!:=:p:HS

1750 EAST LAND-SURFACE FORM LEGEND

PLAINS TABLELANDS 1 FLAT PLAINS B3c.d TABLELANDS. MODERATE RELIEF A2 SMOOTH PLAINS B4c.d TABLELANDS. CONSIDERABLE RELIEF ~B1 IRREGULAR PLAINS. SLIGHT RELIEF B5c.d TABLELANDS. HIGH RELIEF B2 IRREGULAR PLAINS B6c.d TABLELANDS. VERY HIGH RELIEF

PLAINS WITH HILLS OR MOUNTAINS SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION A.B3a.b PLAINS WITH HILLS SLOPE (15t LETTER) B4.a.b PLAINS WITH HIGH HILLS A >80% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING B5a.b PLAINS WITH LOW MOUNTAINS B 50-80% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING B6a.b PLAINS WITH HIGH MOUNTAINS C 20-50% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING o <20% OF AREA GENTLY SLOPING OPEN HILLS AND MOUNTAINS C2 OPEN LOW HILLS LOCAL RELIEF (2nd LETTER) C3 OPEN HILLS o TO 30m (1 TO 100 It) C4 OPEN HIGH HILLS 2 30 TO 90m (100 TO 300 It) 1----1 C5 OPEN LOW MOUNTAINS 3 90 TO 150m (300 TO 500 It) 1----1 C6 OPEN HIGH MOUNTAINS 4 150 TO 300m (500 TO 1000 It) '----' 5 300 TO 900m (1000 TO 3000 It)

HILLS AND MOUNTAINS 6 900 TO 1 500m (3000 TO 5000 It) 3 HILLS D4 HIGH'HILLS PROFILE TYPE (3rd LETTER) ~D5 LOW MOUNTAINS a >75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS IN LOWLAND 06 HIGH MOUNTAINS b 50-75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS IN LOWLAND c 50-75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS ON UPLAND d >75% OF GENTLE SLOPE IS ON UPLAND CAPE NEWENHAM

ST PAUL ISLAND.,.

58 0 o DICITIZED DATA • DICITIZED AND SUMMARIZED DATA /'; SUMMARIZED DATA A UNSUMMARIZED DATA

4CHIRIKOF ISLAND

CAPE SARICHEF ,. 1660 DRIFTWOOD BAY __~40 ~r:;. .SCOTCH CAP UMNAK-CAPE AFB '\... DUTCH HARBOR CHUGINADAK r ... UMNAK-NORTH SHORE ISLAND 0 RElNDHR!ASS~ o 50 100 150 MILES 0° CJ d/'V p;JO 770 0 NIKOLSKI o~,=~50;;..._100-==1=:,50 KILOMETERS PNL 3195 WEAA 10

1780 1800 I \ II ~,.,"I SEGUAM ISLAND~ ALEXIA POINT •• SHEMYA «] • BULDIR ISLAND Q­ ~ KISK~ o Q 0 ASI T-tNAGA~~ £ro~ "" OGUUGA. ~CHITKA 1)~ o

1720 1760 180°

FIGURE 7.4. NCC Station Locations in Southwestern Alaska 58 i...... i ..... i... : : ···;:58 : : : . .. t·· .... t······ i 57 L·::L·~f .... f-- .. ~ .....: ...... : : ...... •.. ..: . '" T" "'i' ...~ ...... ~ ...... :'" ...... ·.f'

'. ": ...... ~ ... . : ...... : ...... ' ... t······ .: ...... i'" .... ~ " .. "...... ~ ... , .

55 ;' ...... : .... . ~ .... ' . \55 ~ ...... ; .... ~ ' ...... ~ ~ .. ' .' ...... ~ ...... "r-' .... ~ ...... J ...... r-----.:.-----.:.------, )54 54;'· ...... : . ; ~: o T 01440 DIGITIZED £I TD1440 DIGITIZED & NCC·SUMMARIZED C; NCC·SUMMARIZED ....~....~ ... ::.r.J. ... g;. .. ~ ..' " OTHER·SUMMARIZED X NCC/DTHER·UNSUMMARIZED 53/·· .. ?..... j ... ~ ..... o MARINE . ; e:> o~ ...... ~...." . ~ .. : l!& CANADIAN/OTHER FOREIGN + USFS FIRE WEATHER o :" .... ·... ! .. ·.. ·:....i .. ~ .. i. 0 50 100 MILES 52 :...... i : .' 0 50 100 KILOMETER...., . . . .; ... ,,·52 172 17·i ...... ; """;'''iS3'' i52 lSI ·i·7ci .. i~9··i~8...... p~l.~195.~E~A.'o.. 155 154 167 166 165 164 163 162 161 160 159 158

-172 -173 5-4 :...... ~ ..... ::.1?4 -175 -176 -177 -178 -179 180 175 17'1173 172 : : -: ';" .... '" .. 178 177 176 ..... , ...... , ...... "':5'1 ; ...... - 179 ...... _...... :- ...... I,C) lUO \111E.-'; . .... -; .. : ... -..... ~ ...... -:- ...... ~ ...... ~ ... ==='><.. ) ___ . .... -:- ......

FIGURE 7.5. Location of Stations Used in Southwestern Alaska Resource Assessment. o C\I ~

? <;;:f .... '

o (0 I() ~ ...... ~'='- 7 .. .;:. co ?.... ~•...... , ... ' ...... ~'•...... •.. .,.o,~ o ". .- . o o· c:::> o~ !£ c:2] RIDGE CR o o EST ESTlMA.TES _=~50:...... ~1~00~_o 1501 ~ MILES J2 o -- 50 100 150 tg PNl.3195 KILOMETERS -- WERA-10

o

: 'bo-

_~",,,,O o o CO o t: ~

FIGURE 7.6. Southwestern Alaska A nnual Average W'In d Power Classes of Wind Power Density at 10m and 50 m (a)

10 m (33 ft) 50 m (164 ft) Wind Wind Power Wind Power Power Density, Speed,{b) Density, Speed,{b) Class watts/m2 m/s (mph) watts/m2 m/s (mph) ----0 ° 0 0-- ---100--4.4 ( 9.8)--200--5.6 (12.5) 2 150--5.1 (11.5)--300--6.4 (14.3) 3 200--5.6 {12.5)--400--7.0 (15.7) 4_--250--6.0 {13.4)--500--7.5 (16.8) 5 300--6.4 (14.3)--600--8.0 (17.9) 6_--400--7.0 {15.7)--800--8.8 (19.7) 7 ---1 000--9.4 {21.1)--2000--11.9 (26.6)

(a)Vertical extrapolation of wind speed based on the 1/7 power law.

(b)Mean wind speed is based on Rayleigh speed distribution at equivd­ lent mean wind power density. Wind speed is for standard sea-level conditions. To maintain the same power density, '>peed increases 5%15000 ft (3%/1 000 m) of elevation.

TABLE 7.1. Areal Distribution (km2 ) of Wind Power Classes in Southwest Alaska

% Land Cumulative % Cumulative Power Class Land Area Area Land Area Land Area 78,000 72 110,000 100 2 2,700 2.5 30,000 27 3 3,800 3.4 27,000 25 4 6,100 5.6 23,000 21 5 4,800 4.4 17,000 16 6 4,400 4.0 12,000 11 7 7,800 7.2 7,800 7.2 5~72171 170 169 : .' ... 168167166165164 163 1 -

58, 58 .. 4..t 57' . -... ' . 57 . } ·56.: 56

". ' .. :.

55.' 55

54' .. . 2 ,. , ..... ~_2 . 2.~.··2 L. ,,,I IOU \IILE:-: 53.: () ,,0" Hill h: IIO\1ETEH:-: PNl 31%- W(-RA 10 53 . 2' 0 )i?2,'· 0' . ,,:~ . ,""2 52: 2 . 52 172 171 170 169 152 151 168 167 166 165 164 163 162 161 160 159 158 157 156 155 154 153 5-}.72 -173 -174 175 175 17A 173 172 "I - - 176 -177 - 178 -179 180 173 178 177 176 "I . 54

. . .. '" ~ . '.:::' ====="=-,0___ 100 \lII.E,.;

'.:::i=".~_I .... \(»' kll('\lFTI·:H,.; 53.' 53 ··2·~~~..······ .... --. ....:

o '. . . . :. 52 ;. . 2 2 .~ b"0' ...... ~ .. • 2 2 : 2 : 51 :-. ... ; ~' ·51 -172. -173 "~'1'74 -. .... -...... 173 \72 - 175 -\76 -]77 -178 - J 79 J 80 179 \78 177 176 175 174

FIGU RE 7.7. Certainty Rating of Southwestern Alaska Wind Resource CERTAINTY RATING LEGEND

Rating Definition

The lowest degree of certainty. A combination of the following conditions exists:

1) No data exist in the vicinity of the cell.

2) The terrain is highly complex.

3) Various meteorological and topographical indicators suggest a high level of variability of the resource within the cell.

2 A low-intermediate degree of certainty. One of the following conditions exists:

1) little or no data exist in or near the cell, but the small variability of the resource and the low complexity of the terrain suggest that the wind resource will not differ su bstantially from the resource in nearby areas with data.

2) limited data exist in the vicinity of the cell, but the terrain is highly complex or the mesoscale variability of the resource is large.

..... 3 A high-intermediate degree of certainty. One of the following conditions exists: .....01 1) There are limited wind data in the vicinity of the cell. but the low complexity of terrain and the small mesoscale variability of the resource indicate little departure from the wind resource in nearby areas with data.

2) Considerable wind data exist but in moderately complex terrain and/or in areas where moderate variability of the resource is likely to occur.

4 The highest degree of certainty. Quantitative data exist at exposed sites in the vicinity of the cell and can be confidently applied to exposed areas in the cell because of the low com­ plexity of terrain and low spatial variability of the resource. 5~72 171 170 169 c 16816716616516416:11 Class 2 58 58

57 9. 57 .~D 56 ' .. 56

55

S4 . o 50 100 MILES o 50 100 KILOMETER." ~ PNl-319SWFRA10 o 5

171 170 · 6 15S I S4 153 152 169 ! 68 167 I S 166 16S lli4 153 162 151 160 159 leo 157 S-4172 -173 174 -1'S - [75 -1- - ·c 1 -9 180

53 S3 I~O l'iji

51 -172 1"9 178 1" \76 \75

Class 3 172 171 0 59 . 17 1691681671661651641631

58· 58

57

~. .. 56

55· 55

S4 . o 50 100 :\1[ LES . . 2 _il 3 . 2~"--' o 50 100 KII.O\1ETEl{S ~ PNl-319S WERA 10 53· )f? 2 .. 2.;' .~ o 2 ". 52 52 153 IS2 lSI 17 2 171 170 I 69 168 167 166 16S 164 . 156 155 154 163 162 161 160 159 158 15 7

175 174 173 175 -176 -177 '178 '\79 180 173 178 177 176

53

. 2 . 2~. !f52 52 ' 2 2 .t! 0 0 .s1...2 o2~~ 2 c 51 2 9~3 ~ i 172 -172 -173 -171 -175-176 -177 -178 -179 180 179 178 177 176 175

FIGURE 7.8. Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Southwestern Alaska (Power Classes 2 and 3); Percent of Land Area with or Exceeding Power Class Shown.

152 Sf2 171 170169 0-, 168 167 166165164163 I Class 4

58 58

57

56

55

54 __ 2~_3 o 50 100 MILES _2~ - o 50 lOO KILOMETER.." PNl-3195WERA·10 53 ' jP 2 - ~ 2,i·~ C> 2 D· ... , 52' . 52 172 171 ;70 169 . . . 154 153 152 lSi 168 167 166 165 164 163 162 161 160 159 158 157 156 155

-173 -174 -175 -176 -177 '178 ,179 180 173 178 17' 176 175 174 I'

53 .3~ "'

S2· 2 o O· 7~3

,173 - 174 - 175 -176 - 17" - I 78 ,179 180 179 ]78 )77

Class 5 58

57

56

55

o 50 100 MILES

53 o 50 100 KILOMETER" ==- PNL-3195 WERA-l0 C> 52' . 52 151 172 171 153 152 156 155 154 165 164 163 162 161 160 159 158 157 ]72 174 173 -177 -178 ,179 180 173 178 177 176 175 S4

53, 53

52' .. 51 . -172 -173 -17<\ -175 -176 -177 -178 -179 180 179 178 177 176

FIGURE 7.8 (Continued). Areal Distribution of Wind Resource in Southwestern Alaska (Power Classes 4 and 5); Percent of Lind Area With or Exceeding Power Class Shown.

153 WINTER

~56° 5q.. 10

o !£ • c=J mOOE CREST ESTIM.l1ES § ~=d.:S(j,-_.:;100~=~1SO MILES o SO 100 1 SO KILOMETERS ~ =~-~ = PNL-3195 WERA-1 0 ~------

53° 530

,....~ - 520 0" 0 o .. 1 <0 t: '-

590 SUMMER

o 6 ~ . ~

56· ~ o 10 a:l . <0 55·!!? !Q o° 0540 cv !£ 7 ="oo,,,,msn.. ,,. !£ • &530 o~==;;SO:...._.:;l00~=~lSO MILES Q) !£ ____ KILOMETERS r ----=!E=--______~O==SO=1:00==1SO~ PNL-3195 WERA-10

53° ~5 . 53° 6 .. ~~--~-~ 52° '1:-J ,....C\I° 4 __._. 6 . '----=------r::. - 52° o ....•....••O() ...... O . ~ ,....U, - ~- .. 1 o ~

FIGU RE 7.9. Seasonal Average Wind Power in Southwestern Alaska (Winter, Summer)

154 SPRING ., ., '<7; 57'0 '\;> 0

S 0 OJ !E

540

Z:J RIDGECREST ESTIMATES o § ~~~50;,;:... __'.;.;00~~~'5() MILLS 50 100 150 KILOMETERS ~ ____ PNL-3195 WERA_~1_0--:-_---,

,....~ 4 - 520 7 o o <0 7 t::

o !!2

590 AUTUMN ., 57'0 '\;> S° OJ° !E

540

ld?~i··~=r;.~...... 0$.

~IIIOGIECReSTEST1IlATES Co 53° ~~~50;,;:..._...;;100~~~150 MILES

r ______~~~ ______!!?______~::=50:::':OO==':50~KILOMETER5PNl-31 95 WERA-10 53° 53° C? .~.. ,....~ 4 ¢ - 52° t;::. o <0 t::

FIGURE 7.9 (Continued). Seasonal Average Wind Power in Southwestern Alaska (Spring, Autumn)

155 TABLE 7.2. Southwestern Alaska Stations with Graphs of the Wind Characteristics.

Annual Average Annual Average Wind Speed, Wind Power, m/s W/m2

~~, ~(,.o ~ "" "~:4.",'Ii c() ",\ (:' <:- .() ",>« <:-'" "'".... , \:\ (:' \:\ (:' "":/if~ i" ,'iO '? «."", ~() Station ID Station Name '?-.... -<:-'" "..... '?-.... Adak Adak Naval Station 51.9 176.7W 4.9 04/62·02/72 7.6 5.4 5.7 255 287 571

Amchitka Amchitka Island AFB 51.4 179.3[ 62.3 01/44-11/50 10.7 9.7 9.6 12.1 1219 1186 2363

ASI Tanaga ASI Tanaga Naval 51.7 178.0W 45.1 02/47-03/49 10.1 8.5 8.5 10.7 1028 1025 2044 Station

Attu Attu Naval Station 52.8 1733E 28.0 08/54-12/56 10.4 53 5.3 6.6 330 325 648

Cape Newenham Cape Newenham AFS 58.7 162.2W 71.6 04/61-12/70 4.0 5.1 5.8 7.3 342 360 717

Cold Bay Cold Bay WBAS 55.2 162.7W 30.2 11/62·12/78 6.4 7.5 8.0 10.1 517 626 1248

Driftwood Bay Driftwood Bay AFS 53.9 166.9W 395.6 05/64-05/69 4.0 4.3 4.9 6.2 153 228 453

King Salmon King Salmon WBAS 58.7 156.7W 143 06/62·12/78 6.1 4.8 5.2 6.5 163 202 402

Kodiak Kodiak Naval Air 57.8 152.5W 33.8 08/58-05/73 4.9 4.4 4.8 6.1 171 233 464 Facility

Nikolski Nikolski AFS 52.9 168.8W 214.9 01/61-02/67 9.1 7.2 7.3 9.1 497 516 1029

Port Moller Port Moller AFS 56.0 160.5W 316.4 06/59-02/64 9.1 4.4 4.4 5.6 160 166 331

St. Paul Island St. Paul Island WBAS 57.2 170.2W 8.5 08/61-12/64 19.5 8.0 7.2 9.1 612 410 916

Shemya Shemya WBAS 52.7 174.1 E 39.0 11/61-04/73 6.1 8.7 9.4 11.8 810 1001 1996

156 +---+ WI ND POWER LEFT ORDINATE - WATTSjM 2 • -- -$ WI ND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - MjS PNl3195 WERA-10 ABSCISSA - YEAR V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW ADAK AK AMCHITKA AK ASI TANAGA AK 25704 45702 25709 500 1700 12 1000 8 1500 10 400 1300 6 900 7 1100 6 300 900 4 600 6 700 2 200 4 500 0 700 5 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 66 72 76 60 40 44 46 52 56 60 64 66 72 7C 60 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 60 ATTU AK CAPE NEWENHAM AK COLD BAY AK 45709 25623 25624 600 7 600 7 800 500 6 500 6 700 . . . ~ .. !.. - . ... !. 400 5 400 5 600 .. i-- e ... "!. .. ~ 300 4 300 4 500 ...... •. tml 200 3 200 3 400 .o;l. 5 100 2 100 2 300 . - ..~ - ... j...... l-- . ....L... 4 o I o I 200 3 40 44 46 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 60 40 44 46 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 60 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 60 DRIFTWOOD BAY AK KING SALMON AK KODIAK AK 25515 25503 25501 300 6 300 600 .... 7 500 j : ; :.; : l..... 1.; 6 200 5 200 .. ,. 400 300 100 4 100 200 100 I~~~±i o 3 o 3 o t 40 44 46 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 60 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 60 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 NIKOLSKI AK PORT MOLLER AK ST. PAUL IS. AK 25626 25625 25713 700 9 300 5 700 9

600 6 200 ..... ~ .. . ..• j. 4 600 i . 500 7 tOO 3 500 .. ~ ..... ~ ,1m: 400 6 o 2 400 -r-.-;-'-;-'-;-'---t-->+'"i 6 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 60 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 60 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 60 SHEMYA AK 45715 1300 \I 1200 10 1100 9 1000 8 900 7 600 6 700 5 40 44 46 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 60

FIGURE 7.10. Interannual Wind Power and Speed for Southwestern Alaska

157 WIND POWER LEFT ORDINATE - WATTS/M 2 WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - M/S PNL3195WEAA1Q ABSCISSA - MONTH V AND P ADJUSTED FROM Z TO 10 M BY 1/7 POWER LAW ADAK AK 04/63-02/72 AMCHITKA AK 01/44-11/50 ASI TANAGA AK_ 02/47-:03/49 25704 Z= 7.6 R. V= 5.7, p= 286 45702 Z=1O.7 R. V= 9.6, P=lHl5E 25709 Z=IO.1 R. V- 8.5, P-1025 800 8 3000 30 3000 30 2500 25 2500 25 600 6 2000 20 2000 20 400 4 1500 15 1500 15 1000 10 1000 \0 200 2 500 5 500 5 o 0 0 0 0 0 J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D

ATTU AK 08/54-12/56 CAPE NEWENHAM AK 04/61-12/70 COLD BAY AK 11/62-12/78 45709 Z= 10.4 R. V = 5.3, P= 324 25623 Z= 4.0 G, V= 5.8, P= 359E 25624 Z= 6.4 G, V= 80, P= 625 800 8 800 8 1200 12 1000 \0 600 6 600 6 800 8 400 4 400 4 600 6 400 4 200 2 200 2 200 2 o 0 o 0 o 0 J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D

DRIFTWOOD BAY AK 05/64-05/69 KING SALMON AK 02/62-12/78 KODIAK AK 08/58-05/73 25515 Z= 4.0 G, V= 4.9, P= 227 25503 Z= 6.1 G, V= 52, P= 201 25501 Z= 4.9 G, V= 48, P= 232 800 8 800 8 800 8

600 6 600 6 600 6

400 4 400 4 400 4

200 2 200 200 2

0 0 0 0 0 0 J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D

NI KOLSK I _ AK _01/61-.92~67 PORT MOLLER AK 06/59-02/64 ST. PAUL IS. AK 08/61-12/64 25626 Z- 9.1 R. V- 7.3, P- 16 25625 Z= 9.1 R. V= 4.4, P= 166 25713 Z=19.5 R. V= 7.2, P= 459 1200 12 800 8 1200 12 1000 \0 1000 \0 600 6 800 800 8 600 6 400 4 600 6 400 4 400 4 200 2 200 2 200 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 J F Ii A M J J A SON D J F A M J J A SON D J F M A M J J A SON D

SHEMYA AK 11/61-04/73 45715 Z= 6.1 G, V= 9.4. P=IOOI 3000 :JO 2500 25 2000 20 15OO ...... c···,····,···· ·····,·····,··f-'--r15 1000 -t.cc.:-.c.,;'._"'~.; . \0 500 5 o 0 J F M A M J J A SON D

FIGURE 7.11. Monthly Average Wind Power and Speed for Southwestern Alaska

15& ~WINTER ...... --~PRING ORDINATE MIS EB-- ~ SUMMER EB-- - -lllAUTUMN ABSCISSA HOUR PNl-3195 WERA-10

ADAK AK 04/63-02/72 AMCHITKA AK 01/44-11/50 ASI TANAGA AK 02/<17-03/49 25704 Z~ 7.6 R. V ~ 5.4, p= 255 45702 Z=10.7 R. V= 9.7, P=1219E 25709 Z=IO.l R, V= 8.5, P=I028 10 16 16 14 14 8 121-==---~="""'===.:c;;.::~==; 12 6 ~~~:;.;~~~~~~ l0i=~~~-~-'~~--~'~:'~ 10-b±-:y~~rt:::t~~ 8 8...Fo,~~",-c. 4 6 6 2 4 4 2 2 O+--+--r-~-T--~-r~~ O+--+--r-~-+--~-r-+~ 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 o 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 o 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24

ATTU AK 08/54-12/56 CAPE NEWENHAM AK 04/61-12/70 COLD BAY _ AK y/62-~2/78 45709 Z~1O.4 R. V= 53, p~ 330 25623 Z= 4.0 G. V= 5.1, P= 242E 25624 Z- 6.4 G, V- 7.5, P- 5f? 10- 10 10 8 8 8~~~~~~~~ 61=~~~~~~~~~ 6 4 4 4 2 2 2

O+--r--r-~-T--~-r~~ O+--+~r-~-+--~-r-+~ O+--+~r-~-+--~-r-+~ o 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 o 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 o 3 6 9 ~ m ~ Z M

DRIFTWOOD BAY AK 05/64-05/69 KING SALM_ON AK_ 02/62=12/78 KODIAK AK 06/58-05/73 25515 Z~ 4.0 G. V~ 43. p~ 153 25503 Z- 6.1 G, V- 4.8, P- U'l3 25501 Z= 4.9 G, V= 4.4, P= 1'11 10 10 IOJ' 8 8 8 . . , 6 6 .... \ ...... : ... _+ ... :.-.- ... ~...... ~ 4l::=;:=-+------""==.:::.--::,,-;:::... -::~~.::;.:; .. j:;:;~;;;;.E::' ..=:- G :k~*~5~~ 4.t~;;::::..:.---"';:::·:::·::j,-T:::·~·"'·~T_;.::: ... ~... tj:.~:::... ~T':;·.-:::: .. ·j:·~::;"·:;;··-i 2 2 2·

o I iii I I I i I O+--+--r-~-+--~-r~~ O+--+--r-~-+--~-r-+~ o 3 6 9 ~ m ~ Z M o 3 6 9 ~ m ~ Z M o 3 6 9 ~ m ~ Z M NI KOLSK I AK 01/61-02/67 PORT MOLLER AK 06/59-02/64 ST. PAUL IS. AK 06/61-12/64 25626 Z~ 9.1 R. V~ 7.2, p~ 497 25625 Z~ 9.1 R. V = 4.4, P= 160 25713 Z=19.5 R, V= 8.0, P= 812 10 10 10 ..... , ......

8~~~~~~~~ 8 6 6 : ~:1:d~.~~:H 4 4 ...... , ...... i ···_-- •. ····.i

...... :~ ...... :i . ... -.j~ ...... :,:...... ; -~.-..! ; ;: 2 2 -··~-······1 0+--r~--r-4--+~r-+-~ 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 o 3 6 9 ~ m ffi Z M

SHEMYA AK 11/61-04/73 45715 Z= 6.1 G. V= 8.7. P= 810 16 14 12 10 t::;:::;;:::t;;;±-;:F~=::t::::j:::::; 8 6 ... :... -- .. ~.--.~(~.)~ 4 2 ..... , ...... ;.. 04--r~r-+--r~--~1--1 036 9 12 15 18 21 24

FIGU RE 7.12. Diurnal Wind Speed by Season for Southwestern Alaska

159 PERCENT FREQUENCY LEFT ORDINATE - PERCENT WIND SPEED RIGHT ORDINATE - MIS PN l·3 j S5 WERA·1 0 ABSCISSA - WIND DIRECTION

ADAK AK 04/63-02/72 AMCHITKA AK 01/44-11/50 ASI TANAGA AK 02/47-03/49 25704 z~ 7.6 R. V= 5.4, p~ 255 45702 Z~IO.7 R. V= 9.7, P~1219E 25709 Z=IO.I R V= 8.5, P~1028 ~ ~ 40 16 40 12

30 9 30 12 30

20 6 20 8 20 '.

10 3 10 4 10

o 0 o 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E ~ S SW W NW

ATTU AK 08/54-12/56 CAPE NEWENHAM AK 04/61-12/70 COLD BAY AK 11/62-12/78 45709 z~!O.4 R. V~ 5.3, p~ 330 25623 Z= 4.0 G, V= 5.1, P~ 242E 25624 Z~ 6.4 G, V~ 75, P= 517 40 12 ~ ~ 40

30 9 30 30 " ; f:2

20 20 ",,-:' 6

10 3 10

o 0 O~~-r~-r'-~-r~~~~ I:~~~~,-~~~~~:t: N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW

DRIF'TWOO~ BAY AK _05/64':::.05/69 KING SALMON AK 02/62-12/78 KOD I AK AK 08/58-05/73 25515 Z- 4.0 G, V - 4.3, p- 153 25503 Z= 6.1 G, Y = 4.8, P= 163 25501 Z= 4.9 G. V= 44. P= 171 40 12 ~ ~ 40 12

30 9 30 9 30

20 6 20 6 20

10 3 10 3 10

o 0 o 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW

NIKOLSKI AK 01/61-02/67 PORT MOLLER AK 06/59-02/64 ST. PAUL IS. AK 08/61-12/64 25626 Z= 9.1 R. y= 7.2, P= 497 25625 Z= 9.1 R. Y= 4.4, P= 160 25713 Z=19.5 R. V= B.O, P= 612 40 12 40 40 12

30 9 30 30 9

20 6 20

10 3 10 10 3

0 0 o 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW NE E SE S SW W NW N NE E SE S SW W NW

SHEMYA AK 11/61-04/73 45715 Z= 6.1 G, V= B.7, P= B10 40 12

30 9

20 6

10 3

o 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW

FIGURE 7.13. Directional Frequency and Average Wind Speed for Southwestern Alaska

160 ORDINATE - PERCENT ABSCISSA - MiS PNL-3195 WERA·10

ADAK AK 04/63-02/72 AMCHITKA AK 01/44-11/50 AS! TANAGA AK 02/47-03/49 25704 Z= 7.6 R, V = 5.4, p= 255 45702 Z=107 R. V= 9.7, P=1219E 25709 Z=IO.l R. V= 8.5, P=to28 100 100 100 80 60 80 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

o+-~~~;-~~~ 2 4 6 ~ 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 6 10 12 14 16 o 2 4 6 6 10

ATIU AK 08/54-12/56 CAPE NEWENHAM AK 04/61-12/70 COLD BAY _ AK y/62-~2/78 45709 Z=to.4 R, V= 5.3, p= 330 25623 Z= 4.0 G, V= 5.1, P= 242E 25624 Z- 6.4 G, V- 7.5, P- 517 100 100 100 80 80 80 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

O+-~~~~~~~~~~ O+-~~~~~~~.-~~ 2 4 6 6 10 12 14 16 o 2 4 6 6 10 12 14 16 o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

DRIFTWOO~ BAY AK _05/64-:::.05/69 KING SALM_ON AK_02/62=12/78 KODIAK AK 08/58-05/73 25515 Z- 4.0 G, V - 4.3, p- 153 25503 Z- 6.1 G, V- 4.8, P- 163 25501 Z= 4.9 G, V = 4.4, P= 171 100 100 100 80 60 60 80 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

0~~~~~~~~~+-4 O~~~~~~~~~~~ o 2 4 6 6 10 ~ M W o 2 4 6 6 10 m M W 2 4 6 6 to 12 14 16 NIKOLSKI AK 01/61-02/67 PORT MOLLER AK 06/59-02/64 ST. PAUL IS. AK 08/61-12/64 25626 Z= 9.1 R, V= 7.2, P= 497 25625 Z= 9.1 R. V = 4.4, P= 160 25713 Z=19.5 R. V= 8.0, P= 612 100 100 100 80 60 60 60 60 60 40+"""";""'" 40 40 20+':"""""';"';'" 20 20

o+-~~~+-~~~;-~~ 2 4 6 6 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 6 10 12 14 16 o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

SHEMYA AK 11/61-04/73 45715 Z= 6.1 G, V= 6.7, P= 810 100 -.-=.. ,... ,... ,... ,... ,.... ,... ,... ,... ,... ,... ,

80 60 40 20

o+-~~~~~~~~~~ o 2 4 6 8 10 ~ M W

FlGU RE 7.15. Annual Average Wind Speed Duration for Southwestern Alaska

162 --ACTUAL DISTRIBUTION ORDINATE PERCENT ------RAYLEIGH DISTRIBUTION ABSCISSA MiS PNl-3195 WEAA-10

ADAK AK 04/63-02/72 AMCHITKA AK 01/44-11/50 ASI TANAGA AK 02flr7-03149 25704 Z~ 7.6 R. V~ 5.4. p= 255 45702 Z=10.7 R. V~ 9.7. P=1219E 25709 Z=10.1 R. V= 8.5. P=102e 40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0~~~--+-4--+~r-+-~ o 2 4 6 OJ 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 024 6 810m w m

AITU AK 08/54-12/56 CAPE NEWENHAM AK 04/61-12/70 COLD BAY AK 11/62-12/78 45709 Z~!o'4 R. V~ 5.3. p= 330 25623 Z= 4.0 G. V= 5.1. P= 242E 25624 Z= 6.4 G. V= 7.5. p~ 5r7 40 40 :l 30 30 20 20

10 10

O~~-+~--r-~~~~ O~~-,--+-,r-+--r-T-~ :~j-,'o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 o 2 4 6 810m w m o 2 4 6 810m w m DR I FTWOO~ BAY AK _05/64-::.05/69 KING SALM_ON AK_ 02/62=12/78 25515 Z- 4.0 G. V - 4.3. P- 153 25503 z- 6.1 G. V- 4.8. P- 163 KO~~to~ Z= 4.9 G~~=08It~p35&?3 40 40 40

30 30 30

20 20 20

10 10 10

0~-r-4--+--r-T~r-~~ O~-r~--r--r-+~~T-~ 0~-r~--r-4-~~~T-~ o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 o 2 4 6 810m w m o 2 4 6 810m w m

NIKOLSKI AK 01/61-02/67 PORT MOLL~R AK_06/59-::.02/64 ST. PAUL IS. AK 08/61-12/64 25626 Z= 9.1 R. V= 72. p~ 497 25625 Z- 9.1 R. V - 4.4. P- 160 25713 Z=19.5 R. V= 8.0. P= 612 40 40 40

30 30 30

20 20 20

10 10 10

O~~~--+-~~~~T-~ O~~~--+-~-+~r-+-~ 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 o 2 4 6 810m w m o 2 4 6 810m w ~ SHEMYA AK 11/61-04/73 45715 Z= 6.1 G. V= 8.7. p= 810 40

30

20

10

O~~~--+-,r-+--r-+-~ o 2 4 6 810m w m

FIGURE 7.14. Annual Average Wind Speed Frequency for Southwestern Alaska

161 ORDINATE - PERCENT ABSCISSA - WATTS/M2 PNl-3195 WERA-10

ADAK AK 04/63-02/72 AMCHITKA AK 01/44-11/50 ASI TANAG_A AK_ 02/47-=.03/49 25704 Z= 7.6 R. V= 5.4. P= 255 45702 Z=107 R, V= 9.7. P=1219E 25709 Z-IO\ R. V- 8.5. P-I028 100 100 100 80 80 80

60 60 6O+''''-.~''' 40 40 40 20 20 20

O+-~~~-r~-T~~~~ 200 400 600 800 1000 200 400 600 800 1000 o 200 400 600 800 1000

AITU AK 08/54-12/56 CAPE NEWENHAM AK 04/61-12/70 COLD BAY AK 11/62-12/78 45709 Z=1O.4 R, V= 53. P= 330 25623 Z= 4.0 G. V= 5\. P= 242E 25624 Z= 6.4 G. V= 75, P= 5f7 100 100 80 1:1 ' ...... ,... C•. , .• ' 80 60 60 40 40 20 :! ...... 20 o 1 'i iii i o+-~,r~~~-T~~~~ 200 400 600 800 1000 o 200 400 600 800 1000 o 200 400 600 800 1000

DRIFTWOOD BAY AK 05/64-05/69 KING SALM_ON AK_ 02/62:::12/78 KODIAK _ AK _08/58-,95/73 25515 Z= 4.0 G. V= 43. P= 153 25503 Z- 6\ G. V- 4.8. P- 163 25501 Z- 4.9 G. V - 4.4. P- 1'71 100 100 100 80 80 80 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20 O+-~+-~+-~~~~~ O+--T~+=~~~~ O+-~~+==+~~~ o 200 400 600 800 1000 o 200 400 600 800 1000 o 200 400 800 800 1000 NIKOLSKI AK 01/61-02/67 PORT MOLLER AK 06/59-02/64 ST. PAUL IS. AK 08/61-12/64 25626 Z= 9\ R. V= 72. P= 497 25625 Z= 9\ R, V= 4.4. P= 160 25713 Z=19.5 R, V= 8,0. P= 612 100 100 100 80 80 80 60 60 60 40 40 40 20 20 20

O+-~~~-r~-T~~~~ 200 400 600 800 1000 200 400 600 800 1000 o 200 400 800 800 1000 SHEMYA AK 11/61-04/73 45715 Z= 6\ G. V= 8.7. P= 810 100 80 60 40 20

o+-~'-~'-~'-~-r~~ o 200 400 600 800 1000

FIGURE 7.16. Annual Average Wind Power Duration for Southwestern Alaska

163

REFERENCES

Arctic Meteorology Research Group. 1960a. Elliott, D. L. 1979a. "Meteorological and Temperature and Wind Frequency Tables Topographical Indicators of Wind Energy for North America and Greenland. Vol. 1, for Regional Assessments." Proceedings January-June. McGill University, of the Conference on Wind Characteristics Montreal, Quebec, Canada. and Wind Energy Sitting. PNL-3214, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Arctic Meteorology Research Group. 1960b. Washington. Temperature and Wind Frequency Tables for North America and Greenland. Vol. 2, Elliott, D. L. 1979b. "Adjustment and July-December. McGill University, Analysis of Data for Regional Wind Energy Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Assessments." Paper presented at the Workshop on Wind Climate, Asheville, Atmospheric Environment Canada. 1976a. North Carolina, November 12-13, 1979. Climatological Station Data. The North Yukon Territory and Nort~st Furman, R. W. and G. E. Brink. 1975. Territory. Downsview, Ontario, Canada. The National Fire Weather Data Library. USDA For. Ser. Gen. iechn. Rep. Rfl-19, Atmospheric Environment Canada. 1976b. Rocky Mt. Fo. and Range Exp. Stn., Fort Climatological Station Data. Collins, Colorado. British Columbia. Downsview, Ontario, Canada. Garate, J. A. 1977. Wind Energy Mission Analysis. COO/2578-1/1,2,3, General Atmospheric Environment Canada. No date. Electric Company, Philadelphia, Canadian Normals, 1955-1972. Pennsylvania. Changery, M. J. 1975. Initial Wind Enerqy Hammond, E. H. 1964. "Analysis of Proper­ Data Assessment Study. NSF/NOAA, ties in Landform Geography: An Appli­ NSF-RA-N-75-020, National Climatic cation to Broadsca1e Landfom Mapping," Center, Asheville, North Carolina. Annals, Association of American Geoara­ phers, 54:11-19, Map Supplement Number 4. Changery, M. J., W. T. Hodge, and J. V. Ramsdell. 1977. Index-Summarized Wind Hewson, E. W. and R. W. Baker. 1978. Data. BNWL-2220 WIND-ll, NOAA/Pacific Windpower Network Over the Pacific Northwest Laboratory, National Climatic Northwest. BPA-77-2, Oregon State Center, Asheville, North Carolina. University, Corvallis, Oregon. Changery, M. J. 1978. National Wind Data Hewson, E. W. et al. 1978. Vegetation as Index. HCO/Tl041-01, DOE/NOAA, an Indicator of High Wind Velocity. E(49-26)-1041, National Climatic Center, RLO/2227-T24-78-2. Available from Asheville, North Carolina. National Techn-ical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia. Cliff, W. C. 1977. The Effect of Gener­ alized Wind Characteristics on Annual Hewson, E. W. et a1. 1979. A Handbook on Power Production Est"j mates from Wind the Use of Trees as an Indicator of Turbine Generators. PNL-2436, Pacific Wind Power Potential. RLO/2227-79/3. Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Available from National Technical Infor­ Washington. mation Service, Springfield, Virginia. Coty, U. A. 1976. Wind Energy Mission Kolm, L. E. and R. W. Marrs. 1977. Pre­ Analysis. SAN/1075-1/1,2,3; Lockheed­ dicting the Surface Wind Charact~stics California Company, Burbank, California. of Southern Wyoming from Remote Sensing and Eolian Geomorphology. RLO/2343-78/1, Crutcher, H. L. 1961. Meridonal Cross-Sec­ University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming. tions, Upper Winds over the Northern Hemisphere. Technical Paper No. 41, Marlatt, W. E., P. Tierney, P. Meikle, National Weather Records Center, U.S. M. Baer, and J. Childs. 1979. Assess­ Weather Bureau, Asheville, North ment of the Applicability of the~nal Carol ina. Fire Weather Library to Wind Energy Analyses. PNL-2538. Prepared for Pacific Elliott, D. L. 1977. Synthesis of National Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington. Wind Energy Assessments. BNWL-2220 WIND-5, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington.

165 Marrs, R. W. and D. R. Gaylord. 1979. A Reed, J. W. 1975. Wind Power Climatology Guide to Interpretation of Windflow of the U.S. SAND 74 0348, Sandia Labora­ Characteristics from Eolian Landforms. tories, Albuquerque, New Mexico. RLO/2343-79/2. Ava ilable from National Technical Information Service, Spring­ Voelker, A. H. et a1. 1979. A Systematic field, Virginia. Method for Resource Rating with Two Applications to Potential Wilderness National Climatic Center (NCC). 1970. Areas. ORNL/TI1-6759, Oak Ridge National Winds Aloft Summaries, by Month. Avail­ Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. able from National Weather Records Center, Federal Building, Asheville, Wahl, E. W. 1966. Windspeed on Mountains. North Carolina. No. AFI9(628)-3873, USAF-CRL, Bedford, Massachusetts. National Cl imatic Center (NCC). 1975. TDF-14: Surface Observations. Avail­ Wegley, H. L. et a1. 1980. A Siting able from the National Climatic Center, Handbook for Small Wind Energy Conver­ Asheville, North Carolina. sion Systems. PNL-2521 Rev. 1, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washing­ National Climatic Center (NCC) and University ton. of Alaska. 1977. Climatic Atlas of the Outer Continental Shelf and Coastal Yansky, G. R., E. H. Markee, Jr., and A. P. Regions of Alaska. Available from Arctic Richter. 1966. Cl i Ina tography of the Environmental Information and Data Center, National Reactor Testing Station. University of Alaska, 707 A Street, 100-12048, Air Resources Field Research Anchorage, Alaska and NTIS. Office, Idaho Falls, Idaho. National Climatic Center. 1977. Index of Original Surface Weather Records for Stations in Alaska. Available from the National Climatic Center, Asheville, North Carol ina.

166 INDEX

Annual average wind power, Evaluation of wind data, discussion of, method, 3 regional, 10 Northern Alaska, 25 Interannual wind power and speed, at selected Southcentral Alaska, 65 stations, Southeastern Alaska, 107 discussion of, Southwestern Alaska, 137 Northern Alaska, 29 maps of, Southcentral Alaska, 68 regional, 18 Southeastern Alaska, 109 Northern Alaska, 38 Southwestern Alaska, 140 Southcentral Alaska, 80 graphs of, Southeastern Alaska, 118 Northern Alaska, 48 Southwestern Alaska, 148 Southcentral Alaska, 90 Southeastern Alaska, 127 Areal distribution of wind power, Southwestern Alaska, 157 defined, 8 discussions of, Land-surface form classes, regional, 11 defined, 6 Northern Alaska, 26 maps of, Southcentral Alaska, 66 regional, 16 Southeastern Alaska, 108 Northern Alaska, 34 Southwestern Alaska, 138 Southcentral Alaska, 76 maps of, Southeastern Alaska, 114 Northern Alaska, 42 Southwestern Alaska, 144 Southcentral Alaska, 84 Southeastern Alaska, 122 Monthly average wind power and speed at Southwestern Alaska, 152 selected stations, discussion of, Certainty rating for wind power, Northern Alaska, 29 basis, 7 Southcentral Alaska, 71 discussions of, Southeastern Alaska, 110 Northern Alaska, 26 Southwestern Alaska, 140 Southcentral Alaska, 66 graphs of, Southeastern Alaska, 108 Northern Alaska, 50 Southwestern Alaska, 137 Southcentral Alaska, 92 maps of, Southeastern Alaska, 128 Northern Alaska, 40 Southwestern Alaska, 158 Southcentral Alaska, 82 Southeastern Alaska, 120 Qualitative indicators, Southwestern Alaska, 150 used in data-sparse areas, 4 Directional frequency and average speed Seasonal variations in wind power, at selected stations, in Alaska, discussions of, discussion of, 11 Northern Alaska, 30 at selected stations, discussion of, Southcentral Alaska, 71 Northern Alaska, 26 Southeastern Alaska, 110 Southcentral Alaska, 67 Southwestern Alaska, 141 Southeastern Alaska, 108 graphs of, Southwestern Alaska, 138 Northern Alaska, 54 at selected stations, maps of, Southcentral Alaska, 96 Northern Alaska, 44 Southeastern Alaska, 130 Southcentral Alaska, 86 Southwestern Alaska, 160 Southeastern Alaska, 124 Southwestern Alaska, 154 Diurnal wind speed by season at selected stations, Sources of wind data, discussion of, general, 1 Northern Alaska, 29 discussion of, Southcentral Alaska, 71 Northern Alaska, 25 Southeastern Alaska, 110 Southcentral Alaska, 65 Southwestern Alaska, 141 Southeastern Alaska, 107 graphs of, Southwestern Alaska, 137 Northern Alaska, 52 maps of, Southcentral Alaska, 94 Northern Alaska, 37 Southeastern Alaska, 129 Southcentral Alaska, 79 Southwestern Alaska, 159 Southeastern Alaska, 117 Southwestern Alaska, 147 167 table describing, Wind speed and power duration, annual Northern Alaska, 46 average, at selected stations, Southcentral Alaska, 88 discussion of, Southeastern Alaska, 126 Northern Alaska, 30 Southwestern Alaska, 156 Southcentral Alaska, 72 Southeastern Alaska, 110 Wind corridor, Southwestern Alaska, 141 definition, 10 graphs of, discussion of, Northern Alaska, 58, 60 reg ion, 12 Southcentral Alaska, 100, 102 Northern Alaska, 25 Southeastern Alaska, 132, 133 Southcentral Alaska, 65 Southwestern Alaska, 162, 163 Southeastern Alaska, 107 Southwestern Alaska, 137 Wind speed frequency, annual average, at selected stations, Wind power density classes, discussion of, table defining, 7 Northern Alaska, 30 relationship to wind speed, 6 Southcentral Alaska, 72 Southeastern Alaska, 110 Wind resource, Southwestern Alaska, 141 greatest potential in Al aska, 12 graphs of, Northern Alaska, 56 Southcentral Alaska, 98 Southeastern Alaska, 131 Southwestern Alaska, 161

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