Shanks et al. (2010) showed participants pictures from 5 categories (fruit, animals etc.), then showed them labels for the objects they had McGeoch 3-Factor Theory (1932) Emphasis on seen and asked them to imagine them. Then retrieval rather than : found that 3 Factors: Response Competition: Two or more showed them pictures again. Unbeknown to traces do not just decay with the items are potential responses to the same them, several imagined labels had not been passage of time, they are subject to interferences memory query. Altered Context: Diferent shown in the first phase. Participants thought - retroactive (learning B hinders for A) and context increases . Part Set Cueing: they had seen photos of the scenes they had proactive (learning A hinders recall for B) Access to a subset of items (e.g. fruit) does not imagined moments ago. (Underwood et al. 1950s). This suggested that help recall of the others (e.g. apple, pear, retrieval failures occur because wrong memory is pineapple etc.) Loftus et al. (1995) Lost in the Mall Asked retrieved. compete, are subject to participants if they remembered being lost in a context dependence and part set cueing. Part-Set Cueing Slamencka (1968): People mall. Then experimenters asked leading studied lists of words from semantic categories. questions about being lost in a mall and told Participants were given categories as prompts for them a story about them being lost in the mall. recall. This impaired recall. After repetition of this story,people began to remember being lost in the mall: false Accessibility vs. Availability: Tulving et al. memories. (1966) argued that on memory that is available Implanting Memories is not always accessible. He asked participants to perform and cued recall task and found better performance on cued recall. Reconstructive Memory (Retrieval) Most work was about forgetting, not errors and illusions! Until, Charles Bartlett.

Schema Theory: Memory Illusions A is organised knowledge "Remembering events one has structures stored in memory that witnessed or experienced rests is used to guide comprehension. on a process of mental There are four principles of construction that tends to build schematic processing. in errors and outright fabrications": Bartlett. War of the Ghosts (Bartlett) He hypothesised 1) Integration that the story doesn't fit in to the schema of western people. People therefore omit and Schematised Remembering this is somewhat 2) Selection (Anderson et al. 1979) Participants change information to suit schemas or beneficial as it allows for efcient storage of read story about house. Either asked to take expectancies. This is an example of cultural information that would otherwise require a lot of perspective or burglar or home buyer. Home diferences in memory. space. However, this is at the expense of buyers remembered leaky roof whereas burglars accuracy. remembered colour TV. When asked to change Four Reconstructive Errors: Omissions, perspectives, they were able to recall previously Additions, Linkages (adding reasons) and unrecalled info. (Tulving et al. Availability vs. Transformations (e.g. unfamiliar names Accessibility) changed to familiar names).

3) Interpretation (Loftus & Palmer, 1974): Misinformation efect: Participants view car This can be explained by retroactive interference accident and are given one of 5 questions using (McGeoch, Underwood et al.) diferent verbs. Participants speed estimates ranged from 40 (smashed) to 31 (contacted). This had influence on speed estimate and understanding of broken glass.

Situation Models: People develop situation 4) Abstraction (Barclay "Turtle Experiment" et models when interpreting discourse. Similar al. 1972) Participants either told turtles were on models can become confused when discourse is a log or beside a log. They tended to remember subtly diferent. the fish swimming underneath the log rather than underneath the turtles.