TS Eliot's Secretive Ambition As Poems 1919/1920

Revising a Civilization: T. S. Eliot's Secretive Ambition as Poems 1919/1920

Noriko TAKEDA

1. The collection in chiasmus world including heaven. Fundamentally, the speakers' voice is continued to the final twenty-fourth poem of T. S. Eliot's second collection of poems is the American edition, which is a synlbol ol achievement triplicate; that is, the collection has three distinct but as double dozens. hIoreover, the echoes of the voice interrelated versions, published in 1919 and 1920. reverberate in the reader's mind, all the more because First, the abridged one in pamphlet form was issued the voice is triplicate. by Leonard and Virginia Woolf at the Hogarth Press As a self-corrective bulletin, the interwar in 1919; it was simply entitled Poellzs. In February collection may be characterized by listing the 1920, two versions lollowed, each with almost the journalistic sunlmary of each of the 12 new poems: same 24 poems:' the illustrated London edition, which was entitled Ara Vu.s Prec and published by the 1 . "C;erontion7': recollection ol an old nlan facing Ovid Press,%nd the definitive New York edition, death which was named Poellzs, as with the initial 1919 2 . "Bubank with a Baedeker: Bleistein with a version, and published by Allred - A - Knopf. Cigar": decadent lile in Venice The repeated title, Poern.~, starts the circulative 3 . "Sweeney Erect": ex-combatant's leave transformation of the 191911920 collection, thereby 4 . "A Cooking Egg": aftermath in London foregrounding the oneness of the collection as a 5 . "Le Directeu": French film-maker on the Thames trinity. 6 . "Melange adultBe de tout": spying deployed Published in the interwar session, the collection 7 . "Lune de Miel": promising artist on honeymoon is unstable but fruitful as an antiwar achievement. The 8 . "The Hippopotamus": salvation today repeated reference to wars, such as the Trojan War 9 . "Ilans le Restaurant": cheap trip overseas and the Battle of Thermopylae, is combined with the 10. "Whispers of Immortality": blessing of everyday advent ol the Savior. The bilingual collection is lile dedicated to Jean-Jules Verdenal, a French army 11. "Mr. Eliot's Sunday Morning Service": revelation surgeon who died on the battlefield in 1915." The title of peace in enignlatic three words of the London edition means 12. "Sweeney Anlong the Nightingales": prayer lor "Now I pray you."' The new face in Eliot's poetry, survival Sweeney, is attributed to a real boxer, a simulation of crusader." The collection represents a tragicomedy. In The two 1920 versions are posited as identical the conflict of pessimism, sarcasm, and humor, the by Caroline Behr (89), like many other critics." This heroes of the poems, almost all of whom narrate the is perhaps because both contain almost the same poems, are not successlul but survive in the poetic poems, simultaneously sharing the major territory for 18 Nonko TAKEIIA pul~lication, England and America. There exists, evocative as the succeeding texts in ellipses. Below however, a marked difference with the book size, the the title, the epigraph is frequently long and title, the illustration, and the order of poems, in defanliliarized in various languages, rivaling the main addition to the replacing of one poem ("Ode") by a text. The contracted quatrain lorm ol the text prose poem ("Hysteria"). conceives semantic expansion. For example, a Nonetheless, the enigmatic title in Provenqal, bachelor apartment quietly turns into "snow-deep Aru V~1.sPrrc, tends to escape the average reader's Alps." A French restaurant is suddenly engulfed by recognition, thus almost invisible, as with the basic the Phoenician sea. The thenlatic flexibility is merged title of the 1920 American collection, i.e., Poems. into factuality. From everyday pictures, flashes As for the illustrations, exclusively attached to scientific relinenlent and urban sophistication. Arrr Vz~s Pvec, they are only black and white. Philosophical reasoning blends with theological soar. Moreover, though with complex figures, they From Venice to Oxford, the Latin cohabits with the represent an ornanlental expansion ol the Grst letter ol Anglo-Saxon. Simulating crossed beams, historicisnl each poem in a medieval fashion as a kind of competes with modernism. Idealism is fused into vignettes. They may be considered a reflection of the realism. The overall duality surfaces to the black-and- perplexed reader's unlocused vision at Grst sight ol white embodied by the letters and the sheets ol paper each poem of Eliot's; reputed as difficult, his poems in the self-reproductive book. The interwar collection may well intimidate the reader, and all the more under simulates a funeral altar as a self-effacing duality in the mysterious book title in Proven~al.The decorated conflict. The self-eflacernent equals, however, a letters are also confusing and attractive, with transformation for sublimation. The Trinitarian unidentifiable figures, whether workers or machines. collection's structural principle is chiasmus within Neither the title nor the vignettes may be seen as and beyond each poem. inherent in the collection itself. Then, the dazzlingly The duality, which weaves up the poetic unity, invisible Am V~1.sPPYX becorrles the American version converges itsell into the 1920 American version. With simply named Poerns, if the dillerence in the order ol the covering title, Poems, the conclusive version lines poems is not taken into consideration. up the 12 new poems with the old poems in the same In Aru Vzts Prrc, the square vignettes of alnlost number Iron1 the author's successlul collection, the same size label the poems identical and Prr&cli UM~Other Oh,servution,s,published previously replaceable, making the order unnecessary. From in 1917. another angle, the vignettes efface all the poems Eliot's bilingual 191911920 collection is not so including themselves. highly appreciated as his later reputed works The Eliot's second collection of poems may thus be Wrrstr Land and Fozw Qz/urtrts. Nevertheless, the viewed as bilurcated into the 1919 and 1920 versions, playlul collection embodies dandyism, without the latter 1920 version duplicated as two subtexts, i.e., lacking philosophical depth, which even refers to Avu Vza Pvec and Poems. Buddhist metempsychosis. Dandyism is symbolized Synlbolized by the sell-copied textual body, by "a glass of brandy," a gilt lrom a mermaid, Doris. Eliot's 191911920 collection is, in fact, characterized The semantic aura sparkled from the economized by duality for unity. The dominant form is quatrain, expression sets up the collection as a rhythmic and but the longest poem in the 1920 sequence, engaging artifact, while, at the same time, making "Gerol~tion,"begins with the 14-line stanza collstituting itself a partial symbol of avant-gardism. Sunlnled up a sonnet. Diversity contrasts with singularity. The by the initial poem "Gerontion"'~ metaphor, "a titles filled with anonymous proper nouns are as wilderness ol mirrors," the satiric collection is an Ke~isinga Civilization 19 interwar showcase ol T. S. Eliot's techniques lor evokes a broken egg, named Hunlpty Dumpty, the conscientious refinement. At the time of publication, hero ol a popular nursery rhyme: in particular, the task for defense and peace charged by the collection nlust have been pressing under the Hunlpty Dumpty sat on a wall, menace ol another World War. The Trinitarian Hunlpty Dumpty had a great [all. 191911920 collection may be qualified as symbolic in All the king's horses, the most positive way among T. S. Eliot's artworks, And all the king's men, while simultaneously condensing the features ol the Couldn't put Hunlpty together again. (Hirano 24- Eliotian poetry, as is discussed in the following 25) sections. In other words, the collection represents the poet's will in the double sense of testament and A suite of the characters in Eliot's "A Cooking Egg," ambition, foreboding another war. At its publication, such as "Lucretia Borgia," "great great aunts," and Eliot was in his early 30s, at the age still eligible for "Sir Alfred Mond," correspond to the "men" and enlistment. "horses" in the nursery rhyme, the metamorphoses of an egg. The heroine of the poem, "Pipit," is closely 2. The intertextual fixation related to the broken hero of the rhyme, repeating "pi" in her name, just like the hero's redundant name Besides the usage of two lanppages, English and "Humpty 1)umpty." Both the protagonists open the French, an extensive device lor inlposing duality in poem. Furthermore, she was sitting Iron1 the the 191911920 collection corresponds to the intertextual beginning of the poem, just like Hunlpty who "sat on superposition. Numerous quotations, picked up by a wall." In the central image ol the oval, or circular many critics, are discrete examples.' As a covering egg, the poem is a representative of the trilogic intertext, the Bible, particularly the Apocalypse with collection, foregrounding making, i.e., poiesis, through frequent suggestive numerals, should be mentioned the cooking of language made into various characters. first. The Shakespearean echo is reverberated in the The titling word, "Cooking," is ambiguous and thus 1920 sequence's second poem whose Jewish meaningful. Grammatically, it may be an adjective, or protagonist in Venice, Bleistein, overlaps the a present participle. According to Southam (75), as a merchant, Shylock. phrase, "cooking eggs are usually those which are too In the prevailing duality of the collection, the old to be eaten." The old hero, Humpty Ilumpty, is long gerontologic poem insinuates the older roots ol evoked. The poem also heightens the duality of the English literary history. The contrastive two poems, collection, spreading a constellation of historical "A Cooking Egg" and "The Hippopotamus," which figures such as Sir Philip Sidney and Coriolanus. are apparently intended for children, can be thought to Incidentally, Humpty Dunlpty is a hero who became embody the traditional nursery rhymes in reworked famous in Lewis Carroll's Thvozlgh the Looking forms: the former as an adulterated story on Humpty Glass, adopted from the nursery rhyme. The hero thus Dumpty and the latter as a twisted tale ol the jumping reinlorces duplicity, connected to mirrors. cow and dish. Concerning the first verb of "A As a riddle, the original rhyme throws the Cooking Egg," i.e., "sate," B. C. Southam takes it as question, "What is Humpty I)umpty?'The popularized "the hunlorous language ol childhood" (75). George answer is "an egg" (Hirano 25). In the same way, the Williamson sees in "The Hippopotamus" "the nayvet& reworked poem, "A Cooking Egg," makes the reader of the nursery tale" (92). think of who the heroine named Pipit is. The quatrain As lor "A Cooking Egg," the larniliar title easily poem is tacit, but intrigues with hints. She nlay be the 20 Nonko TAKEIIA speaker's nlistress and donlestic who "cook(s)" and in English, 5, particularly draws the reader's attention,

"knit (S) ," sitting "distan (t) " horn him 1)ut "upright" evoking the five elements as the constituents ol the with some pride. As "Egg" is equal to "Pipit" through world in the ancient Chinese thought ("Gogyo"). The "Hurnpty Dumpty," the title, "A Cooking Egg," can discussion on the five elenlents is detailed in section be rephrased as "A Cooking Pipit." Pipit is thus a 4. The poem, "A Cooking Egg," with the number 5 is, cook. With certain "experience," she may be in fact, an icon of fundamentals, beginning with the suspected as a former dancer and courtesan. Her first "A in the title and ending with the initials of ancestors are said to be supportive ol "Dance." The alphabet, "A.B.C.'s." The starting "Egg" in the title is speaker "bought" the everyday life with her "behind dual in yellow and white as the possibility of the male the screen." Appearing first in the poem, she is and the female, the productive origin. In the image of connected to "hontes," or disgraces, mentioned in the a broken egg, the poem is a cosmogonic piece, epigraph. Her name, "Pipit," implies a lower status, divided into the Trinitarian three parts by a suite of meaning a bird and urine.' The intertextual poem six dots, marked twice in the text. 6 equals 2 X 3. evokes the unfortunate heroines in opera, La Traviata In "The Hippopotamus," duality as principle is and Madam Butterfly. As with Pipit, each of them presented in the most readable way in the collection constitutes a household as an illegitimate partner, i.e., as a whole, taking the persuasive tone of the Bible:" "demi-mondaine" in French. Since the heroine Pipit is the contrast between a mammal in water and a church a divided self of Hunlpty Ilumpty, the speaker of the in stone. The quatrain form systematically works with poem, who shares a world with her, may be viewed as various divisions ranging lrom the senlantic contrast Hunlpty Ilumpty himself. In the collection with to the stanza in half. French poems, the scenes ol cancan are equally The ironical ascension ol the aninlal hero makes evoked. the poem a parodic lable. The picture of the hero The reader is induced to clarify the heroine's hippopotamus's salvation in heaven is comical but far- situation, though the quatrain poem only juxtaposes [etched, so that the reader nlay doubt, if not reject, the the stanza lacking the binding and conclusive filth realization. The hippo with an imposing weight is verse. In sum, Pipit is a riddle, replacing an answer, supposed to be distant from the airy virgins in heaven, "Egg," with every possibility ol metanlorphoses vis-a- who kissed the animal, according to the poem. The vis the reader who has not witnessed the provenance described church does not seen1 eflective for of either Pipit or the poem, "A Cooking Egg." The salvation, bathed in earthly thrive. heroine nlay be an actress in embryo. The text is in a The reader is invited to ameliorate the semantic circulation without any solution, paralleling unsatisfying situation, all the more because the poem the titling egg's oval form. What the reader can do is appears a reworked text of the nursery rhyme on the only to speculate. The econonlized quatrain poem illusory flight ol a cow, a dish, and a spoon. The weaves up the tantalizing veil of evocations. The watery hero, hippopotamus, may be viewed as a quatrain form is a topological transformation of a transformation of the milky cow in the rhyme: circle. The abstract numbers, which are actually Hey diddle diddle, mentioned in the enumerating poem, "A Cooking The cat and the fiddle, Egg," are 2 (in "We two"), 5 (in "five per cent"), and The cow jumped over the moon; 7 (in "Seven Sacred Trances"), in addition to 30 (in The little dog laughed "l'an trentiesme") in the paratextual epigraph in To see such sport, French. Anlong them, the prime number rnanilested And the dish ran away with the spoon. (Hirano Ke~isinga Civilization 21

think of its relation to "Genesis," the adventures ol God. It nlay also be a combination ol "Cknesis," The 191911920 collection nlakes an engaging "Creation," and "gentile." The religious number 7 is blend ol new and old. The textual doubleness is, repeated in the collection. 7 equals 2 + 5. however, merged into a single word such as the title As one ol the longest poems, "Gerontion" is a in a word of a poem, which is represented by the showcase for the collection; in other words, in the enigmatic title ol the long poem, "C;erontion." poem, the characteristics of the collection are intensively displayed. The quick change ol scenes is 3. The significance of "Gerontion," the represented by the juxtaposition of verbs: "keeps the first poem kitchen, makes tea, 1 Sneezes." Philosophical reasoning is economized in paradox: "Unnatural vices 1 Are The interpretation of the 191911920 collection is fathered by our heroism." directed by the crowning poem of an inlposing length, This initial poem is lengthened, embodying an "Gerontion." The poem is the longest among the 12 arboreal development, which is discussed in detail in new poems in the first sequence of the 1920 the next section. collection in two versions. The second sequence consists of the well-known old poems from the 4. The burial of five elements precedent 1917 collection. The long poem is not seen in the abridged 1919 version. Each poem of the 191911920 collection may be The belated title as a word, "Gerontion," is a viewed as a poetic expansion of each of the five basic success lor relreshment. Though with the heavy elements, i.e., "tree," "fire," "earth," "metal (-gold)," classical sound, the nleaning of the word is dilficult to and "water," which were considered to make up a grasp. It immediately catches the interpreter's cosmos in circulation and succession by the ancient attention, without giving hinllher a solution. The word Chinese concept. Furthermore, each poem can be appears a private proper noun, though tending toward thought to be developed by the combination of each abstraction with the suffix "ion." "Gerontion" is element and the omniscient but invisible element, attractively mysterious, seeming like a compound. "water." The inside repetition of "on" contributes to a doubling. Typically in the Grst 1920 sequence, the Nonetheless, the word is singular, embodying the syntactical flow of each poem is frequently blocked principle of the dual 191911920 collection. by the oxynloronic use of philosophical terms (e.g. "Gerontion" is orally suppressing, but semantically "juvescence," "Defunctive," and "Polyphiloprogenitive"), promoting. insinuating proper nouns (e.g. "Burbank," "Madame lJnder the resounding title, the poem hastens to Blavatsky," and "Piccarda de Donati"), and abrupt offer the reader some hints for clarifying the meaning colloquialism (e.g. "merds," "ham," and "droppings") of "Gerontion." It is legitimate to relate the word, and the repetition of the same words (e.g. the iterated sounding like a proper noun, to "an old man" who "give" in the Grst announcing poem, "Gerontion"). appears at the beginning of the poem. Many critics Generally, the sentence structure of the poems is agree to the meaning of the word "Gerontion" as "a simple, taking the form of A isldo B without any little old man," referring to the Greek etymology."' sul~ordinateclause. The directing model is "Here I Then, the word may be viewed as a transformed am," the first declaration of the long poem French word "gkronte," meaning an old comedian. "Gerontion," with the possibility of slight modulation. The Grst abrupt proper noun also makes the reader The continuation of sentences is olkn lorced by the 22 Nonko TAKEIIA coordinate conjunctions, "and," "l~ut,"and "lor." The poetry corresponds to language within language. dominant form ol the collection, i.e., the octosyllabic Poetry represents, in fact, duality as doul~ledensity in quatrain, restricts the syntax, which is viewed as the signifier and the signified. "angular" by Willianlson (89). The restrictiveness ol Anlong the three versions of Eliot's 191911920 the quatrain lorrn is also qualified as "epigrammatic," collection, the definitive American edition pushes the "smart (and) jaunty," and "fireworks" (Ward 41, 65, reader to trace the movement of the five dissinlulated and 52). Moreover, the quatrain is only a part ol a elements-words, the seeds of the surface text, with the sonnet, a synonym of concision." The octosyllable is self-reflexive and theoretical title, Poems, and its shorter than the popular decasyllable in pentameter. advancing len@h of 24 poems. Despite, or rather due to the simplicity, the The first poem of the American version, sentence is recurrently frozen by the above-mentioned "Gerontion," may be considered the developed self-assertive words. The big words are, nonetheless, combination of the first element, "tree," and the sinlultaneously enhancing thenlselves beyond the overall "water." The tree-like poem enlbodies the old reader's reach, because of their shocking effects. It is man named Gerontion's recurrent and illogical the meaningful adjectives, such as "peevish," thought, which ironically simulates avant-gardism in "miasrnal," "piaculative," and "controversial," that upheaval and disorder. The repeated adjective, "dry," frequently appear in their parasitic form and try to paradoxically emphasizes the existence of water. The keep the lyrical movement of the poems against the anti-hero's branched thought is backed up by the five blocking words. The prototype ol the connective senses, which are actually mentioned in the poem. adjectives is "etherized" in the first poem of the Gerontion is "A dull head among windy spaces." second sequence, "The Love Song of J. Alfred Trees are, in fact, enveloped by air. Also in the poem, Prufrock." The most larnous development is "the the personified tree sheds "tears." With the suffix for cruellest" in the succeeding The Wustr Land, covering abstraction, "ion," the anti-hero "Gerontion" pul~lishedin 1922. The adjectival connection sounds, represents all the mortal mankind. The synlbolic however, juvenile. "wrath-bearing tree" with "tears" thus means The accunlulated words of saturated meanings Gerontion. The connection of the anti-hero and the give the image of being entangled and lused into a element "tree," a nlaterial for construction, is new general word, a synonym of "Poems," the reinforced by the expression, "An old nlan in a generic title of the collection. The author may intend draughty house." According to J. C. Ransom, a sul~version, or at least a defamiliarization ol "Gerontion is of the seed of Adam" (169). The old everyday language, through the scrambling of words hero, who is "driven" by the wind ("the Trades"), is a in the 191911920 collection. In a sense, the transformation of three mortal characters, "I>e superposition ol the surface words, which are actually Bailhache, Fresca, Mrs. Cammel," supposedly cremated used in the poems, and the nascent words, which are and "whirled" in "fractured atoms." The hero, produced by the reader's interpretation, corresponds Gerontion, is thus an atom, that is, an element. to that of the surlace words and the presumably Furthermore, the first protagonist ol the opening hidden words representing the five Chinese elements. poem, which simulates Genesis with the repeated The combination of the textual actualization and the biblical term, "word," represents the first element, reading potential enlbodies a part of the prevailing "tree." dualism of the collection. Generally, a poem may be The second poem with the titling word, "Cigar," viewed as a word within a word, as is suggested by represents "fire." The obscure epigraph in Latin Paul Valery. According to Valkry's definition (611), reinlorces the image of fire with the ending term, Ke~isinga Civilization 23

"lurnus," meaning smoke. The ungranlmatical and appears after a suite of descriptive sentences. The most emphasized expression in the poem, "Lights, word develops into "C;old" at the end ol the stanza. lights," definitely connects the poem to the second Another remarkable word, "trumpets," in a secluded element, "fire." The overall element, "water," is sentence, rhymes with "crumpets" appearing two expanded, translorrned as the Venetian canals. The lines below. The nletallic "trumpets" nlay thus be reminiscence of the first element, "tree," lingers in the assimilated with the sweets made from egg, i.e., title, taking a vegetal lorrn of paper, "Baedeker." The ''crumpets." Moreover, in the Apocalypse, trumpets anaphoric title loregrounds the second-ness ol the are presented in the image ol gold. The yellow egg is poem with the repeated letter, "B," which is thereby golden. The title of the poem, "A Cooking capitalized three times. Egg," is a camouflage ol "A Golden Egg." In the next third poem, the speaker-hero, The image of water is noticeable from the designated as "me," is equal to a "shore" and the beginning. The titling word, "Cooking," designates "rocks" in the appositional relation, thus representing the water in the kitchen. In the epigraph, the French the third element, "earth." The titling hero, verb, "ay beues," meaning "drank," is seen. The "Sweeney," is, in fact, a human figure as an earthly word, "Heaven," repeated throughout the poem, leads lump, according to Genesis. At the center of the to tears. The "snow-deep Alps" are also mentioned, poem, the Emersonian maxim, which is marked by suggesting the continuous metamorphosis of water. parentheses, reinforces the connection of the earth At the end, tears flood out from "weeping multitudes." and the hunlans with the expression, "The lengthened The next filth poem embodies the concluding shadow of a man." In the epigraph, the conglomeration element, "water," with the juxtaposition of short lines ol earth, "the rocks," predonlinates the other for the image of the flowing river, the Thames. The maltreated elements, "the trees" and "all," with the poem is in French, thus invisible to the nlonolingual "groan," the directing voices. Concurrently, the reader. A suite of scenes presented by the poem is earthly hero, "Sweeney," is loregrounded with the deployed along the water: the river Thames and its upright position lrorn the very beginning of the poem, drain ("6gout"). The poetic world is filled with air, as being "Erect" in the title. B. G. Lockerd, Jr. which is stunk by the protagonist, "Le 1)irecteur." indicates the title as echoing a "scientific designation In the sixth French poem, the speaker-hero nlay for mankind, horno rrectus" (131). be viewed as a translorrnation of the element, "tree," The covering element, "water," manifests itself neighboring water: he is situated in an oasis and on both at the beginning and the ending ol the poem in the beach ("cbtes") . Sinlulating vegetal propagation, the form of "shore," "sal volatile," and "brandy." The he continuously changes his job. All the occupations evaporating salt, or "sal volatile," confirms the are, however, related to paper: the reading professor, coalition ol the element, "earth," and the element, the philosopher, the lecturer, the writing journalist, "water," with the biblical implications. The final and the banker with 11otes. The powerful transfor~nation heroine, "Doris," foretells the coming of the next is reflected in the punning words: the covering golden poem: her name "Doris" includes gold, or "or" "piste," which evokes the botanical "pistil" and the in French. abrupt interjection, "tra la la," echoing the word The fourth poem, "A Cooking Egg," represents "tree." The final puzzle, "h/lozambique," represents the fourth element, "metal (-gold)," sumnled up by the the concentration of the elenlent "tree" as a lormer expression, "the penny world." In the poem, the British colony, or plantation. oxynloronic word, "penny," is loregrounded most by In this poem, which is the first one of the second the first interrogative sentence, which abruptly chain of five elements, the collection's structural 24 Nonko TAKEIIA principle of chiasmus is typically rendered, taking the reinlorces the image of metal (-gold); the highlight is first unconventional expression: "En Arnerique, tin ("etain [sic]") in the shipwrecked cargo. The professeur; 1 En Angleterre, journaliste; I." stanza is revised for the fourth metal(-gold) part of The next "Lune de Miel," the second poem in Thr Wa.ste Land" the second chain of the five elements, foregrounds the The prevailing image of water, successively image of fire, presenting a newly-married couple in transformed as a rainy episode with a drooling dog, passion. Their passion is in two meanings, i.e., love the waiter's saliva, and hot water for bath, finally and sulering. They are on a poor and troublesome expands as the Phoenicien sea. honeymoon. The ambivalence is embodied by the The next piece, "Whispers of Immortality," titling moon, "Lune" in French, as an illuminated presents the endless transformation of water lrom the mirror of the cosmic fire, the sun. Another word in airy "Whisper" in the title to the physical "marrow," the title, "Miel," meaning honey, is a source of the superimposed on the picture of corpses dissolved into image of water, which flows throughout the poem, the earth. The watery move threads the words for transformed as the passionate couple's sweat evaporation: "Whispers," "marrow," "pneumatic," ("sueur") and the strong wind ("tournoie le vent"). "effluence," "Distil," and "smell." At the end of the The eighth poem, "The Hippopotamus," poem, the blood rephrased as "lot" circulates in the foregrounds the image of earth, presenting the animal human body. The word "lot" is a substitute for water hero sinking in "the mud." He is personified as a as a colloquial expression for a body liquid, according noticeable lump of "flesh and blood." According to to An E~zcj~clopuedicSzqq>lernent to tlzr Dictionu?;~j,fi,r Genesis, the man was made from earth. The the Grnrval Rerrdc>v. humanness of the poem is strengthened by the The second-to-last poem, entitled "Mr. Eliot's appearance of "saints" and "virgins" at the ending ol Sunday Morning Service," represents the first the poem. The mortal hero's counterpart, "the True element, "tree," reminding the reader of the principle Church," is said to be Gml, placed "upon a rock." The of duality lor unity, with the inlposing weight of apocalyptic scene ol the hero's rising to heaven is books, mentioned or suggested: Tlzr Jew of' Multa by filled with the image of water, originating from the Christopher Marlow, the Bible with "the Word," and purifying "Blood ol the Lamb." In contrast, the the books by "Mr. Eliot." Books are conlposed of church is covered with "mist" on the earth. The paper, which is made horn vegetable fibers. The combination of earth and water is stabilized by "the expression, "Sunday h4orning Service," and the damp savannas," Iron1 which the earthly hero is risen repeated word, "school," add the image ol numerous to heaven. books. Parts of the Bible are subsequently developed The following poem in French, "Dans le into the religious paintings and the euphoric but Restaurant," makes up for the speaker-hero's spoiled everyday scenes of insects ("bees") and Sweeney. dinner with the brightness of metal(-gold). The Following the coinage of the first lengthened adjective, waiter, who displeased the speaker with pointless "Polyphiloprogenitive," the vegetal development is chat, was compared to a lork ("fourchette"), a nietallic extolled by the expression, "Blest ollice," which tool in an ironical enhancement. Aggressiveness designates the flowers' reproductive function. The connects the waiter to a fork. Lockerd qualifies the image of water still asserts itself with a suite of waiter as "grotesque" (136). The word, "fourche~e," words, "Drilt," "mensual (menstrual)," "water," is emphasized most in the poem; it is in the first "Stirring," and "bath." apposition, foregrounded by the commas, at the center The last twelfth poem in the first sequence, ol the curse to the waiter. The final far-[etched stanza "Sweeney Anlong the Nightingales," lines up various Ke~isinga Civilization 25 characters in a starlight lrorn "Orion" and "the Dog," the wintry "smoke and log," turned into her props, sinlulating a curtain call. With the first capitals and cups of tea, as the nletamorphoses of the donlinant the semantic flamboyance, the stellar names are water. enlphasized nlost in the poem, thus foregrounding the The Glteenth poem, "Preludes," spreads an element, "lire." The stars are "burning gas," according infiniteness ol water, which even cradles the night to the (1.t-ford Advrmcrd Lrrrrner '.F Dictionrrry (2000 dreams in human brains. The poem opens with the ed.). As cosmic torches, they are sophisticated in the world flooded by "a gusty shower," which is closed later Four Quurtets."' According to Southam, Orion is for a storage of "fuel." The fuel is in the image of "one of the brightest in the night sky" (90).Just like liquid as a target of the final stanza, which begins the previous poem, the reappearing hero, Sweeney, is with the imperative, "Wipe," for removing moisture. compared to a bird, "Among the Nightingales," as the The sixteenth poem, "Rhapsody on a Windy title suggests. Sweeney may be viewed as a phoenix, Night," follows a somnambulist's vision mingled with this reviving firebird. The revival is actualized at the "memory." Memory is alnlighty as a "key," ending of the poem: The Greek hero, Agamemnon, originating from "geranium," a kind of tree. The rises from his "shroud." The poem and the first flowering plant, "geranium," may be viewed as a sequence are closed in the inlage ol flooding water dissinlulated heroine of the poem, like the hyacinth from Agamenmon's blood and the nightingales' girl in The Waste Land. The titling word, "Rhapsody," "liquid droppings." Representing a source of life, etymologically means "to stitch." The thread for water promotes the revival ol the dead hero, besides stitching should thus be vegetal. staining his "shroud." The prevailing element, "water," follows the In addition, the nightingales' flowing songs are main element, "tree," concentrated as the snlell ol related to water, because they "sang within the bloody "Cologne," conling Iron1 a "rose." The water asserts wood." Their song may have watered the wood for it itself in the word of foreign origin, "Cologne," of to be "bloody," or wet. Moreover, the covering song which the first letter is preponderantly capitalized. overlaps with the "liquid droppings." The next piece, "Morning at the Window," pops The second sequence of 12 old poems begins up an everyday scene in the sunlight, which is with the earth poem, "The Love Song of J. Allred sumnlarized as "breakfast plates." Thus, the sunlight Prufrock." With the explicative word, "then," in the lrorn the cosnlic fire is the key for weaving up the first sentence, the poem is around the speaker-hero's poem. The residue of the night lingers in the "fog," decision to advance on the "streets," that is, on earth. wetting both inside and outside the hunlan body. The designation, "Song," in the title suggests the Concerning the wet soul in this piece, Lockerd points spreading of the element, "water," continued from the out Heraclitus's connection between the soul and last poem and beautified with nlernlaids at the end ol "aethereal fire" (129). this earth poem. The epigraph in Italian also connects Beginning with the title that includes the place the previous poem to this poem, presenting the words name, "Boston," the following poem is based on the spoken by Count Guido da Montefeltro in Dante's element, "earth." The earthliness is deployed by the Inferno, according to Southam (37);the Count is in a protagonists of the poem, "The readers," mentioned prison of flame in the underworld. first and compared to "a field," as well as by the The next poem, "Portrait of a Lady," represents word, "street," repeated three times in the short metal(-gold), featuring a rich, old woman who causes framework of the poem. At the end of the piece, the a "hanmlering" and "mechanical" noise in the suite of incarnated earth, "Kochefoucauld," "I," and speaker's brain. The backdrop for her aggression is "Cousin Harriet," sublinlates earthliness. Engulfing 26 Nonko TAKEIIA the earthly hunlans compared to "corn," the onlniscient speaker, "I," in the poem as a conversation between water exercises its power as the "Sway(ing)" "wind" the two. from the beginning of the poem, which is its The image of water is hidden in the qualification sunlmarizing part. to the heroine, the moon: "sentimental." According to The following golden piece reports the death ol Kc~nkyushaJ,sNew E~zglish-Japunrse Dictionu~y,fi)r the rich heroine, "Aunt Helen," leaving a fair amount the Grnrval Reau'cw (2nd ed.), the expression "be ol property. Her old treasure is synlbolized by a sentimental" is equalized to "be easily moved to German "clock" on the "mantelpiece." The clock is tears." defamiliarized by the international qualification, The final poem, "La Figlia Che Piange," expands "Dresden." "Mantel" nlay be viewed as an anagram lrorn a golden maxim, "weave the sunlight in your of "metal." The image of water is foregrounded at the hair," placed at the beginning of the poem. The center of the poem, because the protagonist's action, shining hair with sunlight should be blond, i.e., "wiped," is featured by a dash. The image ol liquid golden. The first imperative, which starts the poem, naturally evokes mournful tears. reinforces the image of superlative, together with the In the next poem, the heroine, "Cousin Nancy," golden maxim placed two lines below. The second explores the "barren" land, lostering it in the image ol imperative, appearing just below the first one, water. Her cultivation takes the milking "cow- suggests the hidden water kept in "a garden urn." The pasture" as an outpost. The prevailing water is image of water is also contained in the poem's Italian crystallized as "glazen shelves," the source ol energy title, which means "The Daughter Who Cries." The for her dauntless exploration. Concerning the title shows a combination of a golden girl and explored land, Lockerd takes the earth as the "element transparent tears. that symbolizes solidity" (117). The collection ends with the last golden poem The poem entitled "Mr. Apollinax" foregrounds and returns to the first tree poem through the invisible the titling hero backed up by the element, "tree," stream of water, following the movement ol the five successively transfigured into tea in the "tinkl(ing)" peer elements. The distril~utionand circulation ol the "teacups," "birch-trees," "shrubbery," "a slice of elements in the American version emphasize the lemon," and a "macaroon," i.e., the cookie with Trinitarian unity of the 191911920 collection. The coconut or almond, the vegetal ingredient, according collection secretively clainls that a poem is a single to the O,xfii,vu' Advrmceu' Lerrvnev '&S Dictionary (2000 and expanded word.' l Simultaneously, the omniscience ed.). The connection of the vegetal and the liquid is of the element "water" suggests soothing tears. The represented by the "seaweed" that adorns the hero's meaning of the conclusive title of the collection, hair. The sea water is compared to the mental force Poems, is dual: the collection shows what the poem emitted lrom the hero in hysteric laughter. is, and at the same time, the word "poem" is a In the next poem, "Hysteria," the anti-heroine's synonym of "peace." In the collection, tears are shed explosive laughter is connected to fire. Her "teeth," by everyone, i.e., "weeping multitudes." The along which the laughter conles out, are conlpared to establishment of global peace needs every hand in "accidental stars," the cosmic fire. The word "tea" is democracy represented by the cooperative five repeated twice for quenching the dishonored scene. elements. The second-to-last poem, "Conversation C;alante," emphasizes humanness, thus earthliness, by personifying 5. The literary appropriation of surrealism the heroine, "the moon," as "the eternal humorist." Moreover, the heroine is the interlocutor ol the The 191911920 collection enlbodies the ideal Ke~isinga Civilization 27 turned into the real in the first place, and subsequently rnold. "The snloky candle end of time 1 Declines" is vice versa, in its image of circulative unity. The ideal easily rephrased as "The smoky candle out of time l means lanppage, a suite of words. Fundamentally, Declines." The problem is that the reported facts are poetry is a product of language. Eliot's surreal not connected to each other by the contextual collection loregrounds the basics ol poems. The description. It seems a particle ol an invisible whole, collection's mimetic picture with an ex-boxer, paralleling each poem as a development of each of the Sweeney, is ironic but vivacious as a parodic farce. It five Chinese elements. In the first poem, the sell- criticizes the interwar society, sinlultaneously trying reflexive expression, "lractured atoms," is nieaninglul, to enhance it. It is a requiem for suppression and designating components of corpses. salvation. The partialness in each poem is visually The visual art developed at that time, such as conveyed by the quick exchange of flashy scenes. For surrealist paintings and cinema in black and white, example, in the initial poem, "Gerontion," just after suggests itself as an avant-gardist source ol the sudden advent of Christ in the lorrn of a tiger, inspiration for the collection. Influenced or not, the three kinds of trees abruptly appear. The trees are abstract leaps of the 1920 poems evoke the immediately followed by anonymous people, who are contemporary American painter, Georgia O'Keele's juxtaposed in puzzling actions. At the end, poetic deformation. The Eliot collection represents an Gerontion's speculations are unexpectedly presented experiment for setting up an avant-gardist expression, as a spider-web. In the next poem, the second hero, but the expression is entirely verbal for conveying Bleistein, quietly replaces the first one with an messages. The messages are nonetheless apparently anagranlnlatic name, Burbank, like a twin. In the final lar-[etched, inlposing a task of interpretation on the poern ol the 1920 sequence, the obscure hero, Sweeney, reader. is identified with the celebrity, Agarnemnon. The The difficulty of the 191911920 collection dazzling change of visuality makes the reader resides in its nletonynlical structure. The Grst unconsciously accept the nletonynlical structure ol sequence ol 12 new poems typifies the stylistic the collection. The quatrain lorm evokes a screen. feature, while the second sequence of old poems from It should be noted that, despite the quick change the 1917 collection works as an archetypal basis in its of scenes, the whole collection is kept in serenity. The lyrical stream and conceptual detachment. In the Grst protagonists of the poems do not fling themselves to sequence, on the whole, each sentence is simple and violence. The sedentary ex-boxer, Sweeney, stands up granmlatical. It is also mimetic, though nuanced with only to shave himself. His counterpart, Agamenmon, a gradation of decipherable metaphors, mythological is dead in the woods. The dramatic apex is or exotic. For instance, in the eleventh poem, "Bees" represented by a poor honeymoon of an anonymous quickly correspond to "sutlers" in the restricted couple. framework of the poem. The metaphoric density, or In the collection, the stimulation caused by the "complexity" in P. Reinau's term (52), stabilizes each sharpened point feels real, which imposes the word. In parallel, the poems accunlulate mock lacts as nletonynlical structure ol the collection, i.e., the dry, or indifferent reports. The qualification "dry" is a reinforcement of the pointed end. The forceful key concept, repeated at the head and the end of the minimum is symbolized by the anonymous hero Grst long poem, "Gerontion." The dry locution Sweeney's "razor on his leg." In other words, the sometimes causes slips of tonppes, such as the ellipsis description of small but reflexive actions such as of sul~jects,1)ut the slips are understandable. The shaving, gashing, scratching, drooping, taking a bath, juxtaposition ol nouns does not destroy the granlnlatical and drawing a stocking up, gives an impression that it 28 Nonko TAKEIIA actually touches the reader's body with more or less purified twice ("Brandy"). In the collection, the word sensation. This corresponds to the "nervous shock" in "brandy" is enhanced with the qualification "neat." It the collection's own vocabulary. The whirling is also shining in the heroine's brightness: her name, "atoms" and the epileptic lits also draw the reader's Doris, includes the French word meaning "gold," i.e., attention to the minuscule outpost with stimulation. "or." The positive feeling is given by a paralyzing "coffee- The poetics in brandy represents both pain in cup" and "a glass of brandy." The relerence to the war and asceticism after war. In the collection, brandy saved money, i.e., "penny," "Exchequer Bond," and is modestly shown in a glass held by the golden "actionnaires (stockholders)," is tickling. The collection heroine. The glass is, however, powerful, offering simulates a poisonous medicine. twolold salvation lrom brandy, i.e., the wine purified The main characters in the collection are twice. featured in the action that fixes them to the bottom: The frequent reference to degrading scandals, Sweeney "straddled," Pipit sat, the honeymooners rest such as fire, fits, and adultery, contributes to impose in the blanket, the hippo dwells "in the mud," and the metonymic structure of the collection, lingering in Phlkbas drowned. The oppression of the protagonists the shocked reader's memory. is unexpected and shocking, thus difficult to At the time of pul~lication, the insinuating overcome. The stabilizing action makes the simple particles presumably caused the contemporary reader sentence structure of the collection, A isldo B, nightmarish sensations. The short reference to money, unshakable, by sinlultaneously inlposing the single particularly "Exchequer Bond," evokes the local war verb, this signifier of the action, which is to be written actualized by transcontinental capitals accumulated in down. In the collection, the verb is destined to be the global penetration of cash flow. The burning of a heavy lrom an early stage. In the second sentence ol princess's "shuttered barge" suggests a crime lor "Gerontion," the echoing verb, "fought," stands murder or insurance, which may lead to an independently after a conima without any complement international conflict. The sudden fall of "Spanish like a tombstone. The sell-suflicient verb promotes cape" on the ex-boxer Sweeney opens a gate to Asia, the disconnection in the syntactic continuity, thereby warning the reader of World War I1 and atomic making each word separate from each other. The verb bombs. Nevertheless, the tacit reference does not is lundamentally lor connection with influential lorce reveal historical facts hidden behind its suggestive toward neighboring terms in syntax. The seclusion of words. The reader is given the possibility to overcome each component of the sentence is typically expressed the challenging visions, whet her obscene or annihilating. by the difficult nouns, which are "dry" and "stiff" in The reader is riveted to the business of real life, the collection's vocabulaly, simulating stuffed specimen: this seemingly trivial but the most pressing metonymy, for example, "epicene," "vertebrate," and "league." in the apparently avant-gardist text in upheaval. Each word as a metonymy is both ethereal and Fundamentally, language represents everyday-ness, dense, embodying, as it were, the aesthetics of used commonly. The circular unity of the collection is brandy. The term "brandy," which appears alter a ascribed to the reader's concentration on living heroine's bath in the third poem, concentrates the hislher own daily life. The first directing poem, which characteristics of the 191911920 collection in duality: is the recollection of an old man facing death, painful auto-sublimation through auto-re-creation in restrains the interpreter's irresponsible digression danger of sadomasochism. The collection compared throughout the collection. The name "Gerontion" to the alcohol represents, in fact, sophistication and leads to "gukrison," meaning recovery. The intransitive smartness. Brandy is the distilled wine, which is verb, "fought," which is mysteriously repeated twice Ke~isinga Civilization 29 at the beginning ol the poem, echoes the altermath ol new society after war, or "cultiver notre jardin" in the

World War I . The seclusion is pleasant, though the enlightenment thinker Voltaire's terms. The elfects of reader stays masochistically docile. The oral sequence the collection are endless, by way of the reader's ol the poem is rhythmical, giving many tongue deconstructive interpretation. What can be unaniniously twisters such as "Blistered in Brussels," "The red- deduced from the collection is, at least, the message eyed scavengers," and "Polyphiloprogenitive." The that the ideal produces the real. In the dualist poetic sound is also conflictive. principle, the schizophrenic poems conceal the The text presents a nlosaic of everyday scenes, ordinary message. Ordinariness is a characteristic ol each of which is rendered in a sophisticated but modernist art, the foregrounding of the present, or here- comprehensible way, though the need ol dictionaries and-now. Concurrently, surrealisnl is a loregrounding is suggested by Reinau (52).For example, in the tenth of ordinariness. The 191911920 collection is an poem, the decay of the dead is eclipsed only by the angelic arrow for directing the reading community. metaphorical swell, "Daffodil bulbs." In the next lJsing language, this first medium ol human poem, the respectable Greek letters represent the communication, the collection secretively endeavors sedative effects of religious routines. Secluded in the to renew culture, which is yet to be human-centered. small Sranlework lor delanliliarization, the ordinariness Language is attached to the human brain in the lorm becomes attractive, as if in "1)aguerreotypes and of knowledge, the habit of neurosis. Culture cannot silhouettes" in the fourth golden poem, "A Cooking go beyond the framework of humanness, destined to Egg." re-creation. It is thus only human beings thenlselves The reader is thereby induced to complete the that can save human beings. whole picture of everydayness, filling in gaps among the nlosaic scenes. For instance, the Russian beauty, 6. Making a new culture through Grishkin, should be married to somebody, but not to search of others and translations the "Brazilian jaguar." A suite of scenes in the circular collection, which fill up the dualistic The 191911920 collection represents a symbol ol collection, paradoxically culminate with the decayed newness, shooting metonymical shocks. Moreover, dead for revival. The hopeful scenes as representing the dominant duality in conflict makes the whole partial revival sadistically motivate the secluded collection a lurnace ol incessant regeneration. reader to active construction. The circulation changes A solid model for re-creation is not presented in into linear advancenlent under the power ol suppression, the implicit collection. Nevertheless, its mosaic the collection's other movement, concurrently with scenes of life emit light for advancement, embodying the poems in syntactical progression. The advancement the possibility of survival in the collection's circular is accelerated by the voluntary reader's world-making. movement. The pacifying collection is, and must be, The square quatrain squeezes its verses both modest but challenging. vertically (or semantically) and horizontally (or The stimulant hut ambiguous collection syntactically) to push forth a sumnlarizing word. paradoxically seeks for the reader, its closest other, The 191911920 after-war collection directs him for it to be established as a meaningful artwork. The or her to re-create everyday life. The romantic leap of collection in need simultaneously represents dying artlul illusion is suppressed. The collection thus soldiers on the battlefield. The text's desire lor the seems, in a sense, weak as an artwork, but it is a interpreting other is seen in the enumeration of proper requiem aiming for survival. nouns including Gerontion, Sweeney, Pipit, and The reader is subsequently pushed to construct a Madame Blavatsky. The collection needs the reader's 30 Nonko TAKEIIA interpretation, i.e., translation in C. S. Peirce's by the mysterious numbers, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 7, which concept for its own survival." In the overall are presented on parade in the golden quatrain, "A circulation, the collection grows meaningful more and Cooking Egg." The poem also evokes the oval zero. more, gathering increased readers' interpretations. The abstract numerals are bare, inviting any The collection aims at becoming a word charged with concretization, for instance, the development into the meanings, created by the cooperation of the author, five Chinese elements. The concretization makes the the text, and the reader. The biblical word for reader innovative, while translation approaches salvation is mentioned lour times in the 1920 creation. In this world of recycle, creation is basically sequence of the American edition: twice in small translation. letters in the first poem, "C;erontion," and twice with The circulative collection aims at complete unity an initial capital letter in the second-to-last poem, as endless peace and a pacified globe. It also means "Mr. Eliot's Sunday Morning Service." The circular that the human always stays human, and not beyond, collection, which is generally in the quatrain lorrn, is on this earthly ball destined to self-rejuvenation in the intended to be transformed into a single word: word limitedness of recycle. as a conceptual framework that conceives any unified The collection is between the author's two major verbal signs, whether it be nouns, verbs, or adjectives, works, Prz!fj*ock und Other OI~.srrvutions(1917) and including the readers' interpretations and the readers The Waste Land (1922), tending for both. The themselves. Both the stuffed term and the metonymical Prufrock poems compose the second sequence of the structure symbolize the collection seeking for an 191911920 collection. The long incantational poem in almighty word which represents an eternal individual. collage, The Waste Land, may be viewed as a The collection is a restricted but erasable canvas for unification of the 191911920 poems with oral weight. re-creation. Without presenting any glorious happenings, As an antiwar work, the collection relates itself to the the collection concentrates on the sketch of everyday musicalized verse, Old Possz~~n'.~Book of' Prrrcticul scandals. With repeated relerences to Christianity, the Cut.s (1939). The Book Cuts is an implicit protest modest collection embodies a white book allowing against World War 11, loregrounding the image of endless, if not Sisyphean, re-creation for salvation. water for tears and catharsis in a tragicomical setting, The curious repetition of bath scenes also draws just like the 191911920 collection.'" emptied sacredness with utmost potential Ior innovation. As a writer, T. S. Eliot made a continuous elort The collection represents a new formation, while to re-create, or revise human life, this tragicomical being sinlultaneously a re-creation ol cultural activity which is synonymous with culture, through a heritage. The saturated duality in the poems claims symbol-making named poetry. that the human creation is both a new making and a reworking, i.e., translating. It is new, because it Notes occupies new space in an incessant flow of time. It is old, because it is made of existing materials by the 1 According to J. E. Miller Jr. (343),Aru VZIAPvec human beings in a monistic line ol life. The was pul~lishedin early February 1920, and Poems collection, finally named Poems, is a reconsideration in late February of the same year. and definition of making, i.e., poiesis: making is 2 The initial title Arrr Vzn Prrc was later modified inseparable lrorn, or rather, continued to, translating. to Am Vos Prec. The collection aims for a new establishment, both 3 The biographical information refers to Gordon cultural and human, after the destructive World War. 52 and 137. The hints lor translationlinterpretation are given 4 The translation is by Miller (343). Ke~isinga Civilization 31

5 B. C. Southanl refers to Conrad Aiken's Carroll, Lewis. Tizrocrgh the Looking-G1u.s~.Tokyo: suggestion that "Sweeney is based upon the ex- The Hokuseido Press, 1976. pugilist . . . with whom the poet took boxing Drahble, Margaret, and Jenny Stringer, eds. The lessons at Boston" (71). Concise 0~fi)ru'Conlpunion to English Litrmture. 6 See MacCabe 28, Keinau 81, Willianlson 87, and Rev. ed. Oxlord and New York: Oxford lJniversity Drabble and Stringer 183. Drahble and Stringer Press, 1996. posit the publication year of the collection as 1919, Eliot, T. S. Am Vcr.s Prec. London: The Ovid Press, thereby neglecting, rather than assimilating, the 1920. succeeding 1920 two editions. The Coniplrtr Poenis and PluyLs. London: Faber 7 See, for example, Southarn, Lockerd, and and Faber, 1969. Williamson. Poellzs. New York: Knopf, 1920.

8 According to the O.yfi>rd Advrrncrd Lrurnrv '.F Poems. Richmond, Eng.: The Hogarth Press, 1919. Dictionu~;~:,,(2000 ed.), "pipit" means "a snlall "C;ogyo." Kokztgo duijitm. 1981 ed. brown bird with a pleasant song." Omitting the Gordon, Lyndall. T. S. Eliot. New York and London: final consonant "t" in "pipit," the rest corresponds W. W. Norton & Company, 1998. to "urine" in colloquial French. Hirano, Keiichi. "Genshi to kaisetsu." Mother Goo.sr. 9 David Ward takes the poem, "The Hippopotamus," Vol. 1. Tokyo: Kodansha, 1981. 5-56. 4 vols. as "a mock sermon" (30). Lockerd, Benjanlin G. Aethrverrl Rzimozirs. London: 10 See MacCabe 29, Ranson1 157, Ward 60, and Associated lJniversity Presses, 1998. Willianlson 106. "Lot." An Encyclopaedic Szrpplenient to the Dictionaly l1 According to Donlinique Moncond'huy, "Le ,fbr the Grneml Reudcv.

sonnet se delinit d'abord par sa concision" (190). "Macaroon." 0~fi)ru'Advunced Lrurnrr '.S Dictionu~y. 12 For the discussion of the fourth part, see Takeda, 2000 ed. Word 138. MacCabe, Colin. T. S. Eliot. Tavistock: Northcote 13 See the second section ol "East Coker" in Four House Publishers Ltd, 2006. Qz~uvtrt~s,in which the stellar deployment is Miller, James Edwin. T. S. Eliot: The Making of' un featured. A~nrricunPoet, 1888- 1922. l Jniversity Park: The 14 For a discussion of poem as a word, see Takeda, Pennsylvania State lJniversity Press, 2005. Word 11-17. Moncond'huy, Dominique. Lr sonnet. Paris: ~ditions 15 David Savan indicates that, for Peirce, C;allirnard, 2005.

translation equals interpretation (17). "Pipit." O,yfi>vd Advanced Lrurnrr '.F Dictionrrry. 2000 16 For a discussion of the Book Cuts, see Takeda, ed. Ilztmun 65-89. Ransom, John Crowe. "'Gerontion."' T. S. Eliot,

'Pvzlfi-ock', 'Gerontion ', Ash Wcmhesdq and Other Works Cited Shovtrv Poems. Ed. B. C. Southanl. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1978. 155-76. Behr, Caroline. T. S. Eliot: A Chvonologp of' his Lifi. Reinau, Peter. Recz~rring Puttevns in T. S. Eliot'.~ and Wnvlcs. Lol~donand Basil~gstoke:The hlacnlillan Prose and Poetry. Bern: Francke Verlag, 1978.

Press Ltd, 1983. Savan, David. An 11zt~-odcrctionto C. S. Peircc.r :S Fztll Lu Bible: Nozrveuu Testament. Paris: Librairie G6116rale Systrln of' Selneiotic. Toronto: Toronto Semiotic Fran~aise,1979. Circle, 1988. "Brandy." Genre Juponicu. 1975 ed. Tokyo: Shogakukan. "Sentimental." KcwkyztshuJ,s New E~zglish-Jupunrse 32 Nonko TAKEIIA

Dictiona?yj,fi,r the Grnrml Reudcv. 2nd ed. The Mou'c.mist Ilztmun: Thr Configztmtion of

Shakespeare, William. Thr Merchant of' Vcwicr. Tl~~cxannr,s,sin Stc;phanr Mullurmc; :S Ilkrodiadc~,T. Tokyo: Kenkyusha, 1928. S. Eliot's Cats, and Modernist Lyrical Portv. New

Southarn, B. C. A Student '.S Gztide to the Selected York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2008. Pornls of' T. S. Eliot. 5th ed. London: Faber and Valery, Paul. "Situation de Baudelaire." Gztvrrs. Ed. Faher, 1990. Jean Hytier. Vol. 1. Paris: Gallimard, 1957. 598-

"Star." O~jbrdAdvancrd Lrurner '.S Dictiona~y.2000 613. 2 vols. 1957-60. ed. Ward, David. T. S. Eliot l~twrenTWO W01,1ds. Takeda, Noriko. A Flonrring Word: The Modc>rnist London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, Expre.s.sion in Stkphune Malla~-nlk,T. S. Eliot, und 1973. Yosrrno Akilo. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Williamson, George. A Rrrrder's Gziide to T. S. Eliot. 2000. 1953. [Syracuse]: Syracuse University Press, 1998.